Elizabeth Parry's research while affiliated with University of Exeter and other places

Although attachment plays a key role in children's socio‐emotional development, little attention has been paid to the role of children's attachment to their father. This study examined whether insecure attachment to each parent was associated with reduced emotion understanding in children and whether children showed consistent attachments to their mother and father. We measured children's attachment to each parent using the Manchester Child Attachment Story Task and child emotion understanding using the Test of Emotion Comprehension (children's M age = 5.64 years, SD = 0.84). The results indicated that insecure father–child attachment and insecure mother–child attachment were each associated with lower emotion understanding in children after controlling for parent's depressive symptoms and children's age. There was significant concordance of child attachment to mother and father. The findings provide support for convergence of children's attachment across parents and suggest that father–child attachment is an important factor to consider when examining children's emotion understanding. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject Secure mother–child attachment is positively associated with children's emotional competence. Children form similar representations of attachment to their mother and father. What the present study adds Both mother–child and father–child attachment are associated with children's emotion understanding. The study's findings highlight the importance of father–child attachment in their children's emotion understanding. The study provides support for concordance of children's attachment across parents.

This longitudinal study examined whether mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms predict, independently and interactively, children’s emotional and behavioural problems. It also examined bi-directional associations between parents’ expressed emotion constituents (parents’ child-directed positive and critical comments) and children’s emotional and behavioural problems. At time 1, the sample consisted of 160 families in which 50 mothers and 40 fathers had depression according to the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV. Children’s mean age at Time 1 was 3.9 years (SD = 0.8). Families (n = 106) were followed up approximately 16 months later (Time 2). Expressed emotion constituents were assessed using the Preschool Five Minute Speech Sample. In total, 144 mothers and 158 fathers at Time 1 and 93 mothers and 105 fathers at Time 2 provided speech samples. Fathers’ depressive symptoms were concurrently associated with more child emotional problems when mothers had higher levels of depressive symptoms. When controlling for important confounders (children’s gender, baseline problems, mothers’ depressive symptoms and parents’ education and age), fathers’ depressive symptoms independently predicted higher levels of emotional and behavioural problems in their children over time. There was limited evidence for a bi-directional relationship between fathers’ positive comments and change in children’s behavioural problems over time. Unexpectedly, there were no bi-directional associations between parents’ critical comments and children’s outcomes. We conclude that the study provides evidence to support a whole family approach to prevention and intervention strategies for children’s mental health and parental depression.

Spreadsheet for study variables. (XLSX)

Concurrent relationship between fathers’ depressive symptoms and emotional problems (internalizing symptoms) in boys and girls at Time 1. (PDF)

Concurrent relationship between fathers’ depressive symptoms, mothers’ depressive symptoms and children’s emotional problems (internalizing symptoms) at Time 1. (PDF)

Longitudinal associations between fathers’ depressive symptoms, mothers’ depressive symptoms and emotional problems (internalizing symptoms) in girls at Time 2. (PDF)

Longitudinal associations between fathers’ depressive symptoms, mothers’ depressive symptoms and emotional problems (internalizing symptoms) in boys at Time 2. (PDF)

Objectives: Although rumination can have a negative influence on the family environment and the quality of parent-child interactions, there is little research on the role of parental rumination in predicting adverse child outcomes over time. This longitudinal study examined whether mothers' and fathers' brooding rumination would each uniquely predict emotional symptoms in preschool children. Methods: The initial sample consisted of 160 families (including 50 mothers with past depression, 33 fathers with past depression, and 7 fathers with current depression according to the Structural Clinical Interview for DSM-IV). Families were seen at two times separated by 16 months. Children's mean age at the entry into the study was 3.9 years (SD = 0.8). Each parent independently completed the Ruminative Response Scale, the Child Behavior Checklist, the Patient Health Questionnaire, and the Dyadic Adjustment Scale. Results: Fathers' brooding rumination significantly predicted children's emotional symptoms over 16 months when controlling for child emotional symptoms, couple adjustment, parents' depressive symptoms, mothers' brooding and reflective rumination, and fathers' reflective rumination at baseline. Unexpectedly, mothers' brooding rumination did not significantly predict child emotional symptoms over time. Correlational analyses showed significant associations between parents' rumination and lower levels of couple adjustment. Conclusions: Findings suggest that fathers' brooding rumination may play a unique role in their children's emotional outcomes. If these findings are replicated, studies should examine the processes by which these links occur and their implications for clinical interventions. Practitioner points: Rumination is prevalent among individuals with depression, but to date no studies have examined the possible role of mothers' and fathers' brooding rumination in predicting children's emotional symptoms. Fathers' brooding rumination was positively associated with children's emotional symptoms over time when controlling for mothers' rumination and other important characteristics. Parental rumination might be a promising target for both prevention and intervention strategies for parents with depression and their children. The findings of this study could inform parenting interventions (e.g., educate parents about the possible effects of rumination on family interactions and children's outcomes, help parents notice when they ruminate, teach them to replace rumination with more adaptive strategies). The findings should be interpreted with caution. The study relied on self-reports, and therefore, the data are subject to shared method variance which may have artificially inflated associations between parent and child outcomes. The sample consisted of well-educated parents, and therefore, the findings should be generalized to other populations with caution.

Depression in parents impairs parenting and increases the risk of psychopathology among their children. Prevention and intervention could be informed by knowledge of the mechanisms that break the inter-generational transmission of psychopathology and build resilience in both parents and their children. We used data from two independent studies to examine whether higher levels of self-compassion were associated with better parenting and fewer emotional and behavioral problems in children of parents with a history of depression. Study 1 was a pilot trial of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy that included 38 parents with recurrent depression. Study 2 was a longitudinal study that consisted of 160 families, including 50 mothers and 40 fathers who had a history of depression. Families were followed up approximately 16 months after the first assessment (time 2; n = 106 families). In both studies, self-compassion was assessed with the Self-Compassion Scale. Parents reporting higher levels of self-compassion were more likely to attribute the cause of their children's behavior to external factors, were less critical, and used fewer distressed reactions to cope with their children's emotions. Parents' self-compassion was longitudinally associated with children's internalizing and externalizing problems, but these associations became nonsignificant after controlling for child gender, parent education, and depressive symptoms. Future larger scale and experimental designs need to examine whether interventions intended to increase self-compassion might reduce the use of negative parenting strategies and thereby the inter-generational transmission of psychopathology.

Although existing research has shown that depression in parents has a negative effect on parent���child interactions, the mechanisms underpinning impaired parenting are still unknown. In this editorial, we review core difficulties that have been noted in depressed individuals including reduced positive and increased negative affect, poor emotion regulation, executive function deficits, reduced motivation and rumination, and discuss how each of these can alter parenting. We suggest that these causal processes are inter-related and can interact with one another in affecting parenting. We conclude that an improved understanding of these processes will have implications for the development of more specific and potentially more effective treatments that have the potential to break the intergenerational transmission of psychopathology.