Article

Estimating premorbid intelligence Comparison of traditional and contemporary methods across the intelligence continuum

August 2002
Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 17(5):497-507

August 2002
17(5):497-507

DOI:10.1016/S0887-6177(01)00136-6

Source
PubMed

Authors:

Jocelyn Ritchie

U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs

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The present investigation compared the North American Adult Reading Test (NAART), Wide Range Achievement Test-3 (WRAT-3) Reading subtest, Barona, and Oklahoma Premorbid Intelligence Estimate Best(OPIE) premorbid intelligence estimates in 64 chronic pain patients across three intelligence ranges. Results for the entire sample revealed that the NAART, Barona, and OPIE Best equations overestimated Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Revised Full Scale IQ (WAIS-R FSIQ), while the WRAT-3 underestimated FSIQ. When the sample was divided into three intelligence ranges, the OPIE more accurately classified individuals with above average intelligence, while the WRAT-3 more accurately classified individuals with below average intelligence. Three methods (NAART, OPIE, and WRAT-3) provided relatively equivalent classifications of individuals in the average intelligence range. The Barona method tended to systematically under- and overestimate FSIQ across the intelligence continuum. These results suggest the potential utility of using different estimation methods for individuals in different IQ ranges, and speak to the need for development of estimation methods that incorporate current reading ability with best performance and demographic variables.

Demographically Calibrated Norms for Two Premorbid Intelligence Measures: The Word Accentuation Test and Pseudo-Words Reading Subtest

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2018

The Word Accentuation Test (WAT, Spanish adaptation of the NART) and the Pseudo-Words (PW) Reading subtest from the Battery for Reading Processes Assessment-Revised (PROLEC-R) are measures to estimate premorbid IQ. This study aims to develop demographically calibrated norms for these premorbid measures in a representative sample of the adult Spanish population in terms of age, education, and sex. A sample of 700 healthy participants from 18 to 86 years old completed the WAT and the PW Reading subtest. The effect of age, years of formal education, and sex on WAT total score, PW total score, and time to complete the PW task (PW time) were analyzed. Percentiles and scalar scores were obtained for each raw score according to nine age ranges and individual education levels. The results indicated a significant effect of age and education on the premorbid performance assessed, with no significant effect of sex. Age and education explained from 1.9 to 33.2% of the variance in premorbid IQ variables. Older participants with fewer years of education obtained worse premorbid IQ estimates. This premorbid IQ estimation decline started in the 56–65 age range for WAT total score and PW time, whereas it started in the 71–75 age range for PW total score. This study reports the first demographic-calibrated norms for WAT and PW Reading subtest for Spanish-speaking population. Even though the influence of age and years of education on premorbid IQ measures was confirmed, the PW Reading subtest showed to be more resistant to decline in elderly population than the WAT.

Premorbid Intelligence Evaluation: development of the experimental version of the Irregular Words Reading Test (TeLPI) for Portuguese Population

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2010

Na ausência de informação objectiva sobre o nível de funcionamento cognitivo anterior, é essencial uma estimação fiel da inteligência pré-mórbida (IPM) quando se pretende avaliar a existência, natureza e grau de lesões com potencial declínio cognitivo. Trabalhos recentes nesta área interligam a presente capacidade de leitura de palavras irregulares com índices de inteligência actuais e variáveis demográficas, utilizando fórmulas de regressão. A utilidade e uso frequente de testes de estimação da IPM em protocolos de avaliação neuropsicológica justificam a construção de um teste análogo para a população portuguesa. Deste modo, com o propósito de criar um instrumento objectivo de estimação da IPM, foi desenvolvida a primeira versão experimental do TeLPI, constituída por 121 palavras portuguesas que ostentam casos de irregularidade na relação grafema-fone (palavras irregulares), 105 das quais infrequentes e 16 frequentes. O presente estudo apresenta a metodologia de construção do TeLPI, o processo de selecção de itens e os desafios futuros para a concretização da sua versão final.

Examination of Regression-based Discrepancy Scores for the RBANS in Detecting Cognitive Impairment from an Archival Sample

Article

Nov 2019
ARCH CLIN NEUROPSYCH

Objective: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the clinical utility of regression-based formulas for the RBANS indexes in screening for cognitive impairment. Method: A database of neuropsychological test results was created from archival records in a memory assessment clinic. The sample consisted of 83 individuals (37 males/46 females) with an average age of 70.1 (SD = 9.8) and 14.6 years of education (SD = 2.8). Diagnostic accuracy of regression-based predictions provided by Duff and Ramezani (2015) (Duff, K., & Ramezani, A. (2015). Regression-based normative formulae for the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status for older adults. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 30, 600-604.) and from regression of WTAR standard score were examined via receiver operator characteristic curves. Preliminary generalizability investigation was completed using two additional datasets. Results: The WTAR was found to mediate the relationship between education and all RBANS index scores. The WTAR standard score was also found to contribute uniquely and significantly to the prediction of RBANS performance. Results of diagnostic accuracy analyses showed similar discriminating accuracy for all scores. There was limited support for using the WTAR over demographic variables alone in the estimation of RBANS performance; however, the WTAR was found to be more predictive than education, indicating potential clinical utility to using the word-reading score over just years of attained education. Conclusions: Use of these derived Total Scale score variants is recommended for the screening of cognitive impairment, particularly in individuals with superior or poor educational quality. Further research is required to evaluate the utility of these variations in more diverse samples.

Reading Ability as an Estimator of Premorbid Intelligence: Does It Remain Stable Among Ethnically Diverse HIV+ Adults?

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2015

Objective: We examined test-retest reliability of the WRAT-3 RR over time in an HIV+ sample of predominantly racial/ethnic minority adults. Method: Participants (N = 88) completed a comprehensive neuropsychological battery, including the WRAT-3 RR, on at least two separate study visits. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were computed using scores from baseline and follow-up assessments to determine the test-retest reliability of the WRAT-3 RR across racial/ethnic groups and changes in medical (immunological) and clinical (neurocognitive) factors. Additionally, Fisher's Z tests were used to determine the significance of the differences between ICCs. Results: The average test-retest interval was 58.7 months (SD = 36.4). The overall WRAT-3 RR test-retest reliability was high (r = .97, p < .001) and remained robust across all demographic, medical, and clinical variables (all r's > .92). ICCs did not differ significantly between the subgroups tested (all Fisher's Z p's > .05). Conclusions: Overall, this study supports the appropriateness of word-reading tests, such as the WRAT-3 RR, for use as stable premorbid IQ estimates among ethnically diverse groups. Moreover, this study supports the reliability of this measure in the context of change in health and neurocognitive status and in lengthy inter-test intervals. These findings offer strong rationale for reading as a "hold" test, even in the presence of a chronic, variable disease such as HIV.

Effects of music training on verbal and visual memory

Poster

Feb 2006

Using the NAART to estimate WRAT-4 reading grade level in a predominantly African American sample

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2012
APPL NEUROPSYCHOL

Tests of word-reading ability, such as the North American Adult Reading Test (NAART) and Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT) Word Reading subtest, are often used by neuropsychologists to estimate premorbid intelligence. However, despite the fundamental basis in reading, little work has been done to calculate or estimate literacy level from NAART performance. Additionally, few prior studies have evaluated the use of word-reading tests in underrepresented populations such as African Americans or individuals with lower socioeconomic status and educational attainment. Finally, while the correlations between the NAART and older editions of the WRAT are known, no study has yet examined the relationship between the NAART and WRAT-Fourth Edition (WRAT-4). The purpose of the current study, then, was to replicate and extend prior research in these areas. NAART and WRAT-4 Word Reading (WRAT4WR) performances were examined in a sample of 173 primarily African American individuals who were HIV-positive and who had an average of fewer than 12 years of education. Analyses revealed a strong correlation between NAART error scores and WRAT4WR raw scores (r = -.866, p < .001). Linear regression was used to establish the predictive equation to estimate WRAT4WR scores from NAART errors. This information allows for determining reading grade-level equivalents based on NAART error scores.

Memory for Verbal and Visual Material in Highly Trained Musicians

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2008
MUSIC PERCEPT

Interest in studying the effects of extensive music training on nonmusical perceptual and cognitive abilities has grown in recent years. Here, we present evidence that formal music instruction is associated with superior verbal and visual memory. Participants included 15 highly trained pianists and 21 individuals with little or no formal music training. The groups were comparable in terms of age, gender distribution, and socioeconomic status. Musicians showed superior immediate and delayed recall of word lists and greater use of a semantic clustering strategy during initial list-learning than nonmusicians. They also exhibited superior learning, delayed recall, and delayed recognition for visual designs. Group differences in delayed free recall of both words and designs persisted after controlling statistically for estimated Full Scale IQ. These results suggest that extensive music training is associated with a generalized enhancement of auditory and visual memory functions.

The prediction of intelligence in preschool children using alternative models to regression

Article

Full-text available

May 2011
BEHAV RES METHODS

Statistical prediction of an outcome variable using multiple independent variables is a common practice in the social and behavioral sciences. For example, neuropsychologists are sometimes called upon to provide predictions of preinjury cognitive functioning for individuals who have suffered a traumatic brain injury. Typically, these predictions are made using standard multiple linear regression models with several demographic variables (e.g., gender, ethnicity, education level) as predictors. Prior research has shown conflicting evidence regarding the ability of such models to provide accurate predictions of outcome variables such as full-scale intelligence (FSIQ) test scores. The present study had two goals: (1) to demonstrate the utility of a set of alternative prediction methods that have been applied extensively in the natural sciences and business but have not been frequently explored in the social sciences and (2) to develop models that can be used to predict premorbid cognitive functioning in preschool children. Predictions of Stanford-Binet 5 FSIQ scores for preschool-aged children is used to compare the performance of a multiple regression model with several of these alternative methods. Results demonstrate that classification and regression trees provided more accurate predictions of FSIQ scores than does the more traditional regression approach. Implications of these results are discussed.

An investigation of the use of standardised leaving certificate performance as a method of estimating pre-morbid intelligence.

Article

Feb 2020

Refined measure of functional connectomes for improved identifiability and prediction

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2019
HUM BRAIN MAPP

Brain functional connectome analysis is commonly based on population‐wise inference. However, in this way precious information provided at the individual subject level may be overlooked. Recently, several studies have shown that individual differences contribute strongly to the functional connectivity patterns. In particular, functional connectomes have been proven to offer a fingerprint measure, which can reliably identify a given individual from a pool of participants. In this work, we propose to refine the standard measure of individual functional connectomes using dictionary learning. More specifically, we rely on the assumption that each functional connectivity is dominated by stable group and individual factors. By subtracting population‐wise contributions from connectivity patterns facilitated by dictionary representation, intersubject variability should be increased within the group. We validate our approach using several types of analyses. For example, we observe that refined connectivity profiles significantly increase subject‐specific identifiability across functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) session combinations. Besides, refined connectomes can also improve the prediction power for cognitive behaviors. In accordance with results from the literature, we find that individual distinctiveness is closely linked with differences in neurocognitive activity within the brain. In summary, our results indicate that individual connectivity analysis benefits from the group‐wise inferences and refined connectomes are indeed desirable for brain mapping.

Nutzen der Neuropsychologie und der neuropsychologischen Diagnostik für die Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2018

Neurocognitive disorders play an important role in many mental disorders. They are not only accompanying phenomena, but also depict elementary characteristics of neuropathophysiological changes in many disorders. Neuropsychology and the neuropsychological diagnostics serve to determine and quantify neurocognitive disorders and their effects on activity and participation. However, they can also make a substantial contribution to the development of etiological models of mental illness. The following article describes the historical development of neuropsychology, the methodological approach (lesion-symptom cartography), the importance of cognitive models in neuropsychology, and important developments in modern neuropsychology. Finally, the benefits of neuropsychological evaluation in psychiatry and psychotherapy are discussed.

Predicting Premorbid Scores on the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status and their Validation in an Elderly Sample

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2018
ARCH CLIN NEUROPSYCH

Objective: Assessing cognitive change during a single visit requires the comparison of estimated premorbid abilities and current neuropsychological functioning. Although premorbid intellect has been widely examined, premorbid expectations for other cognitive abilities have received less attention. The current study sought to develop and validate premorbid estimates for the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS). Method: Using demographic variables and an estimate of premorbid intellect, premorbid performance on the RBANS was predicted in a sample of 143 community-dwelling, cognitively intact older adults. Results: On all six Indexes of the RBANS, premorbid intellect was the best predictor of current cognitive functioning, with gender adding to one of the prediction models (R2 = 0.04-0.16, ps < .02). These prediction formulae were then applied to a sample of 122 individuals with amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment to look for discrepancies between premorbid and current RBANS scores. Despite minimal differences between premorbid and current RBANS scores in the intact sample, large, and statistically significant differences were observed in the impaired sample, especially on the Immediate Memory Index (discrepancy = -29.00, p < .001), Delayed Memory Index (discrepancy = -32.28, p < .001), and Total Scale score (discrepancy = -25.58, p < .001). Conclusion: Although validation in larger samples is needed, the current estimates of premorbid RBANS abilities may aid clinicians in determining change across time.

Neuropsychological predictors of performance-based measures of functional capacity and social skills in individuals with severe mental illness

Article

Apr 2018
J PSYCHIATR RES

Neuropsychological abilities may underlie successful performance of everyday functioning and social skills. We aimed to determine the strongest neuropsychological predictors of performance-based functional capacity and social skills performance across the spectrum of severe mental illness (SMI). Unemployed outpatients with SMI (schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or major depression; n = 151) were administered neuropsychological (expanded MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery), functional capacity (UCSD Performance-Based Skills Assessment-Brief; UPSA-B), and social skills (Social Skills Performance Assessment; SSPA) assessments. Bivariate correlations between neuropsychological performance and UPSA-B and SSPA total scores showed that most neuropsychological tests were significantly associated with each performance-based measure. Forward entry stepwise regression analyses were conducted entering education, diagnosis, symptom severity, and neuropsychological performance as predictors of functional capacity and social skills. Diagnosis, working memory, sustained attention, and category and letter fluency emerged as significant predictors of functional capacity, in a model that explained 43% of the variance. Negative symptoms, sustained attention, and letter fluency were significant predictors of social skill performance, in a model explaining 35% of the variance. Functional capacity is positively associated with neuropsychological functioning, but diagnosis remains strongly influential, with mood disorder participants outperforming those with psychosis. Social skill performance appears to be positively associated with sustained attention and verbal fluency regardless of diagnosis; however, negative symptom severity strongly predicts social skills performance. Improving neuropsychological functioning may improve psychosocial functioning in people with SMI.

Comparison of methods for estimating premorbid intelligence

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2018

Peter Bright

To evaluate impact of neurological injury on cognitive performance it is typically necessary to derive a baseline (or ‘premorbid’) estimate of a patient’s general cognitive ability prior to the onset of impairment. In this paper, we consider a range of common methods for producing this estimate, including those based on current best performance, embedded ‘hold/no hold’ tests, demographic information, and word reading ability. Ninety-two neurologically healthy adult participants were assessed on the full Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV; Wechsler, 2008) and on two widely used word reading tests: National Adult Reading Test (NART; Nelson, 1982; Nelson & Willison, 1991) and Wechsler Test of Adult Reading (WTAR; Wechsler, 2001). Our findings indicate that reading tests provide the most reliable and precise estimates of WAIS-IV full-scale IQ, although the addition of demographic data provides modest improvement. Nevertheless, we observed considerable variability in correlations between NART/WTAR scores and individual WAIS-IV indices, which indicated particular usefulness in estimating more crystallised premorbid abilities (as represented by the verbal comprehension and general ability indices) relative to fluid abilities (working memory and perceptual reasoning indices). We discuss and encourage the development of new methods for improving premorbid estimates of cognitive abilities in neurological patients.

The Social Attribution Task - Multiple Choice (SAT-MC): Psychometric Comparison with Social Cognitive Measures for Schizophrenia Research

Article

Feb 2018
PSYCHIAT RES

The Social Attribution Task-Multiple Choice (SAT-MC) tests the ability to extract social themes from viewed object motion. This form of animacy perception is thought to aid the development of social inference, but appears impaired in schizophrenia. The current study was undertaken to examine psychometric equivalence of two forms of the SAT-MC and to compare their performance against social cognitive tests recommended for schizophrenia research. Thirty-two schizophrenia (SZ) and 30 substance use disorder (SUD) participants completed both SAT-MC forms, the Bell-Lysaker Emotion Recognition Task (BLERT), Hinting Task, The Awareness of Social Inference Test (TASIT), Ambiguous Intentions and Hostility Questionnaire (AIHQ) and questionnaire measures of interpersonal function. Test sensitivity, construct and external validity, test-retest reliability, and internal consistency were evaluated. SZ scored significantly lower than SUD on both SAT-MC forms, each classifying ~60% of SZ as impaired, compared with ~30% of SUD. SAT-MC forms demonstrated good test-retest and parallel form reliability, minimal practice effect, high internal consistency, and similar patterns of correlation with social cognitive and external validity measures. The SAT-MC compared favorably to recommended social cognitive tests across psychometric features and, with exception of TASIT, was most sensitive to impairment in schizophrenia when compared to a chronic substance use sample.

Premorbid IQ Predicts Postconcussive Symptoms in OEF/OIF/OND Veterans with mTBI

Article

Jun 2017
ARCH CLIN NEUROPSYCH

Objective: Extant literature has demonstrated that symptoms of postconcussive syndrome (PCS) persist well beyond the expected 3-month post-injury recovery period in a minority of individuals with mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). Suboptimal performance on validity measures and pre- and post-injury psychosocial stressors - rather than actual mTBI or current cognitive functioning - have been identified as predictors of chronic PCS. Whether premorbid IQ has any influence on chronic PCS has been understudied, in the context of established psychogenic etiologies. Method: The sample included 31 veterans, who underwent mTBI neuropsychological evaluations six or more months post-injury in a VA outpatient neuropsychology clinic. A two-step multiple linear regression was conducted to examine the effects on the outcome variable, PCS (Neurobehavioral Symptom Inventory), of the following predictors: cognitive functioning (Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status; Attention, Immediate Memory, and Delayed Memory Indices), performance validity, depression (Beck Depression Inventory-Second Edition), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD Checklist, Civilian Version), quality of sleep (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index), pain (Brief Pain Inventory), education, and Premorbid IQ (Wechsler Test of Adult Reading). Results: The overall regression model containing all nine predictor variables was statistically significant. Depression (p < .05) and premorbid IQ (p < .05) were the most salient predictors of chronic PCS; in that lower premorbid IQ and greater endorsed symptoms of depression were associated with higher PCS scores. In Step 2 of the multiple linear regression, the WTAR explained an additional 6.7% of the variance in PCS after controlling for psychosocial stressors and current cognitive ability. Conclusion: The findings support premorbid IQ as a unique and relevant predictor of chronic PCS, with significance variance accounted for beyond education, cognitive functioning, and psychosocial variables. Given the predictive relationship between premorbid IQ and PCS, adapting postconcussive interventions to meet the specific needs of individuals with varying levels of intellect may be important in minimizing ongoing symptomatology.

Chapter 24. Cannabis Users and Premorbid Intellectual Quotient

Chapter

Dec 2017

The chapter focuses on premorbid intellectual quotient (IQ) in cannabis users, one of the most controversial topics in studies on the harmful effects of cannabis use on cognition. We critically reviewed the literature in order to propose a model that would be able to summarize the complex relationship between premorbid IQ and cannabis use, in determining different outcomes. Longitudinal studies that assessed IQ measures before and after cannabis consumption had yielded discordant findings. We, however, observed a relationship between higher premorbid IQ and recreational or discontinued use, while a lower premorbid IQ resulted as a predictor for regular or heavy cannabis use. Using these observations as a starting point, we sustain the hypothesis of a shared genetic vulnerability to psychosis and cannabis use, reflected on premorbid IQ, and able to influence the contact with the substance. In turn, cannabis may be a trigger for psychosis toward this continuum of neurodevelopmental vulnerability.

Adapting Cognitive Remediation to a Group Home: A Brief Report

Article

Nov 2016

Objective: This pilot project was designed to develop procedures for and test the feasibility of implementing Cognitive Enhancement Therapy (CET) in a group home environment, with a goal of maximizing treatment efficacy by augmenting social engagement in group CET sessions with ongoing social interaction. Methods: Six participants who met criteria including chronic schizophrenia were recruited in a group home with 30 residents. After two months of CET, pre-and posttest measures, including cognitive tests, were administered and qualitative interviews were conducted periodically. Interaction was observed in the house and staff members were interviewed in a focus group. Results: Five of the initial six participants completed the intervention-which continued for a total of 45 weeks-engaging in weekly group CET sessions and computer exercises outside of the formal sessions. All participants liked the computer exercises, and all but one participated in and reported enjoying the group exercises. Observations and staff comments indicated increased social interaction and sustained impact for some residents. Some aspects of cognitive functioning improved for some participants during the initial two months. Conclusions: CET now needs to be tested more formally to determine if it can be delivered successfully in other group homes with a manualized procedure. The idea should be tested that feedback effects due to the sustained social contact may enhance the effectiveness of CET in group homes and lead to larger, sustained gains in community functioning. Clinicians who provide cognitive interventions should focus attention on the social context in which treatment is delivered and consider providing treatment to patient groups whose daily, ongoing social interaction can enhance its effects.

Estimaciõn de la inteligencia premõrbida en deterioro cognitivo leve y moderado y en déficit ejecutivo

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2010

Misdiagnosis of cognitive impairment in forensic neuropsychology

Article

Jan 2008

The Role of Processing Speed in Post-Stroke Cognitive Dysfunction

Article

Jan 2015

The association between speed of information processing and cognition has been extensively validated in normal aging and other neurocognitive disorders. Our aim was to determine whether such a relationship exists in stroke. Thirty patients and 30 age- and education-matched healthy individuals were administered a comprehensive battery of neuropsychological tests divided into the following six cognitive domains: processing speed (PS), verbal memory, visual memory, visuoperceptual function, language, and cognitive flexibility. The results demonstrate that stroke patients were characterized by cognitive deficits in almost all of these domains, but have the most pronounced deficits in PS. After adjusting for symbol digit modalities test score, all significant group differences in cognitive functioning disappeared. However, group differences remained significant after controlling for the influence of other cognitive factors. These findings suggest that decreased PS appears to underlie post-stroke cognitive dysfunction and may serve as a potential target for intervention. © The Author 2015. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.

Estimating Intelligence in Spanish: Regression Equations With the Word Accentuation Test and Demographic Variables in Latin America

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2014

Spanish is the fourth most spoken language in the world, and the majority of Spanish speakers have a Latin American origin. Reading aloud infrequently accentuated words has been established as a National Adult Reading Test-like method to assess premorbid intelligence in Spanish. However, several versions have been proposed and validated with small and selected samples, in particular geographical conditions, and they seldom derive a formula for IQ estimation with the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ). The objective of this study was to develop equations to estimate WAIS-Third Edition (WAIS-III) FSIQ from the Word Accentuation Test-Revised (WAT-R), demographic variables, and their combination within diverse Latin American samples. Two hundred and forty participants from Argentina and Colombia, selected according to age and years of education strata, were assessed with the WAT-R, the WAIS-III, and a structured questionnaire about demographic and medical information. A combined approach including place of birth, years of education, and WAT-R provided the best equation, explaining 76% of IQ variance. These equations could be useful for estimating premorbid IQ in patients with Latin American Spanish as their birth language.

Mild cognitive impairment: A history and the state of current diagnostic criteria

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2014

Background Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a diagnostic classification used to describe patients experiencing cognitive decline but without a corresponding impairment in daily functioning. Over the years, MCI diagnostic criteria have undergone major changes that correspond to advancements in research. Despite these advancements, current diagnostic criteria for MCI contain issues that are reflected in the research literature. Methods A review of the available MCI literature was conducted with emphasis given to tracing MCI from its conceptual underpinnings to the most current diagnostic criteria. A clinical vignette is utilized to highlight some of the limitations of current MCI diagnostic criteria. Results Issues are encountered when applying MCI diagnostic criteria due to poor standardization. Estimates of prevalence, incidence, and rates of conversion from MCI to dementia reflect these issues. Conclusions MCI diagnostic criteria are in need of greater standardization. Recommendations for future research are provided that could potentially bring more uniformity to the diagnostic criteria for MCI and, therefore, more consistency to the research literature.

Adding insult to injury: Childhood and adolescent risk factors for psychosis predict lower fractional anisotropy in the superior longitudinal fasciculus in healthy adults

Article

Dec 2014
PSYCHIAT RES-NEUROIM

Emergence of Mild Cognitive Impairment in Late Middle-Aged Adults in the Wisconsin Registry for Alzheimer's Prevention

Article

Feb 2014
DEMENT GERIATR COGN

Aim: It is difficult to reliably detect the earliest signs of Alzheimer's disease (AD)-associated cognitive impairment. Our aim was to compare 3 psychometric methods of identifying amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) in a middle-aged longitudinal cohort enriched for AD risk. Methods: Wisconsin Registry for Alzheimer's Prevention (WRAP) participants with 3 waves of cognitive assessment over approximately 6 years were coded as meeting each of 3 psychometric aMCI definitions: (a) 'aMCI standard-baseline' used published norms to establish cutoffs for baseline performance; (b) 'aMCI robust-baseline' applied WRAP-specific robust norms to baseline, and (c) 'aMCI robust-multiwave' applied these robust norms across 3 waves of assessment. Each group was compared to a cognitively healthy subset. Results: Half the aMCI standard-baseline and one third of the aMCI robust-baseline group reverted to normal ranges at follow-up. Only the aMCI robust-multiwave method had an aMCI × age interaction showing significantly worse age-related memory declines in the aMCI group compared to the cognitively healthy group over 6 years of follow-up. Conclusion: Both cross-sectional methods showed instability over time, with many reverting to normal performance after baseline. The multiwave approach identified a group who showed progressive memory declines over 3 visits. Being able to detect progressive decline in late middle age is a critical step in improving prevention efforts.

DTI-measured white matter abnormalities in adolescents with Conduct Disorder

Article

Sep 2013

Emerging research suggests that antisocial behavior in youth is linked to abnormal brain white matter microstructure, but the extent of such anatomical connectivity abnormalities remain largely untested because previous Conduct Disorder (CD) studies typically have selectively focused on specific frontotemporal tracts. This study aimed to replicate and extend previous frontotemporal diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) findings to determine whether noncomorbid CD adolescents have white matter microstructural abnormalities in major white matter tracts across the whole brain. Seventeen CD-diagnosed adolescents recruited from the community were compared to a group of 24 non-CD youth which did not differ in average age (12-18) or gender proportion. Tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS) fractional anisotropy (FA), axial diffusivity (AD), and radial diffusivity (RD) measurements were compared between groups using FSL nonparametric two-sample t test, clusterwise whole-brain corrected, p < .05. CD FA and AD deficits were widespread, but unrelated to gender, verbal ability, or CD age of onset. CD adolescents had significantly lower FA and AD values in frontal lobe and temporal lobe regions, including frontal lobe anterior/superior corona radiata, and inferior longitudinal and fronto-occipital fasciculi passing through the temporal lobe. The magnitude of several CD FA deficits was associated with number of CD symptoms. Because AD, but not RD, differed between study groups, abnormalities of axonal microstructure in CD rather than myelination are suggested. This study provides evidence that adolescent antisocial disorder is linked to abnormal white matter microstructure in more than just the uncinate fasciculus as identified in previous DTI studies, or frontotemporal brain structures as suggested by functional neuroimaging studies. Instead, neurobiological risk specific to antisociality in adolescence is linked to microstructural abnormality in numerous long-range white matter connections among many diverse different brain regions.

NIH EXAMINER: Conceptualization and development of an executive function battery

Article

Oct 2013
J INT NEUROPSYCH SOC

Executive functioning is widely targeted when human cognition is assessed, but there is little consensus on how it should be operationalized and measured. Recognizing the difficulties associated with establishing standard operational definitions of executive functioning, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke entered into a contract with the University of California-San Francisco to develop psychometrically robust executive measurement tools that would be accepted by the neurology clinical trials and clinical research communities. This effort, entitled Executive Abilities: Measures and Instruments for Neurobehavioral Evaluation and Research (EXAMINER), resulted in a series of tasks targeting working memory, inhibition, set shifting, fluency, insight, planning, social cognition and behavior. We describe battery conceptualization and development, data collection, scale construction based on item response theory, and lay the foundation for studying the battery's utility and validity for specific assessment and research goals. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1-9).

Quality of Education and Memory Test Performance in Older Men: The New York University Paragraph Recall Test Normative Data

Article

Aug 2013
CURR ALZHEIMER RES

Objectives: Memory evaluation is a key component in the accurate diagnosis of cognitive disorders.One memory procedure that has shown promise in discriminating disease-related cognitive decline from normal cognitive aging is the New York University Paragraph Recall Test; however, the effects of education have been unexamined as they pertain to one's literacy level. The current study provides normative data stratified by estimated quality of education as indexed by irregular word reading skill. Method: Conventional norms were derived from a sample (N = 385) of cognitively intact elderly men who were initially recruited for participation in the PREADViSE clinical trial. A series of multiple linear regression models were constructed to assess the influence of demographic variables on mean NYU Paragraph Immediate and Delayed Recall scores. Results: Test version, assessment site, and estimated quality of education were significant predictors of performance on the NYU Paragraph Recall Test. Findings indicate that estimated quality of education is a better predictor of memory performance than ethnicity and years of total education. Normative data stratified according to estimated quality of education are presented. Discussion: The current study provides evidence and support for normativedata stratified by quality of education as opposed to years of education.

Impaired National Adult Reading Test (NART) performance in traumatic brain injury

Article

Dec 2012
NEUROPSYCHOL REHABIL

Some research suggests the National Adult Reading Test (NART) may be impaired by traumatic brain injury (TBI). To investigate this, a prospective, longitudinal study included 214 Australian TBI participants given the NART within 1 month post-injury, and at 6 and 12 months. TBI severity, age, education, sex, and mood (HADS) were examined, and significant improvement in NART- estimated full-scale IQ (FSIQ) was noted over time (p < .001). A three-way interaction of time, severity, and age showed younger and middle-aged mild TBI sub-groups improved significantly between 1 and 6 months post-injury, and the older sub-group between 6 and 12 months. In severe TBI, significant NART-estimated FSIQ improvement was noted only for the middle-aged and only between 6 and 12 months post-TBI. NART administration soon after TBI underestimated premorbid IQ, with a complex relationship between time post-injury, severity, and age. Participants with a longer education had higher NART FSIQs, although those with less education gained more IQ points between initial and 6 months assessments suggesting higher initial NART impairment. Regression equations predicted NART FSIQ at 6 (R = 0.813) and 12 months post-trauma (R = 0.792-0.845), their effectiveness being confirmed via cross-validation. No significant relationships were noted between NART-estimated FSIQ and mood variables, or evidence of significant gains in estimated FSIQ between 12 and 24 months post-injury.

Improving Accuracy for Identifying Cognitive Impairment

Chapter

Full-text available

Jan 2011

Deficit measurement is the sine qua non of neuropsychology. The risk, of course, is that we can be so focused on deficit measurement – and so focused on describing the nature and severity of a person’s cognitive impairment – that we can underappreciate human diversity and overattribute low or unexpected test scores to brain injury or disease. The North American psychometric tradition has long since attempted to minimize possible misattribution of low test scores through a reliance on the normal curve. However, clinicians know that overly formulaic reliance on the normal curve can result in false positive and false negative attributions of cognitive diminishment. Moreover, the normal curve relates to a single test score in relation to a theoretical normal population. Neuropsychologists never rely on single tests. Instead, we administer numerous tests and we interpret performance in combination, not in isolation. Thus, the principles of normative test score interpretation, applied to single test scores, are inherently limited when interpreting performance across a battery of tests.

Mental ability performance among adults with type 2 diabetes in primary care

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2009

Aim and method The present university-based outpatient clinic, cross-sectional study assessed cognitive performance in a sample of 137 adults, with the primary objective of determining differences in cognitive performance as a function of gender and hypertension status in a type 2 diabetes cohort.Results Approximately 64% of the sample was 65 years old and younger, and 50 subjects had > 13 years of education. Global mental ability scores were relatively similar by age grouping, and higher-ordered cognitive functioning and reading literacy were strongly correlated, r (98) = 0.62, P < 0.01. Approximately 30% of the sample posted global mental ability scores in the slow learner range on tasks measuring attention, immediate memory and verbal reasoning. Males achieved higher cognitive functioning scores compared to females on multiple mental ability tasks. The presence of hypertension was associated with significantly worse cognitive performance compared to those subjects without hypertension, t = 2.11, P = 0.03. Approximately 57% of the hypertension group was classified as mild cognitive impaired.Conclusion While approximately half of the general population can be expected to demonstrate an average range of performance on cognitive ability measures, such an expectation could be inappropriately generalised to persons diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, even among those who were high school educated.

Using Monolingual Neuropsychological Test Norms with Bilingual Hispanic Americans: Application of an Individual Comparison Standard

Article

Feb 2012
ARCH CLIN NEUROPSYCH

Conventional neuropsychological norms developed for monolinguals likely overestimate normal performance in bilinguals on language but not visual-perceptual format tests. This was studied by comparing neuropsychological false-positive rates using the 50th percentile of conventional norms and individual comparison standards (Picture Vocabulary or Matrix Reasoning scores) as estimates of preexisting neuropsychological skill level against the number expected from the normal distribution for a consecutive sample of 56 neurologically intact, bilingual, Hispanic Americans. Participants were tested in separate sessions in Spanish and English in the counterbalanced order on La Bateria Neuropsicologica and the original English language tests on which this battery was based. For language format measures, repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance showed that individual estimates of preexisting skill level in English generated the mean number of false positives most approximate to that expected from the normal distribution, whereas the 50th percentile of conventional English language norms did the same for visual-perceptual format measures. When using conventional Spanish or English monolingual norms for language format neuropsychological measures with bilingual Hispanic Americans, individual estimates of preexisting skill level are recommended over the 50th percentile.

Cortical Thickness and Folding Deficits in Conduct-Disordered Adolescents

Article

Dec 2011

Studies of pediatric conduct disorder (CD) have described frontal and temporal lobe structural abnormalities that parallel findings in antisocial adults. The purpose of this study was to examine previously unexplored cortical thickness and folding as markers for brain abnormalities in "pure CD"-diagnosed adolescents. On the basis of current frontotemporal theories, we hypothesized that CD youth would have thinner cortex or less cortical folding in temporal and frontal lobes than control subjects. We obtained T1-weighted brain structure images from 24 control and 19 CD participants aged 12 to 18 years, matched by gender and age. We measured group differences in cortical thickness and local gyrification index (regional cortical folding measure) using surface-based morphometry with clusterwise correction for multiple comparisons. The CD participants, compared with control subjects, showed both reduced cortical thickness and folding. Thinner cortex was located primarily in posterior brain regions, including left superior temporal and parietal lobes, temporoparietal junction and paracentral lobule, right superior temporal and parietal lobes, temporoparietal junction, and precuneus. Folding deficits were located mainly in anterior brain regions and included left insula, ventro- and dorsomedial prefrontal, anterior cingulate and orbitofrontal cortices, temporal lobe, right superior frontal and parietal lobes, and paracentral lobule. Our findings generally agree with previous CD volumetric studies but here show the unique contributions of cortical thickness and folding to gray matter reductions in pure CD in different brain regions.

Depression and Neurocognitive Performance in Portuguese Patients Infected with HIV

Article

Full-text available

May 2011
AIDS BEHAV

This study focused on neurocognitive disorders associated with HIV infection, characterizes the most affected neuropsychological domains and their potential as factors related with depression. 130 HIV-positive individuals with CD4 >200 cells/mm(3), undetectable viral load, treated with HAART and with all kinds of risk behaviors were included. A structured interview composed by seven sections was used and relevant clinical and laboratory data was assessed. For the neuropsychological and depression assessment the HIV Neurobehavioral Research Center (HNRC) Battery and Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAM-D) were chosen. Univariate nonparametric statistics and multivariate regression model were performed. Among 34% of depressed subjects, 20.7% had attempted suicide, 45.4% were under psychiatric medication and only 19% had no diagnostic criteria for HIV Associated Neurocognitive Disorders (HAND). The effect of depression on cognitive function revealed a significant deterioration in five of the eight measures. In the multivariate analysis, five variables significantly determined depression: sex, social class, antidepressant medication, history of suicide attempt and Dexterity and motor speed (neuropsychological test battery). Despite good patient adherence to treatment (HAART and antidepressive) and good immune status, the prevalence of HAND and depression are high and suggest a significant relation between severity of depression and cognitive functioning.

CUIDAR HUMANITUDE Enfermagem-neuro-relacional

Book

Full-text available

Apr 2021

Mário Simões

A par de uma tendência global, o aumento de idosos dementes com quadros de agitação patológica e oposição aos cuidados é uma realidade crescente em Portugal. Contexto onde a enfermagem proporciona cuidados de proximidade relacional em espaços de intimidade e instrumenta os procedimentos numa sintonia emocional comunicativa, fina e subtil, trabalhando com as pessoas dementes a sua autonomia para aderirem aos cuidados e realizarem as atividades por si mesmas participando na sua própria aprendizagem procedimental, maximizando potencialidades restantes, minimizando dependências e prevenindo complicações, isto é, promovendo a relação de cuidados à altura da dignidade humana. No entanto, a ação dos enfermeiros indica, por vezes, uma tendência para o afastamento do essencial relacional, tanto em favor dos princípios da economia e da tecnologia, como pela não utilização de modos de cuidar que o proporcionem. Em França, a Metodologia de Cuidados Humanitude Gineste Marescotti (MGM) revelou ser uma resposta válida. Diminuiu os quadros de agitação e oposição aos cuidados das pessoas dementes, promovendo-lhes uma postura ativa, melhorando também a satisfação profissional dos cuidadores e reduzindo significativamente a taxa de absentismo devido a lesões músculo-esqueléticas e burnout. Efeitos que motivaram o primeiro estudo científico sobre o método desenvolvido em Portugal, base da elaboração desta obra que levou Gineste e Marescotti a expressarem: Notre rencontre avec Mário Simões fût salutaire. Son désir d'apprendre, sa curiosité l'emmène à investiguer davantage et il nous fait l'honneur d'explorer la philosophie de l'Humanitude pour développer sa thèse de doctorat. Mais c'est aussi avec d'autres précurseurs Nídia, Rafael, João que le Portugal va s'ouvrir à ce prendre soin qui nous unis dans la tendresse. Nous vous remercions pour la confiance que vous nous accordez et nous souhaitons à chacun des lecteurs une belle route sur les chemins de l'Humanitude. Rosette Marescotti et Yves Gineste Concepteurs Philosophie de l'Humanitude

Carotid Artery Stiffness is Associated With Cognitive Performance in Former Smokers With and Without Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2020

Background Heavy smokers perform worse on neuropsychological assessment than age‐matched peers. However, traditional pulmonary measures of airflow limitation and hypoxemia explain only a modest amount of variance in cognition. The current objective was to determine whether carotid artery stiffness is associated with cognition in former smokers beyond the effects of amount of smoking and pulmonary function. Methods and Results Eighty‐four former smokers including individuals across a spectrum of airflow limitation severity were included: 30 without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease [GOLD] 0 with normal spirometry and lung computed tomography), 31 with mild‐moderate chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( GOLD 1–2), and 23 with severe‐very severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( GOLD 3–4). Participants completed questionnaires, spirometry, carotid ultrasonography, and neuropsychological testing. Multiple linear regression was used to determine whether carotid artery stiffness is associated with neuropsychological performance in 4 cognitive domains after adjusting for age, sex, pack‐years of smoking, estimated premorbid intellectual functioning, and airflow limitation. Higher carotid artery β‐stiffness index was associated with reduced executive functioning‐processing speed in the fully adjusted model (β=−0.49, SE =0.14; P =0.001). Lower premorbid intellectual function, male sex, and presence of airflow limitation ( GOLD 1 or 2 and GOLD 3 or 4) were also associated with worse executive functioning‐processing speed. β‐Stiffness index was not significantly associated with performance in other cognitive domains. Conclusions Carotid artery stiffness is associated with worse performance on executive functioning‐processing speed in former smokers beyond the effects of aging, amount of past smoking, severity of airflow limitation, and hypoxemia. Future research should examine whether carotid stiffness can be used to identify former smokers at risk for subsequent cognitive impairment.

Premorbid Adjustment and IQ in Patients With First-Episode Psychosis: A Multisite Case-Control Study of Their Relationship With Cannabis Use

Article

Jul 2019

Psychotic patients with a lifetime history of cannabis use generally show better cognitive functioning than other psychotic patients. Some authors suggest that cannabis-using patients may have been less cognitively impaired and less socially withdrawn in their premorbid life. Using a dataset comprising 948 patients with first-episode psychosis (FEP) and 1313 population controls across 6 countries, we examined the extent to which IQ and both early academic (Academic Factor [AF]) and social adjustment (Social Factor [SF]) are related to the lifetime frequency of cannabis use in both patients and controls. We expected a higher IQ and a better premorbid social adjustment in psychotic patients who had ever used cannabis compared to patients without any history of use. We did not expect such differences in controls. In both patients and controls, IQ was 3 points higher among occasional-users than in never-users (mean difference [Mdiff] = 2.9, 95% CI = [1.2, 4.7]). Both cases and control daily-users had lower AF compared to occasional (Mdiff = -0.3, 95% CI = [-0.5; -0.2]) and never-users (Mdiff = -0.4, 95% CI = [-0.6; -0.2]). Finally, patient occasional (Mdiff = 0.3, 95% CI = [0.1; 0.5]) and daily-users (Mdiff = 0.4, 95% CI = [0.2; 0.6]) had better SF than their never-using counterparts. This difference was not present in controls (Fgroup*frequency(2, 2205) = 4.995, P = .007). Our findings suggest that the better premorbid social functioning of FEP with a history of cannabis use may have contributed to their likelihood to begin using cannabis, exposing them to its reported risk-increasing effects for Psychotic Disorders.

Cognitive Assessment of Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementias in Clinical Practice: Pragmatics of Brief Instruments and Neuropsychological Evaluation

Article

Jun 2019
J CLIN PSYCHIAT

Detection of cognitive impairment and dementia (CID) through the use of brief cognitive assessment tools (BCATs) is the first step to establishing an accurate diagnosis and care plan for individuals seen in primary practices. While the cognitive-behavioral syndrome and underlying etiology may not be readily apparent through brief assessment, clinicians can refer patients for a more comprehensive neuropsychological evaluation. A timely diagnosis maximizes the potential for patients to be involved in decision-making and planning for their future, and allows for expedited intervention and harm reduction. This activity provides a practical review of validated and standardized BCATs that can aid in the detection of CID; reviews cognitive and neuropsychological domains and their clinical relevance; and delineates circumstances for referral to neuropsychology and the utility of neuropsychological evaluation to practicing clinicians.

Borderline Intellectual Functioning and Lifetime Duration of Homelessness among Homeless Adults with Mental Illness

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2018

This paper reports on the association between intellectual functioning and lifetime homelessness duration among 172 homeless adults with mental illness in Toronto, Canada. Using a standardized test of intellectual functioning, we created two groups: individuals with borderline or lower intellectual functioning (16%) and individuals with above borderline intellectual functioning (84%). Lifetime homelessness duration was approximately three years longer, or almost twice as long, for individuals with borderline or lower intellectual functioning. Implementing more systematic strategies for identifying and supporting individuals with cognitive impairments may hasten transitions out of homelessness for this population. Brief intellectual functioning assessment tools are available.

Premorbid intelligence measures in identifying cognitive decline

Article

Apr 2014

Cognitive decline assessment implies measuring discrepancies between the subject's previous (premorbid) and the current levels of functioning. However, this information is rarely available and clinicians have to infer it by using indirect methods. This article provides an historical overview of the different methods that have been developed for premorbid intelligence estimation, from the first qualitative methods to the most recent quantitative approaches. The discussion sustains that the most valid methods for premorbid intelligence estimation are those that combine current level of the subject's performance and demographic variables in regression formulas. The constant development of premorbid estimation methods with increasing validity is suggestive of the importance that this measure has for psychological assessment.

Premorbid intelligence of inpatients with different psychiatric diagnoses does not differ

Article

Oct 2008

Alessandro Rossi

The diagnostic specificity of poor premorbid intelligence is controversial. We explored premorbid intelligence level in psychiatric patients with personality disorders, depressive disorders, bipolar disorders and schizophrenic disorders. 273 consecutively admitted patients and 81 controls were included in the study and tested with the ‘Test di Intelligenza Breve’, an Italian adaptation of the National Adult Reading Test. Significant differences between the clinical samples and the control subjects were found but not among the 4 clinical groups. The observation of premorbid IQ deficits in subjects with diagnoses other than schizophrenia suggests a common vulnerability diathesis, which is most likely to have a neurodevelopmental basis.

Regional Variations in Brain Gyrification Are Associated with General Cognitive Ability in Humans

Article

Apr 2016

Searching for a neurobiological understanding of human intellectual capabilities has long occupied those very capabilities. Brain gyrification, or folding of the cortex, is as highly evolved and variable a characteristic in humans as is intelligence. Indeed, gyrification scales with brain size, and relationships between brain size and intelligence have been demonstrated in humans [1-3]. However, gyrification shows a large degree of variability that is independent from brain size [4-6], suggesting that the former may independently contribute to cognitive abilities and thus supporting a direct investigation of this parameter in the context of intelligence. Moreover, uncovering the regional pattern of such an association could offer insights into evolutionary and neural mechanisms. We tested for this brain-behavior relationship in two separate, independently collected, large cohorts-440 healthy adults and 662 healthy children-using high-resolution structural neuroimaging and comprehensive neuropsychometric batteries. In both samples, general cognitive ability was significantly associated (pFDR < 0.01) with increasing gyrification in a network of neocortical regions, including large portions of the prefrontal cortex, inferior parietal lobule, and temporoparietal junction, as well as the insula, cingulate cortex, and fusiform gyrus, a regional distribution that was nearly identical in both samples (Dice similarity coefficient = 0.80). This neuroanatomical pattern is consistent with an existing, well-known proposal, the Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory of intelligence [7], and is also consistent with research in comparative evolutionary biology showing rapid neocortical expansion of these regions in humans relative to other species. These data provide a framework for understanding the neurobiology of human cognitive abilities and suggest a potential neurocellular association.

Depression in Mexican Americans with diagnosed and undiagnosed diabetes

Article

Oct 2015
PSYCHOL MED

Background: Depression and diabetes commonly co-occur; however, the strength of the physiological effects of diabetes as mediating factors towards depression is uncertain. Method: We analyzed extensive clinical, epidemiological and laboratory data from n = 2081 Mexican Americans aged 35-64 years, recruited from the community as part of the Cameron County Hispanic Cohort (CCHC) divided into three groups: Diagnosed (self-reported) diabetes (DD, n = 335), Undiagnosed diabetes (UD, n = 227) and No diabetes (ND, n = 1519). UD participants denied being diagnosed with diabetes, but on testing met the 2010 American Diabetes Association and World Health Organization definitions of diabetes. Depression was measured using the Center for Epidemiological Studies - Depression (CES-D) scale. Weighted data were analyzed using dimensional and categorical outcomes using univariate and multivariate models. Results: The DD group had significantly higher CES-D scores than both the ND and UD (p ⩽ 0.001) groups, whereas the ND and UD groups did not significantly differ from each other. The DD subjects were more likely to meet the CES-D cut-off score for depression compared to both the ND and UD groups (p = 0.001), respectively. The UD group was also less likely to meet the cut-off score for depression than the ND group (p = 0.003). Our main findings remained significant in models that controlled for socio-demographic and clinical confounders. Conclusions: Meeting clinical criteria for diabetes was not sufficient for increased depressive symptoms. Our findings suggest that the 'knowing that one is ill' is associated with depressive symptoms in diabetic subjects.

Concept paper Traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer's: deficit profile similarities and the impact of normal ageing

Article

Dec 2003

Research has suggested that sustaining a traumatic brain injury (TBI) may increase one’s risk of developing Dementia of the Alzheimer’s Type (DAT) later in life. Several neuropathological models have been proposed to explain the association between TBI and DAT and studies using a neuropsychological deficit profile methodology suggest that the pattern and extent of cognitive decline associated with these conditions are similar. This paper presents a new conceptual model, derived from deficit profile methodology, regarding the relationship between TBI and DAT. This model proposes that, for some individuals, TBI may not lead to true DAT neuropathology, but rather produces a profile of neuropsychological deficits similar to DAT, which increasingly mimics the symptoms of true DAT as the TBI survivor ages. Understanding how TBI may contribute to the development of DAT has important social and medical implications, influencing the direction of prevention efforts and contributing to one’s understanding of DAT.

Local Processing Advantage in Musicians: Evidence from Disembedding and Constructional Tasks

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2007
MUSIC PERCEPT

When processing music stimuli, most people show a global bias (e.g., Evers et al., 1999). Extensive music training, however, develops both global (Halpern & Bower, 1982) and local (Burton et al., 1989) music processing abilities. Our goal was to determine whether enhancement of musicians' local processing abilities is domain-specific or extends to processing nonmusical, visual stimuli. Musicians outperformed nonmusicians on the Group Embedded Figures Test (Experiment 1) and on Block Design (Experiment 2). Additionally, musicians' ability to copy drawings of physically impossible objects accurately was also superior to that of nonmusicians (Experiment 2). These effects could not be accounted for by group differences in several demographic indicators (age, education, gender, or SES), or (in Experiment 2) in verbal intelligence. The results provide converging evidence that extensive music training is specifically associated with superior visual processing of local details, beyond any benefits it may have on verbal intelligence.

BOOK AND TEST REVIEWS

Article

Sep 2003

Music Training and Nonmusical Abilities: Commentary on Stoesz, Jakobson, Kilgour, and Lewycky (2007) and Jakobson, Lewycky, Kilgour, and Stoesz (2008)

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2009
MUSIC PERCEPT

E. Glenn Schellenberg

STOESZ, JAKOBSON, KILGOUR, AND LEWYCKY (2007) and Jakobson, Lewycky, Kilgour, and Stoesz (2008) examined whether music training is associated with nonmusical abilities. They concluded that their results provided evidence of "specific" associations between music training and local-processing abilities (Stoesz et al., 2007), and between music training and memory for verbal and visual stimuli (Jakobson et al., 2008). Closer inspection of their methods, consideration of the available literature, and a reanalysis of previous data reveal that these conclusions are debatable. Moreover, the causal direction of the observed associations could go either or both ways.

Use of computerized assessment to predict neuropsychological functioning and emotional distress in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus

Article

Jun 2006
ARTHRIT RHEUM-ARTHR

Objective Cognitive dysfunction and neuropsychiatric disturbance are common in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). This study addressed the ability of the Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metrics (ANAM), a computerized cognitive testing battery consisting of cognitive subtests, a sleepiness rating scale, and a mood scale, to predict neuropsychological status in patients with SLE.Methods Sixty individuals with SLE and no overt neuropsychiatric symptoms were administered ANAM to determine its validity as a screening measure of cognitive dysfunction and emotional distress in SLE.ResultsPerformance on ANAM was compared with results of a consecutively administered, 2-hour battery of traditional neuropsychological tests and the Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II). Individual ANAM cognitive test scores were significantly correlated with most neuropsychological tests, particularly those measuring psychomotor processing speed and executive functioning. Using logistic regression, ANAM cognitive subtests successfully predicted individuals with SLE who had probable versus no impairment after controlling for premorbid levels of cognitive ability. Sensitivity of group classification was 76.2% and specificity was 82.8%, with 80% correct classification overall. ANAM's ability to predict neuropsychological functioning remained even after controlling for subjective reports of depressed mood and current sleepiness. Further, the ANAM mood scale was significantly correlated with the BDI-II (r = 0.67, P < 0.001), indicating its potential future use as a screening tool for emotional distress.ConclusionANAM shows promise as a time- and cost-efficient tool for screening and monitoring cognitive and emotional functioning in SLE, and can indicate when a more thorough neuropsychological investigation is warranted.

Neuropsychological Rehabilitation

Chapter

Aug 2007

Clinical neuropsychologists are professionals within the field of psychology with special expertise in applying the principles of brain-behavior relationships to individuals with various neurological injuries or illnesses, as well as other medical, developmental, and/or psychiatric conditions (National Academy of Neuropsychology [NAN], 2001). Using various tests, techniques, and principles, neuropsychologists evaluate individuals’ cognitive, behavioral, and emotional strengths and weaknesses, and the impact of these on the person’s ability to function. This information, combined with information from other professionals (physician, occupational, speech-language, physical therapists, etc.) and families/significant others, is utilized to develop, recommend, and implement treatment interventions.

Multiple resting state network functional connectivity abnormalities in mild traumatic brain injury

Article

May 2012
BRAIN IMAGING BEHAV

Several reports show that traumatic brain injury (TBI) results in abnormalities in the coordinated activation among brain regions. Because most previous studies examined moderate/severe TBI, the extensiveness of functional connectivity abnormalities and their relationship to postconcussive complaints or white matter microstructural damage are unclear in mild TBI. This study characterized widespread injury effects on multiple integrated neural networks typically observed during a task-unconstrained "resting state" in mild TBI patients. Whole brain functional connectivity for twelve separate networks was identified using independent component analysis (ICA) of fMRI data collected from thirty mild TBI patients mostly free of macroscopic intracerebral injury and thirty demographically-matched healthy control participants. Voxelwise group comparisons found abnormal mild TBI functional connectivity in every brain network identified by ICA, including visual processing, motor, limbic, and numerous circuits believed to underlie executive cognition. Abnormalities not only included functional connectivity deficits, but also enhancements possibly reflecting compensatory neural processes. Postconcussive symptom severity was linked to abnormal regional connectivity within nearly every brain network identified, particularly anterior cingulate. A recently developed multivariate technique that identifies links between whole brain profiles of functional and anatomical connectivity identified several novel mild TBI abnormalities, and represents a potentially important new tool in the study of the complex neurobiological sequelae of TBI.

Estimation of premorbid intelligence from combined performance and demographic variables

Article

Full-text available

Feb 1995

Data from the WAIS-R standardization sample was used to generate a premorbid IQ estimation formula using both demographic and current performance variables. The sample was randomly divided into two groups for development and cross-validation of the formula. Age, education, occupation, race, Vocabulary subtest raw score, and Picture Completion subtest raw score were used as predictor variables. The formulas for Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQ were highly significant and accurate in prediction, without the substantial restriction of range or overestimation found in other methods. Formulas for use with a lateralized population are also presented.

A demographically based index of premorbid intelligence for the WAIS-R

Article

Full-text available

Oct 1984

Investigated the efficacy of the variables age, sex, race, education, occupation, rural–urban residence, geographic residence, and handedness in predicting premorbid IQ on the WAIS—R. Data were from the 1981 WAIS—R standardization sample. Results indicate that education, race, and occupation were the most powerful predictors of premorbid IQ and that the present estimation formulas can assist in predicting premorbid IQ on the WAIS—R. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Reading in Alzheimer's type dementia: A preserved ability?

Article

Full-text available

Jul 1994

Assessed 45 patients with a probable diagnosis of dementia of the Alzheimer type (DAT), varying from minimal to moderate levels of dementia, on 3 tasks of reading aloud: (1) an extensive list of regular and exception words across a range of word frequencies, (2) the National Adult Reading Test (NART), and (3) a test of nonword reading. On the first test, the patients showed substantial effects of regularity, word frequency, and disease severity. Reading of less common words with atypical spelling-sound correspondences was significantly impaired in the moderately demented subgroup of patients and significantly correlated with measures of semantic memory for the patient group as a whole. This impaired exception word reading was attributed to the breakdown in semantic memory that occurs as the DAT disease process advances. A significant drop in performance on both the NART and nonword reading also accompanied increasing disease severity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

WAIS factor analysis with brain-damaged subjects using criterion measures

Article

Full-text available

Aug 1972

Elbert Russell

Correlated the assessment of brain damage vs. no brain damage and of right vs. left brain damage with factors and individual subtest results obtained from a factor analysis of the WAIS. Corresponding groups of 103 hospitalized patients were used. Results demonstrate that the WAIS was affected by brain damage although its factor structure was not. The general scores in each factor were reduced while the structure of the general, verbal, performance, and memory factors was not greatly changed from normal WAIS factors. All subtests, especially Digit Symbol, were affected but not in accordance with Wechsler's Deterioration Index. Laterality of brain damage was not related to verbal and performance factors in chronic brain damage although the Digit Span was significantly more impaired by left-hemisphere damage. (26 ref.)

The comparability of the WRAT-R reading test and NAART as estimates of premorbid intelligence in neurologically impaired patients

Article

Full-text available

Feb 1996

A study by Wiens, Bryan, and Crossen (1993) suggests the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised (WRAT-R) Reading subtest and North American Adult Reading Test (NAART) are adequate predictors of Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) IQ scores for a normal population. Although it is common practice to use reading scores to estimate premorbid IQ in clinical populations, the WRAT-R and NAART have not been compared using individuals with brain dysfunction. The current study cross-validated the Wiens et al. (1993) study using neurologically impaired populations: traumatic brain injury (n = 118), dementia (n = 37), and other neurologic impairments (n = 77). The results were generally consistent across all three groups: (a) the WRAT-R and NAART were equivalent and accurate estimates of average VIQ levels; (b) the WRAT-R and NAART were equivalent but underestimates of higher intelligence ranges; and (c) the WRAT-R is a more accurate estimate for lower VIQ ranges, although both are overestimates. This third finding is in contrast to Wiens et al.'s (1993) results that suggest the WRAT-R is an accurate estinate of lower IQ ranges for normals. It is concluded that the WRAT-R is the preferred measure of premorbid verbal intelligence for psychometric and clinical reasons.

Reading in Dementia of the Alzheimer Type: A Preserved Ability?

Article

Jul 1994

The authors assessed 45 patients with a probable diagnosis of dementia of the Alzheimer type (DAT), varying from minimal to moderate levels of dementia, on 3 tasks of reading aloud: (a) an extensive list of regular and exception words across a range of word frequencies, (b) the National Adult Reading Test (NART), and (c) a test of nonword reading. On the first test, the patients showed substantial effects of regularity, word frequency, and disease severity. Reading of less common words with atypical spelling-sound correspondences was significantly impaired in the moderately demented subgroup of patients and significantly correlated with measures of semantic memory for the patient group as a whole. This impaired exception word reading was attributed to the breakdown in semantic memory that occurs as the DAT disease process advances. A significant drop in performance on both the NART and nonword reading also accompanied increasing disease severity.

WAIS-III, Wechsler adult intelligence scale administration and scoring manual

Article

Jan 1997

D. Wechsler

Concurrent reading tests as estimates of premorbid intelligence in neurologically impaired patients: The superiority of the WRAT-R reading subtest

Article

Jan 1996
ARCH CLIN NEUROPSYCH

The Measurement of Adult Intelligence

Article

Jul 1952

David Wechsler

Development and Validation of a Model for Estimating Premorbid Verbal Intelligence in the Elderly

Article

Jan 2008
J CLIN EXP NEUROPSYC

In a preliminary effort to improve the early diagnosis of dementia, we developed a regression-based method for estimating premorbid intelligence measured by the ability to read irregular words from the American version of the Nelson Adult Reading Test (AMNART). Using errors on the AMNART and years of education, a model for predicting current verbal intelligence (VIQ) was developed in a sample of nondemented elderly. Double cross validation showed that the model had high accuracy and stability in estimating current VIQ in nondemented subjects. The model was then used to estimate premorbid VIQ in mildly demented subjects. Estimated premorbid IQ exceeded current IQ by at least 10 points and did not differ from that of nondemented subjects. Less than 10% of nondemented elderly had discrepancies that were as large. If intellectual decline predicts future functional loss and can be reliably measured using cross-sectional data, the requirement of functional impairment may be an unnecessary barrier to the early diagnosis of dementia.

Estimating WAIS-R FSIQ from the National Adult Reading Test-revised in normal subjects

Article

Jan 1993

Examined the accuracy of the North American revision of the National Adult Reading Test (NART-R; Blair & Spreen, 1989) in predicting current WAIS-R FSIQ scores in a sample of 302 healthy job applicants. Also wished to establish adult norms for the NART-R according to age, education, and level of intelligence. Finally, also compared the accuracy of the NART-R in predicting WAIS-R FSIQ scores with that of the Reading Subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised. Using the prediction equations developed by Blair and Spreen, estimated and obtained mean WAIS-R FSIQs were found to be nearly identical for the group as a whole, with r = .46 (p < 001). However, WAIS-R FSIQ was overestimated by NART-R performance among lower IQ groups, and underestimated among higher IQ groups. The WRAT-R Reading Score correlation with WAIS-R FSIQ was r = .45 (p < .001); the Reading Score also underestimated among higher IQ groups. Using the NART-R, 95% of the subjects had less than 15-point estimated-obtained IQ differences, supporting this cutoff as a potentially useful indicator of deterioration.

Estimating premorbid WAIS-R IQ with demographic variables: Regression equations derived from a UK sample

Article

May 1997

A sample of 200 healthy individuals, representative of the adult UK population in terms of age, gender, and occupational classification, completed a full-length WAIS-R. Demographic variables for the participants were recorded (age, gender, years of education, and occupational classification) and used to develop regression equations for the estimation of premorbid WAIS-R IQ. Stepwise multiple regression revealed that occupation was the best predictor of IQ for all three WAIS-R scales (FSIQ, VIQ, and PIQ). Age and years of education significantly increased the variance predicted. Together these three variables accounted for 53%, 53%, and 32% of the variance in FSIQ, VIQ, and PIQ, respectively. The results indicated that the demographic approach to the estimation of premorbid WAIS-R IQ has utility beyond the USA. However, in common with findings for American participants (Barona, Reynolds, & Chastain, 1984) the ability to predict PIQ was markedly inferior to that achieved for FSIQ and VIQ. A frequency table of the discrepancies between estimated premorbid IQ and obtained IQ for the present sample is provided for clinical use.

Oklahoma premorbid intelligence estimation (OPIE): Utilization in clinical samples

Article

May 1997

The present research is an effort to evaluate a new method of estimating premorbid IQ in which both demographic and current performance methods are utilized in a regression algorithm. Two hundred and twenty-seven patient files from the archives of the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center were used to evaluate the Oklahoma Premorbid Intelligence Estimation (OPIE) procedure. This procedure combines both premorbid demographic variables of age, education, occupation, and race with current performance on the WAIS-R Vocabulary and Picture Completion subtests in estimating premorbid IQ. The results are presented for clinical populations including those with dementia, traumatic brain injury, cerebral vascular accident, neoplasm, epilepsy, and a medical control chronic pain group. Results indicate that the OPIE produces a less restricted range of scores than other currently available methods of estimating premorbid IQ without systematic under or over-estimation of IQ. Considerations for the use of this method with diffuse and cerebrally lateralized populations are discussed.

Blair JR, Spreen O. Predicting premorbid IQ: a revision of the National Adult Reading Test. Clin Neuropsychol 3: 129-136

Article

May 1989

The National Adult Reading Test (NART) has promise as an assessment tool for the determination of premorbid intellectual function, but needs to be modified for current use in a North American population and validated against the WAIS-R. A revision based on American and Canadian pronunciation rules was prepared. Sixty-six unimpaired subjects were tested with a revised NART and all subtests of the WAIS-R. Demographic variables were also recorded. Correlations between actual VIQ, PIQ and FSIQ, and predicted IQs on the basis of revised NART score were .83, .40, and .75, respectively (all p < .001). Prediction of IQs was more accurate with equations based on revised NART score than with demographic variable prediction equations developed by Barona, Reynolds, and Chastain (1984).

A review of premorbid indices of intellectual and neuropsychological functioning: What have we learned in the past five years?

Article

Jan 1987

Reviews the work over a 5-yr (1981–1985) period that has been conducted subsequent to the summary on measures of cognitive, intellectual, and neuropsychological premorbid functioning levels by R. C. Klesges et al (see record 1982-04747-001). Several additional articles are reviewed, new regression formulas are outlined, and an attempt is made to meld a diverse and controversial literature. New data are presented to provide cross-validational support of a recent formula, and future possible research directions are explored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Use of oral reading to estimate premorbid intellectual and neuropsychological functioning

Article

Mar 1999
J INT NEUROPSYCH SOC

Judgment of neuropsychological decline is typically made by comparing a patient's current cognitive performance to data from demographically similar normal individuals. Even within narrowly defined demographic categories, however, there is variability in level of performance, approximating the normal curve. The present study explored the degree to which oral reading scores on the American National Adult Reading Test (ANART) could more accurately predict a person's test performance relative to other demographically similar individuals. In a sample of 141 neurologically healthy participants, the ANART added modestly to the precision of WAIS–R Verbal and Full Scale IQ and Learning score predictions, beyond that achieved by demographics alone; however, ANART score did not significantly improve estimation of Performance IQ, Average Impairment Rating, or Memory score. Use of the ANART tended to improve demographic predictions primarily with “outlier” participants whose oral reading skills were relatively poor. For Verbal IQ, ANART helped with participants who had both poor ANART and relatively high education. Oral reading can be useful for estimating premorbid verbal intelligence and learning in combination with demographic variables, but it does not appear to improve estimates of other neurocognitive abilities. (JINS, 1999, 5, 247–254.)

Reading on the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised and parental education as predictors of IQ: comparison with the Barona formula

Article

Apr 1995

It is frequently necessary in research and clinical evaluations to obtain estimates of premorbid intelligence (IQ) which are separate from measured IQ. There is evidence that word reading may be useful in this aim. In order to determine the potential of the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised (WRAT-R) reading subtest (READ) as an estimate of premorbid IQ, the present study examined the relationship between READ and IQ in healthy subjects. Consistent with other findings, READ accounted for a significant amount of variance in Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQ. Race and parental education, the latter being a variable not previously examined in this literature, accounted for incrementally valid variance in IQ beyond READ. The predictive power of these variables compares favorably with estimates made by the Barona IQ estimation formula, which uses only demographic information.

The Measurement of Adult Intelligence

Article

Jan 1972

David Wechsler

A Compendium of Neuropsychological tests : Administration, Norms and Commentary / O. Spreen, E. Strauss.

Article

Jan 2007

Compendio de pruebas neuropsicológicas en que se ofrece también la información necesaria para seleccionar el test adecuado, cómo aplicarlo, cómo preparar al cliente, cómo interpretar los resultados y cómo ponerlos por escrito, así como duración, costo y validación de cada uno de ellos.

Dementia: The Estimation of Premorbid Intelligence Levels Using the New Adult Reading Test

Article

Jul 1978
CORTEX

The NART is a new word-reading test which was specifically designed for use with adults: the 50 words were selected in order to assess familiarity with words rather than the ability to phonetically decode unfamilar words, i.e. for each word intelligent guesswork alone would not result in a correct response. The results from a group of patients with cortical atrophy and a control group demonstrated the superiority of the NART over the best previously available word list (the Schonell GWRT) in enabling higher and more accurate levels of intelligence to be predicted. The evidence implied that the reading of the NART words was not significantly affected by the dementing processes in the patients with cortical atrophy, and therefore that the NART reading score can provide an accurate estimate of premorbid intelligence levels in these patients.

The WAIS-R index for estimating premorbid intelligence: Cross-validation and clinical utility

Article

Mar 1987

Barona, Reynolds, and Chastain (1984) proposed new demographic information formulas for estimating premorbid Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales-Revised IQ-scores. Our study was directed toward the following issues: (a) cross-validation of this index on a neurologically normal but clinically relevant criterion group, and (b) determining the neuropsychological utility of the formulas to discriminate between neurologically normal and brain-impaired populations. Our subjects included 80 neurologically normal patients and 83 brain-impaired patients. Cross-validation results generally support the estimation accuracy of the formulas within a neurologically normal clinical sample, although by all three formulas, scores are significantly overestimated. To determine the neuropsychological usefulness of the formulas, we derived a difference score (D-score) cut-point method. D-score diagnostic discrimination of patients was slightly greater than obtained IQs, but not at a statistically significant level. Suggestions for clinical use and further research with the Barona Index are provided. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

The longitudinal stability of the WRAT-R Reading subtest: Is it an appropriate estimate of premorbid intelligence?

Article

Jul 1996

Reading tests are assumed to be accurate estimates of premorbid intelligence, based on the belief that reading remains relatively stable following cerebral injury/disease. However, this assumption has been primarily inferred only from studies comparing differences in reading/intelligence measures between neurologically impaired and normal groups. The current study, using within-subject comparisons, compared the longitudinal stability of reading (WRAT-R/3) and intelligence (WAIS-R FIQ) scores for 39 individuals with cognitive dysfunction referred for repeat neuropsychological evaluation. Wilcoxon signed-ranks tests indicated that reading scores: (1) did not statistically change for those demonstrating intellectual decline (> 0 point decline in FIQ), or for those who remained relatively stable (FIQ increase between 0 and 6 points) over retest, but (2) did significantly improve for those demonstrating intellectual improvement greater than 6 points. These results suggest that reading scores may be appropriately considered as "hold" tests for individuals who intellectually decline/remain stable over time, but not for those demonstrating significant intellectual improvement. Additionally, significant variability in reading score decline/improvement suggests that caution must be used when estimating premorbid intelligence based on WRAT-R/3 Reading scores.

Postscripts on Premorbid Ability Estimation: Conceptual Addenda and a Few Words on Alternative and Conditional Approaches

Article

Dec 1997

Cecil R Reynolds

The estimation of premorbid ability levels has been debated for some time. Some of the difficult issues involved are reviewed here and comments provided on certain approaches, some of which tend to be popular for reasons of convenience and false beliefs of their accuracy, and some that are less well-known. Demographic estimation procedures in particular tend to fare better than believed in some research. An additional approach is recommended for further research, one that is equally applicable to children and adults, and that takes maximum advantage of the known relationships among IQ and genetic and environmental variance in intellectual development. © 1997 National Academy of Neuropsychology. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd

Methods of Estimating Premorbid Functioning

Article

Dec 1997

Clinical neuropsychological assessment frequently requires the comparison of obtained scores against some estimate of premorbid level of functioning, but only recently has significant attention been turned to objective methods to accomplish this objective. Clinical judgment, although useful in some circumstances, is generally insufficient. Other methods of estimating premorbid function include demographic regression formulae, such as the Barona formula, subtest scatter methods, such as that suggested by Lezak, and the use of current scores on tests of presumably spared abilities, such as the National Adult Reading Test (NART). Almost all methods predict to some general level of intellectual functioning rather than to specific neuropsychological skills. This paper reviews the suggested methods in terms of the underlying assumptions and the available empirical evidence. Suggestions for future research include the development of skill specific predictors as well as investigations regarding the relation between predictor accuracy and characteristics of the subject, such as high versus low premorbid functioning in the subject. Additionally, there is a great need for methods to predict premorbid functioning in children. © 1997 National Academy of Neuropsychology. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd

Wilkinson WRAT-3: Wide Range Achievement Test administration manual

G S Wilkinson
G S Wilkinson

A compendium of neuropsychological tests: administration, norms, and com-mentary

Jan 1998

O Spreen
E Strauss

Spreen, O., & Strauss, E. (1998). A compendium of neuropsychological tests: administration, norms, and com-mentary (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

Neuropsychological assessment

Jan 1983
497-507

M S L Lezak
Griffin

Lezak, M. (1983). Neuropsychological assessment (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. S.L. Griffin et al. / Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 17 (2002) 497–507

Estimating premorbid intelligence: comparisons of the Barona Formula Wide Range Achievement Test-3 (WRAT-3) Reading subtest, and the Oklahoma Premorbid Intelligence Estimate (OPIE) Poster session presented at the annual conference of the National Academy of Neuropsychology

Dec 1996

A J Ritchie
M Lam
E J Rankin

Ritchie, A. J., Lam, M., & Rankin, E. J. (1996, November). Estimating premorbid intelligence: comparisons of the Barona Formula, North American Adult Reading Test (NAART), Wide Range Achievement Test-3 (WRAT-3) Reading subtest, and the Oklahoma Premorbid Intelligence Estimate (OPIE). Poster session presented at the annual conference of the National Academy of Neuropsychology, New Orleans, LA.

WRAT-3: Wide Range Achievement Test administration manual Wilmington, DE: Western Psychological Services

Jan 1993
497-507

G S S L Wilkinson
Griffin

Wilkinson, G. S. (1993). WRAT-3: Wide Range Achievement Test administration manual (3rd ed.). Wilmington, DE: Western Psychological Services. S.L. Griffin et al. / Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 17 (2002) 497–507

WRAT-3: Wide Range Achievement Test administration manual

Jan 1993

G S Wilkinson

Wilkinson, G. S. (1993). WRAT-3: Wide Range Achievement Test administration manual (3rd ed.). Wilmington, DE: Western Psychological Services.

Comprehensive norms for an expanded Halstead -Reitan battery: demographic corrections, research finding, and clinical applications

Jan 1991

R K Heaton

Heaton, R. K. (1991). Comprehensive norms for an expanded Halstead -Reitan battery: demographic corrections, research finding, and clinical applications. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Wide Range Achievement Test-3 (WRAT-3) Reading subtest, and the Oklahoma Premorbid Intelligence Estimate (OPIE)

Nov 1996

A J Ritchie
M Lam
E J Rankin

Estimating premorbid intelligence Comparison of traditional and contemporary methods across the intelligence continuum

Abstract

No full-text available

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