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Pesticides in rainfall in Europe
Abstract
Papers and published reports investigating the presence of pesticides in rainfall in Europe were reviewed. Approximately half of the compounds that were analysed for were detected. For those detected, most concentrations were below about 100 ng/l, but larger concentrations, up to a few thousand nanograms per litre, were detected occasionally at most monitoring sites. The most frequently detected compounds were lindane (gamma-HCH) and its isomer (alpha-HCH), which were detected on 90-100% of sampling occasions at most of the sites where they were monitored. For compounds developed more recently, detection was usually limited to the spraying season. A classification of pesticides according to their deposition pattern is proposed.
... authors have reported patterns of greater herbicide concentrations in the atmosphere during intensive application periods (Dubus et al. 2000;Waite et al. 1995), the flux data presented here indicated consistent dicamba application occurred at several sites from April to July. Overall, these results demonstrated that dicamba was commonly deposited from the atmosphere during the growing season, and observed deposition and fluxes were strongly related to DR soybean adoption near collection sites and the timing of rainfall events (Figure 3; Table 1). ...
... Understanding the factors that influence atmospheric dicamba transport and deposition is critical to the responsible use of DR technology, and we used data collected in Missouri to serve as a case study for what may also be occurring in other states with high injury occurrences. We determined that dicamba concentrations detected in bulk deposition samples in southeast Missouri exceeded any reported concentrations in the historical literature (Dubus et al. 2000;Waite et al. 1995). At three sites, dicamba deposition was sufficient to cause injury to sensitive plant species like non-DR soybean, with repeated high-deposition events . ...
The herbicide dicamba has injured millions of hectares of sensitive plant species in the United States since 2017. This injury has coincided with the commercialization of dicamba-resistant soybean [ Glycine max (L.) Merr.] and cotton ( Gossypium hirsutum L.). We quantified atmospheric deposition and mass flux of dicamba in 12 soybean production regions of Missouri. Dicamba was routinely detected in weekly deposition samples collected during agriculturally-intensive spray periods. Observed concentrations were indicative of both local (<1 km) and long-distance transport (>1 km) of air-borne dicamba. High deposition events (>100 µg m ⁻² ) occurred annually in southeast Missouri, and peak dicamba deposited at these sites (12.5-84.0 µg m ⁻² ) was sufficient to injure non-dicamba resistant soybean. Adoption rate of dicamba-resistant crops and atmospheric stability explained much of the variance, and it is difficult for a herbicide product label to address these variables. Overall, these results demonstrated that dicamba was commonly deposited from the atmosphere during the growing season and observed concentrations and fluxes were strongly related to the timing and magnitude of rainfall events, and the amount of dicamba usage near collection sites.
... Among all control methods, chemical control accounts for a high share of 95% and remains valid today. Pesticides are widely used in chemical control, and thus, the damage that may occur in the yield and quality of the products can be prevented (Dubus et al. 2000;Tiryaki et al. 2010). The use of pesticides, which show chemical changes according to the target organisms, has increased day by day, and intense pesticide pollution has occurred with the production of synthetic pesticides. ...
... The use of pesticides, which show chemical changes according to the target organisms, has increased day by day, and intense pesticide pollution has occurred with the production of synthetic pesticides. Many pesticides exhibit cumulative properties by being transported between ecosystems and can be transported between organisms through food chains by accumulating in many organisms (Dubus et al. 2000;Junquera 2021). Pyrethroids constitute a large class of pesticides and are a group of natural insecticides obtained by extraction of the dried flowers of the chrysanthemum plant. ...
In this study, the toxic effects of permethrin on Allium cepa L. and the protective role of Zingiber officinale rhizome extract (Zoex) were investigated. In this context, 6 different groups were formed. While the control group was treated with tap water, the groups II and III were treated with 10 µg/mL and 20 µg/mL Zoex, respectively, and the group IV was treated with 100 µg/L permethrin. The protective effect of Zoex against permethrin toxicity was studied as a function of dose, and groups V and VI formed for this purpose were treated with 10 µg/mL Zoex + 100 µg/L permethrin and 20 µg/mL Zoex + 100 µg/L permethrin, respectively. After 72 h of germination, cytogenetic, biochemical, physiological, and anatomical changes in meristematic cells of A. cepa were studied. As a result, permethrin application decreased the mitotic index (MI) and increased the frequency of micronuclei (MN), and chromosomal abnormalities. The increase in malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) and the decrease in glutathione (GSH) indicate that permethrin causes oxidative damage. Compared to the control group, a 68.5% decrease in root elongation (p < 0.05) and an 81.8% decrease (p < 0.05) in weight gain were observed in the permethrin-treated group. It was found that the application of Zoex together with permethrin resulted in regression of all detected abnormalities, reduction in the incidence of anatomical damage, MN and chromosomal aberrations, and improvement in MI rates. The most significant improvement was observed in group VI treated with 20 µg/mL Zoex, and Zoex was also found to provide dose-dependent protection. The toxicity mechanism of permethrin was also elucidated by molecular docking and spectral studies. From the data obtained during the study, it was found that permethrin has toxic effects on A. cepa, a non-target organism, while Zoex plays a protective role by reducing these effects.
... The widely used herbicide 2,4-D has raised concerns over the years due to its presence in rainwater, potentially leading to environmental contamination and health risks by impacting ecosystems and water quality [101][102][103][104][105][106]. The range of values we determined [bdl-74 ng/L] is at the lower end of the range reported worldwide (Supplement Item S4), slightly higher than the maximum concentrations of 31-48 ng/L found in Finland, Sweden, and Switzerland [82,85,101], yet lower than concentrations found in the USA, Canada, and Germany, which ranged from 282 to 527 ng/L [75,102,103]. ...
... The range of values we determined [bdl-74 ng/L] is at the lower end of the range reported worldwide (Supplement Item S4), slightly higher than the maximum concentrations of 31-48 ng/L found in Finland, Sweden, and Switzerland [82,85,101], yet lower than concentrations found in the USA, Canada, and Germany, which ranged from 282 to 527 ng/L [75,102,103]. Concentrations that were two-to-three orders of magnitude higher than what we found were reported a few decades ago [104][105][106]. Thus, the maximum values we found appear to be plausible, but not high. ...
This study investigates the presence and concentrations of emerging and persistent contaminants (EPCs) in rainwater and throughfall water collected from urban areas and agricultural lands in northern Thailand. It focuses on one daily-use compound (caffeine), two industrial compounds (4-nitrophenol and tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBEP)), and three agrichemicals (atrazine, fenobucarb, and 2,4-D). Additionally, information is provided regarding the presence of acetaminophen, fexofenadine, diphenhydramine, and gabapentin. Small differences in the chemical composition of the six main contaminants were observed between rainwater and forest throughfall water. However, significant variations were found in the concentration ranges of each EPC. In most cases, throughfall samples exhibited slightly higher concentrations, suggesting a limited contribution from dry deposition compared to rainfall. Limited reliable evidence was found concerning seasonal patterns in EPC concentrations in precipitation (rainfall and throughfall) and surface water samples in remote ponds and reservoirs. The transportation of EPCs via rainwater appears to vary among the compounds tested and is likely to vary from one rainfall event to another, rather than showing a strong and common seasonal response within the monsoon rainfall regime. These findings suggest that the transport of EPCs to remote areas via rainfall does occur for some EPCs. However, the dominance of this process over other transport mechanisms could not be determined with high confidence.
... Pesticides from human activities may also enter water bodies through runoff, seepage, and/or erosion. Meanwhile, surface waters, soil, flora, residential area and fauna can be contaminated as evaporation and wind erosion carry pesticide residues into the atmosphere (Dubus et al., 2000;Khan and Law, 2005). Pesticides may cause hazardous toxicity in the target and non-target organisms (Dubus et al., 2000;Ö zdemir et al., 2018a). ...
... Meanwhile, surface waters, soil, flora, residential area and fauna can be contaminated as evaporation and wind erosion carry pesticide residues into the atmosphere (Dubus et al., 2000;Khan and Law, 2005). Pesticides may cause hazardous toxicity in the target and non-target organisms (Dubus et al., 2000;Ö zdemir et al., 2018a). Among the pesticides that cause this toxicity, CYP and CPF are the most commonly used chemicals in agriculture. ...
Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a new class of non-endogenous coding RNA and an area with a lot of research interest and activity. Cypermethrin and chlorpyrifos have been shown to cause serious toxicological damage in the brain of fish and other non-target organisms. However, circRNAs associated with acute brain toxicity caused by cypermethrin and chlorpyrifos have not been studied yet. In this study, circRNAs were identified and characterized using RNA-seq in Zebrafish brains exposed to acute cypermethrin and chlorpyrifos toxicity. A total of 10,375 circRNAs were detected. It was determined that 6 circRNAs were up-regulated, 10 circRNAs were down-regulated in CYP brain samples compared to controls. In addition, it was found that 57 circRNAs are up-regulated and 3 circRNAs down-regulated in CPF brain samples compared to controls. Moreover, 62 circRNAs were down-regulated in the CYP samples, when CYP and CPF samples were compared. However, up-regulated circRNA could not be detected. It was revealed that the detected circRNAs specifically regulated the MAPK signaling pathway, endocytosis mechanism, apoptosis, and p53 signaling pathway. This study, which was conducted for the first time in terms of the subject of the study, could bring a different perspective, especially to pesticide toxicity studies.
... There are however, no continuous monitoring programs of rainwater contamination organized at the French national level. However, data is available in reviews such as Dubus et al. (2000), Asman et al. (2001) or Bedos et al. (2002), which concluded that the range of concentrations in rainwater was large, from non-detectable to values higher than 100 ng·L −1 . More recently, Scheyer et al. (2007) observed high pesticide concentrations in Eastern France, particularly during periods of intensive applications on crops. ...
... Pendimethalin and S-metolachlor were the most frequently detected pesticides in this study and are also among the most reported in rainwater with concentrations ranging from 160 to 350 ng·L −1 and from 100 to 510 ng·L −1 , respectively, in Europe (Dubus et al., 2000;Asman et al., 2005). Potter and Coffin (2017) observed even higher concentrations between 1.5 and 1700 ng·L −1 for pendimethalin and 15 to 3800 ng·L −1 for Smetolachlor. ...
The use of pesticides in agriculture to protect crops against pests and diseases generates environmental contamination. The atmospheric compartment contributes to their dispersion at different distances from the application areas and to the exposure of organisms in untreated areas through dry and wet deposition. A multiresidue analytical method using the same TD–GC–MS analytical pipeline to quantify pesticide concentrations in both the atmosphere and rainwater was developed and tested in natura. A Box-Behnken experimental design was used to identify the best compromise in extraction conditions for all 27 of the targeted molecules in rainwater. Extraction yields were above 80% except for the pyrethroid family, for which the recovery yields were around 40–59%. TD–GC–MS proved to be a good analytical solution to detect and quantify pesticides in both target matrices with low limits of quantification. Twelve pesticides (six fungicides, five herbicides and one insecticide) were quantified in rainwater at concentrations ranging from 0.5 ng·L⁻¹ to 170 ng·L⁻¹ with a seasonal effect, and a correlation was found between the concentrations in rainwater and air. The calculated cumulative wet deposition rates are discussed regarding pesticide concentrations in the topsoil in untreated areas for some of the studied compounds.
... In 2007, approximately 5.2 billion pounds of pesticides were used worldwide; of that amount, 1.1 billion pounds were applied on U.S. soils (Grube et al., 2011). Along with detect concentrations of pesticides in surface waters, pesticides have also been found globally in rainwater (Hüskes and Levsen, 1997;Ahmed et al., 1998;McConnell et al., 1998;Coupe et al., 2000;Dubus et al., 2000;Goel et al., 2005;Sauret et al., 2009;Zhang et al., 2011;Potter et al., 2014;Rice et al., 2016;Potter and Coffin, 2017). Many researchers have monitored pesticides in rainfall, where concentrations have reached 22.9 mg/L of methyl parathion near agricultural sites (Coupe et al., 2000). ...
... Furthermore, in this study, the occurrence of more than 5 pesticides in surface water was observed more than 35% of the time; this trend also occurred 8% and 55% of the time for stemflow and throughfall, respectively. Dubus et al. (2000) reported that, in Europe, two or more pesticides were detected in rainwater samples on average. Potter and Coffin (2017), reported that the median number of pesticide detections in rainwater near Tifton, GA from 2007 to 2009 was 6, which was higher than our stemflow (3) and throughfall (5) maximum number detects. ...
To study spray drift contributions to non-targeted habitats, pesticide concentrations in stemflow (water flowing down the trunk of a tree during a rain event), throughfall (water from tree canopy only), and surface water in an agriculturally impacted wetland area near Tifton, Georgia, USA were measured (2015-2016). Agricultural fields and sampling locations were on the University of Georgia's Gibbs Research Farm, Tifton, GA. Samples were screened for more than 160 pesticides, and cumulatively, 32 different pesticides were detected across matrices. Data indicate that herbicides and fungicides were present in all types of environmental samples analyzed while insecticides were only detected in surface water samples. The highest pesticide concentration observed was 10.50 μg/L of metolachlor in an August 2015 surface water sample. Metolachlor, tebuconazole, and fipronil were the most frequently detected herbicide, fungicide, and insecticide, respectively, regardless of sample origin. The most frequently detected pesticide in surface water and stemflow samples was metolachlor (0.09-10.5 μg/L), however, the most commonly detected pesticide in throughfall samples was biphenyl (0.02-0.07 μg/L). These data help determine the importance of indirect chemical exposures to non-targeted habitats by assessing inputs from stemflow and throughfall into surface waters.
... The triazines simazine and atrazine have been found in air samples in a Czech background site in 2012/2013, and the article reviews (in the SI) preceding reports of even higher atmospheric abundance from before 2004 when both herbicides were in active agricultural use (Degrendele et al., 2016). This suggests far-ranging transport by atmospheric drift, and correspondingly, a 2000 review presented evidence for simazine in rainwater (Dubus et al., 2000). ...
Anthropogenic activities cause the release of vast amounts of contaminants into the environment which eventually reach even groundwater resources. With usually sparse regulatory monitoring of limited priority compounds, the large spectrum of contaminants, and the intricacies of intra- and inter-annual contaminant dynamics, such as the emergence and mobilisation of contaminants, are easily overlooked. Utilizing an 6-year record of untargeted LC-MS assessment of dissolved organic, we report the detection and tracing of selected environmental chemicals in the Hainich Critical Zone Exploratory (central Germany), representing a model groundwater flow system under different land use. The insect repellent DEET (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide) and the coniferous resin acid 7-ODAA (7-oxodehydroabietic acids) show phases of seasonal dynamics in line with their expected periods of release. The legacy herbicides simazine, the triazine transformation product hydroxypropazine, and the flame retardant/plasticiser TPP (triphenyl phosphate) occurred episodically at various locations in the fractured sedimentary bedrock. Within the period of monitoring, extreme weather events (i.e., the severe 2018 drought) and extreme subsurface responses (i.e., 5-year groundwater highstand 2018) likely contributed to long-term organic matter dynamics, potentially causing re-emergence of legacy agrochemicals. This investigation points to the persistence and mobilisation of anthropogenic contaminants, and highlights the importance of long-term combined untargeted and targeted analysis of the groundwater dissolved organic matter for understanding subsurface ecosystems processes. The results add a note of caution for regulatory monitoring since also legacy contaminant levels may considerably vary over time.
... In rainwater, lindane appears to be among the most frequently found pesticides. Data reported in 28 studies conducted in Europe indicate that 90% -100% of samples taken in some countries contained this pesticide in concentrations between 0.02 and 0.833 μg/l [52]. In surface waters, lindane concentrations ranging from 0.01-0.1 μg/l have been measured, with peaks of 12 μg/l in wastewater/ contaminated rivers. ...
Lindane or gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane is a chloro-organic insecticide marketed since 1938. The demonstration of significant toxic effects for humans, including neurological, hepatic, hematological, and carcinogenic effects, led to its ban. Since 2000, the use of lindane has declined, but attention to the possible effects on public health must remain high, given the bio persistence of the toxicant. The purpose and aim of this study were to recapitulate the effects that lindane may have on humans, based on a review of the literature. The results indicate that, despite the many years that have passed since the demonstration of the toxic effects of lindane, the high persistence and accumulation of the substance in ecosystems, make it even possible that it plays a role in the genesis of chronic degenerative diseases. The connection between human, animal, and ecosystem health which is contained according to the World Health Organization in the “One Health” model, urges us not to slow down our vigilance on these substances.
... The presented results also indicated that such chlorinated insecticides (OCIs), especially DDT, were used during past years in these selected location in El-Gabal El-Akhdar, Libya for study and therefore OCIs still detected with their metabolites (isomers). This can be related due to their low solubility and these results are in agreement with those reported by Dubus et al. (2000). ...
Organochlorine insecticides (OCIs) such as HCH (, and Hexachlorocyclohexane), DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) and its metabolites, aldrin, dieldrin and endrin were determined in soil and groundwater samples collected from different locations at El-Gabal (AlJabal) El-Akhdar, Libya during summer (August 2014) and winter (January 2015) seasons. In addition, the residues of PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) species were inspected and determined. Generally, the calculated DDT of the detected residues of DDT family members that have been detected in summer were higher (with a maximum of 10.110 g/l) than those detected in soil samples of winter season (a maximum of 4.547 g/l). The results demonstrated the absence of endrin in the majority of the study sites. The results indicated the presence of about seven species of PCBs in the soil samples at different sites (PCB28, PCB52, PCB101, PCB118, PCB135, PCB138 and PCB180). It was observed that OCI residues were detected in ground water samples during summer season at few sampling sites but they were almost absent during winter season. Water samples analysis in winter showed that there were only four sites that have been found to contain members of DDT isomers.. The residues of endrin were found in high levels in both water samples of summer (2.09 g/l) and winter (1.25 g/l) as compared with OCIs. Meanwhile, o,p DDE (0.9155 g/l) and HCH (1.3230 g/l) were detected at high concentrations during winter season in water samples. In winter, the results indicated that the highest concentration of PCB species was detected in water samples collected in summer and was found in Qandula location (PCB 101= 7.239 g/l), while the lowest mean of concentration was presented in the location of Al-Abraq where PCB 28 reached a concentration of 0.062 g/l
... The otherwise similar patterns can be attributed to the fact that all compounds detected are known to be transported by atmospheric deposition and to be omnipresent in Europe. Concentrations in air depend on the distance from intensely used areas, and concentrations in rain water remain relatively high over longer distances (Dubus et al., 2000;Kreuger et al., 2006;Kruse-Plaß et al., 2021;Zaller et al., 2022;Machate et al., 2022). Thus, the findings in the northwest bay and a large part of corresponding detects at the other sites can be plausibly attributed to atmospheric deposition. ...
Declines of submerged macrophytes (SUM) were monitored in littoral zones of the deep, mesotrophic lake Suhrer See (Northern Germany) since 2017. Drastic losses coincided with intense agriculture in sandy sub-catchments and precipitation. All lines of evidence pointed to a causal connection with subsurface discharge indicating that herbicide application might have caused the effects. Passive sampling was applied in 2022 to elucidate, whether herbicides were really present at sites of losses and if so, in ecotoxicological relevant concentrations. Samplers were exposed on top of lake sediments in 2 m depth and under worst case conditions, i.e., at sites, known for losses of the whole functional group of SUM and at the beginning of the vegetation period. At this time, SUM diaspores were most vulnerable to repression of development and the subsurface discharge was high in the same instance. The potential ecotoxicological relevance of detected herbicide concentrations was assessed with a toxic units (TU) approach, with reference to acute effect concentrations (EC50 of green algae, 72 h, growth). The TU ranged from 0.001 to 0.03. Most concentrations exceeded the threshold of relevance set by an assessment factor of 1000, i.e., TU > 0.001. Locally applied herbicides acted by suppressing developmental stages, and the sum of TU exceeded 0.02 at all sites, mainly due to diflufenican. Not applied locally, terbuthylazine and its relevant metabolites, including terbutryn, acted by inhibiting photosynthesis, and the sum of TU reached 0.005. On this base, diflufenican was assessed to be likely a main stressor, all other detected herbicides to be potentially relevant. Uncertainties and knowledge gaps were specified. The result of the chemical risk assessment was counterchecked for consistence with biological monitoring data within a whole lake perspective. Concepts of empirical and advanced causal attribution methodology were applied to get a grip to the ecological causal field and to protection.
... Otro de los problemas de los pesticidas es su volatilidad: hasta el 90% de los pesticidas aplicados como aerosoles afectan a otros lugares y, por tanto, a una biota, que no era la que se pretendía eliminar. Pero, además, su incorporación al aire se puede deber también a la erosión de suelos contaminados, de modo que se puede dar un ciclo continuo de trasporte, deposición seca (polvo) y húmeda (lluvia, nieve) y de nuevo revolatilización (Dubus et al. 2000); este transporte aéreo puede hacer que la deposición ocurra lejos del centro emisor. Así, por ejemplo, se detectan pesticidas (p.e. ...
... These activities can be the main source of organic pollutants as PCBs, PAH, organochlorine and organophosphorus pesticides. These compounds enter the aquatic environment due to seepage and runoffs (DUBUS et al., 2000). More than 90% of the presence of organic pollutants in the environment is directly related to accidents due to human failures and activities including deliberate waste disposal (ZHU et al., 2001). ...
... Whereas the adult Oryctes sp from icipe colony were free from any detectable pesticide residues, two fungicides (fenpropimorph and metalaxyl) were detected in its wild conspecific larvae collected from cattle dung. Cattle dung and much of the environment, including water bodies are reportedly contaminated with pesticide residues ( FAO/WHO, 2018 ; Dubus et al., 2000 ;Peterson et al., 2020 ;Sarkar et al., 2021 ). Oryctes spp larvae have relatively higher feeding rates than their adult conspecifics ( Soltani et al., 2008 ) and therefore, they may more likely accumulate pesticide residues than adults. ...
Edible insects are currently promoted worldwide as an alternative animal protein source, but they are mostly still harvested from the wild where they are predisposed to contamination with agrochemicals. This study analysed six species of edible insects (Ruspolia differens, Rhynchophorus phoenicis, Schistocerca gregaria, Oryctes sp, Pachnoda ephippiata and Acanthoplus sp) collected from different habitats and/or reared in the laboratory in Kenya and Uganda for safety from agrochemical contaminants using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. The residue levels were statistically compared with the Codex Alimentarius Commission maximum residue limits (MRLs). Residues of only nine agrochemicals were detected in the insects out of 374 chemicals which were screened. The detected agrochemicals include two insecticides (aminocarb and pymetrozine), three herbicides (atraton, methabenzthiazuron and metazachlor) and four fungicides (carboxin, fenpropimorph, fludioxonil and metalaxyl). Ruspolia differens and adult Oryctes sp were free from detectable levels of any agrochemical. Whereas the pesticides residue levels in most insect samples were within maximum residue limits, some of them notably P. ephippiata from black soldier fly larval frass, R. phoenicis from oil palm and P. ephippiata from plant compost contained 2-, 8- and 49-fold higher levels of atraton, methabenzthiazuron and metazachlor, respectively, than MRLs. These findings demonstrate that edible insects may accumulate harmful residues of agrochemicals from the environment where they breed or forage, rendering them unsafe for human consumption or feeding animals. The mechanisms for possible bioaccumulation of these agrochemicals in the insects remains to be investigated. Development of methods for farming edible insects under regulated indoor conditions to ensure their safety as sources of food or feed is recommended.
... After application, the pesticides can seep into the soil and infiltrate the surface water and/or groundwater. Pesticides can also be found in the atmosphere as a result of drift and volatilization during spraying and from wind erosion of soil particles [36]. Furthermore, incloud scavenging can occur, which is the condensation of water vapour on aerosol particles in which pesticides can dissolve [37,38]. ...
... Residues of pesticides enter into the atmosphere by means of evaporation, drift, or wind erosion and re-enter into the ecosystem through precipitation (Dubus et al. 2000;Lushchak et al. 2018). Rate of pesticide application, their half-life, disposal, and solubility are key factors that determine the impact of pesticides on soil, plants, and water resources as they are non-biodegradable and toxic (Anju et al. 2010). ...
Environment is everything surrounding human beings. Biotic and abiotic contributors of environment affect natural, build, and social aspects of human beings. For healthy livelihood, human beings are dependent on environment. The increase in population, urbanization, and industrialization is having severe effect on world environment. Climate change further aggravates the situation. Despite several laws drafted for the awareness and reduction of environmental degradation, no profound results have been obtained. Environmental issues induce several negative externalities and contribute to market failure, thus affecting economic growth; this becomes a serious problem in developing and underdeveloped countries where there are no strong rules for reducing these negative externalities. Pakistan is ranked fifth among the most affected countries in terms of climate change despite the contribution of less than 01% in emissions. The air quality index of Pakistan is getting poor with every passing day; Lahore and Faisalabad were ranked as most polluted cities all over the world in terms of air quality index. The government of Pakistan
has taken some time to realize environmental degradation and has initiated projects like billion tree tsunami and air quality laws to address climate change and environmental degradation.
... If used according to standard agricultural practices, pesticides can still enter the food chain, destroy the ecosystem balance, and cause significant ecological changes. Pesticide residues enter the atmosphere through evaporation, drift, or wind erosion and re-enter the ecosystem through precipitation (Dubus et al. 2000;Lushchak et al. 2018). ...
Organophosphate pesticides (OPs) are used extensively for crop protection worldwide due to their high water solubility and relatively low persistence in the environment compared to other pesticides, such as organochlorines. Dimethoate is a broad-spectrum insecticide that belongs to the thio-organophosphate group of OPs. It is applied to cash crops, animal farms, and houses. It has been used in Pakistan since the 1960s, either alone or in a mixture with other OPs or pyrethroids. However, the uncontrolled use of this pesticide has resulted in residual accumulation in water, soil, and tissues of plants via the food chain, causing toxic effects. This review article has compiled and analyzed data reported in the literature between 1998 and 2021 regarding dimethoate residues and their microbial bioremediation. Different microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae have shown potential for bioremediation. However, an extensive role of bacteria has been observed compared to other microorganisms. Twenty bacterial, three fungal, and one algal genus with potential for the remediation of dimethoate have been assessed. Active bacterial biodegraders belong to four classes (i) alpha-proteobacteria, (ii) gamma-proteobacteria, (iii) beta-proteobacteria, and (iv) actinobacteria and flavobacteria. Microorganisms, especially bacterial species, are a sustainable technology for dimethoate bioremediation from environmental samples. Yet, new microbial species or consortia should be explored.
... Controversy subsists over the global dependence on pesticides, given their excessive use/misuse, long-distance transport and eventual environmental blemish in different climates [3] . Several pesticides and their metabolites have been identified in ground and surface waters [12,13,14] , in soils [15,16] and the atmosphere [17,18] . Besides, pesticides are detained responsible for contributing to the loss of biodiversity and the deterioration of natural habitats [19,20] . ...
Several technologies have been adopted to increase food grain production, pesticide application is one among them. Pesticide comprises a wide range of compounds embracing insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, nematicides and others. Various groups of insecticides are used against different kinds of insects. Usage of pesticides is an economical approach to get immediate protection from the nuisance of pest problems. Pesticide use has advantages in many situations and it has become a boon for many countries in avoiding pest nuisance. Pesticides offer various kinds of benefits including primary, secondary, national-level benefits, etc. On the other hand, pesticide application is accusing in recent years because of some negative effects on human health and the environment. Pesticides are known to cause some ill effects in humans such as cancer. Excess use of pesticides can also affect beneficial insects, productive insects and beneficial soil microorganisms. However, to overcome the hazards caused by pesticides, taking safety measures in pesticide usage is necessitous.
... La déposition (humide ou sèche) se produit après les opérations de traitement et s'applique aux pesticides volatilisés qui sont par la suite transportés par l'air en phase particulaire ou gazeuse puis redéposés (Eker and Tasdemir, 2018), puis éventuellement par l'eau (Asman et al., 2003;Das et al., 2020 (Cetin et al., 2016;Dubus et al., 2000). Sauret et al. ...
En Lorraine, de nombreux étangs piscicoles de barrage sont localisés en tête de BV. Ces plans d’eau ont pour effet direct de rompre le continuum écologique. Leur impact sur la qualité de l’eau a fait l’objet de peu d’étude et demeure largement mal connu. Les travaux réalisés à ce jour ont mis en évidence que selon les pratiques piscicoles, la vidange peut constituer une phase d’exportation importante de nutriments alors qu’une rétention peut être espérée au cours de la phase de production de poisson. Suite à ces travaux, de bonnes pratiques de gestion (ex. ne pas évacuer l’eau durant le passage des filets, ne pas laisser les sédiments exondés lors de fortes précipitations) ont été recommandées aux producteurs. De la même manière, il a été observé durant les périodes d’épandage de pesticides sur le BV amont, une réduction des concentrations (transport dissous) en molécules mères dans le cours d’eau en aval des étangs. Au regard de ces résultats, il s’avère nécessaire : – de quantifier l’impact des étangs sur les flux dissous mais aussi particulaires de pesticides ; – d’évaluer si la réduction des concentrations en aval des étangs se traduit par le rejet de métabolites ou une véritable rétention/dégradation des pesticides au sein des plans d’eau ; – d’apprécier la rétention de phytosanitaires dans le compartiment sédimentaire (afin d’anticiper et quantifier les rejets potentiels de phytosanitaires durant les vidanges et de préconiser les pratiques de gestion favorables à la préservation des cours d’eau en aval) ; – d’apprécier l’accumulation dans la chair du poisson afin de déterminer les pratiques piscicoles favorables à la production de poisson de qualité (voire labélisé « Bio ») et la préservation des masses d’eau. A partir des précédents travaux et appuyé sur les données bibliographiques, nous avons ainsi établi une liste de pesticides d’intérêt et de métabolites potentiellement formés. Après avoir finalisé le développement des méthodes analytiques nécessaires au suivi des matrices eaux, particulaires, sédimentaires et poissons, les flux entrants et sortants d’étangs seront étudiés durant la totalité d’un cycle annuel d’exploitation piscicole. Les sédiments seront échantillonnés afin de déterminer les périodes d’accumulation ou de relargage par la matrice sédimentaire. Afin de s’assurer de la sécurité sanitaire du poisson produit et d’apprécier les liens entre qualité du milieu et du biote, l’accumulation dans la chair de poisson sera suivie. L’ensemble des résultats obtenus devrait permettre : – de déterminer l’occurrence de pesticides et de leur métabolites en tête de bassin versant agricole ; – d’apprécier les flux dissous et particulaires de ces molécules au cours d’un cycle annuel ; – d’apprécier l’accumulation de produits phytosanitaires dans les matrices sédimentaires afin d’anticiper les risques de rejets vers l’aval et de préconiser des pratiques de gestion minimisant l’impact sur l’aval ; – d’évaluer l’accumulation de pesticides dans le poisson afin de déterminer les pratiques favorables à une bonne qualité sanitaire du poisson et à la préservation du milieu ; – établir en plans d’eau les liens entre contaminations des matrices abiotiques (c.-à-d. eau, sédiments, particules) et matrices biotiques (poisson).
... Despite pesticide applications being limited in their geographical span and duration, the substances used can find their way to far reaching places in the environment by several routes. For example, wind can carry chemicals far from their place of origin, and lead to contamination of different terrestrial and aquatic habitats (Dubus, Hollis, and Brown 2000). Pesticides can enter water bodies through surface run-off, seeping into groundwater (leaching), or be transported by erosion, which is why they can be widely found around the globe (Vryzas 2018;van der Werf 1996). ...
Terrestrial insects are affected by many environmental factors that vary temporally and spatially at micro- and macroscales. Climate change is moreover affecting the variations of these factors in several ways, with potential cascading effects for insect individuals, populations and communities. This thesis addresses how certain environmental abiotic factors can affect the physiological ecology of insects, with beetles as model insects. Firstly, I examined how geographic expansion could affect the thermal tolerance of invasive insects. For that purpose, different populations from the beetle Merizodus soledadinus invading a sub-Antarctic Island were used. This investigation illustrated a general pattern that most populations were best at coping with either cold or heat, and a few did not excel at recovering from either, compared to other populations of the species. This indicates that there are trade-offs between insects having high tolerance to hot or cold temperatures, and other un-investigated traits. Further, researches were conducted to elucidate tolerance levels and responses of insects to temperature and insecticide (cyfluthrin) stress, and investigate how thermal tolerance can be affected by pesticides. Different populations of the invasive pest beetle Alphitobius diaperinus, i.e. one laboratory-reared population and three populations collected from different farms were used. The investigations revelaed that all populations of A. diaperinus had a large thermal tolerance breadth. However, farm collected populations had a wider temperature tolerance than the investigated laboratory reared population. It evidences how variable environments experienced by farm-collected populations can increase tolerance as compared with the individuals reared at constant temperature. In addition, pre-treatment with daily heat spikes decreased the recovery time of the insects to subsequent extreme heat exposure (but not cold), whereas pesticide exposure prior to temperature stress increased recovery times. This provided evidence of interactions between insecticide and heat tolerance that has not been shown in adult terrestrial insects before. Following stress exposure in the form of daily heat spikes, with or without insecticide exposure, no changes in the animals´ metabolome or antioxidant activity was reported. However, heat exposure resulted in increased numbers of offspring, while insecticide treatment had a tendency to reduce these numbers. In other words, the insects demonstrated a high tolerance to pesticide, but at a reproductive cost. Finally, tolerance and responses of A. diaperinus to dry conditions was tested. This study showed that the insects were highly desiccation resistant, but there were no changes in metabolite composition that could be associated with active upregulation of osmolytes in response to desiccating conditions. However, after a period in a very dry environment, the insects’ reproductive output decreased, indicating that drought could have detrimental effects, even on populations of this desiccation resistant species.
... Il en est de même pour des alkylphénols éthoxylates et leurs précurseurs ainsi que des phtalates, détectés dans des eaux usées industrielles avec des concentrations comprises entre une centaine de nanogrammes par litre et 70 µg/L pour des nonyphénols éthoxylates (Bergé et al., 2012(Bergé et al., et 2013 (Bressy et al., 2011). Concernant les pesticides, plus d'une quinzaine de pesticides dont l'atrazine et deux de ses métabolites, le lindane, l'isoproturon, le metolachlore ou le metazachlore ont été détectés dans les eaux de pluie en Europe selon une étude menée par Dubus et al. (2000). De même, plus récemment en Chine (Yang et al., 2012), divers pesticides organochlorés ont été quantifiés avec des concentrations allant du ng/L à la centaine de ng/L. ...
La diffusion des micropolluants et plus particulièrement de la diffusion par les rejets de stations d’épuration (STEP) est une problématique récurrente depuis de plusieurs années dans la nécessité de protéger les milieux aquatiques du point de vu de la qualité chimique et écotoxique. Le développement de la spectrométrie de masse haute résolution et de l’accès aux bases de données a permis l’essor de l’analyse non ciblée appliquée aux matrices environnementales dont les eaux de STEP et les eaux de surfaces. Les objectifs de ce travail de thèse ont été de développer une méthode d’analyse non ciblée, de l’appliquer sur des eaux de stations d’épuration afin de les caractériser et d’étudier l’impact du traitement des eaux usées et du rejet des eaux traitées dans la rivière Clain. Des signaux pertinents et traceurs du rejet de STEP ont également été recherchés par l’utilisation d’analyses différentielles.Deux méthodes se basant sur les logiciels Mzmine 2 (avec R 3.5.1 et Excel en complément) et Compound Discoverer ont été développées. À la suite de ces développements, le logiciel Compound Discoverer a été conservé pour le reste des travaux de thèse. L’usage de trois réplicas a montré une réduction du nombre de faux positifs. L’effet matrice a également été évaluée de même que l’utilisation de l’extraction sur phase solide qui s’est avérée globalement positive. L’application de l’analyse non ciblée sur des entrées et sortie de STEP a montré une diminution du nombre de signaux détectés en sortie, principalement des signaux plutôt apolaires et/ou de taille importante mais a montré aussi l’apparition de nouveaux signaux. À partir de l’analyse différentielle, 375 signaux pertinents stables ou augmentant en sortie ont été sélectionnés et l’annotation d’une partie d’entre eux a été effectuée. L’étude de l’impact du rejet des eaux traitées a mis en lumière l’apport de nouveaux signaux dans le Clain. Malgré une baisse des valeurs des aires en aval immédiat, il n’a pas été observé de retour à l’état initial en amont. Une sélection de 305 signaux pertinents a été effectuée donc un faible nombre sont communs avec la liste réalisée à partir des échantillons de STEP, témoignant à la fois de l’intérêt de la méthode mais également de la difficulté de déterminer des traceurs apparentés réellement aux rejets de STEP. Des analyses de suspects ont également été réalisées en complément de l’analyse non ciblée.
... but also by N 2 O emissions from synthetic and organic nitrogen fertiliser use. The atmosphere has also been contaminated by some agrochemicals, especially at the time of application to crops, harvest operations and by the excess and improper use of these chemicals (Dubus et al., 2000). ...
The authors recommended four key measures which will be updated and presented to representatives of the EU institutions on several occasions. The four recommendations are:
1) The phasing out of current subsidies by agricultural area and livestock head, and on energy, large equipment and external inputs. Such subsidies create a strong bias in the productive model at a massive environmental and social cost. The EU should be consistent with its own Green Deal cornerstone: “First do not harm”;
2) If basic subsidies are maintained, they should be paid on a full-time equivalent worker (FTE) basis and not on a hectare (or livestock head) basis anymore;
3) The main part of taxpayer’s money spent within the CAP should be allocated to the production of public goods, i.e. the provision of ecosystem services and the restoration of biodiversity and the ecological network (payment for result-oriented agro-environment and climate measures);
and 4) Although it has been shown that agroecological systems can be more profitable than conventional ones, the transition towards agroecological farming can be difficult and risky for farmers as systems are often more complex. This is the reason why it should be specifically supported by the CAP for several years. This could include specific subsidies, the implementation of a training network with well-trained advisers and a network of innovative farms that could be used as “lighthouses” from which principles may radiate out to local communities.
... The primary environmental regards related to their use are bird destruction, contamination of surface water, and impacts on aquatic species. The toxic effects of diazinon are because of the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase [18]. In addition, chlorpyrifos is another organophosphorus pesticide and is commonly used to control agricultural and household pests [19]. ...
An effective, sensitive, relatively fast, and cost-effective method was developed to determine two types of selected organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) including diazinon and chlorpyrifos in apple, peach, and four different water samples (river, sea, well, and agriculture wastewater samples) through applying poly(amidoamine)@graphene oxide-reinforced polyvinylidene difluoride thin-film microextraction (PAMAM@GO-PVDF-TFME). The extracted analytes were desorbed via organic solvent and determined using high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection (HPLC-UV). The strong interactions between the sorbent and selected analytes (coordination bonds, intermolecular hydrogen bonding, π-π interactions, and hydrophobic effects) made this TFME capable of high extraction performance and capacity. Several factors involved in the PAMAM@GO-PVDF-TFME experiments such as desorption volume, desorption time, sample pH, extraction time, and stirring rate were screened via Plackett-Burman design and then optimized through Box-Behnken design with the purpose of reaching the highest extraction efficiency. The above method showed a good linear range (0.5-500 μg L⁻¹ and 1-500 μg L⁻¹) with the coefficient of determination better 0.9944, low limits of determination (0.12 and 0.20 μg L⁻¹), good enrichment factors (99 and 98), acceptable extraction recoveries (99 and 98%), and good spiking recoveries (90-98%) under the optimized condition at three different spike levels for chlorpyrifos and diazinon, respectively. The results confirmed that the presented method would be promising for the determination of various types of these pesticides in environmental and beverage samples.
Graphical abstract
... Les molécules volatilisées peuvent être entraînées très loin et rester dans l'atmosphère pendant un certain temps (Ex : le lindane). Une partie est aussi solubilisée dans les gouttes d'eau et retombent via la pluie à des concentrations non négligeables (Dubus et al., 2000). ...
... Pesticide input in the environment is due to human activities. For agricultural watersheds, the main input pathway consists of farmer pesticide applications even if atmospheric deposition via solid particles, rain and snow falls can partly contribute to pesticide input at the farm scale (Dubus et al., 2000). ...
As part of the ArtWET LIFE environment project (06 ENV/F/000133), two buffer zones, an artificial wetland and a forest buffer, located at Bray (France) were assessed for their potential at reducing pesticide pollution coming from a 46-ha tile-drained watershed. Because of limited land availability, treating the entire volume was not possible but focusing on the most concentrated effluents appeared to be a good strategy to achieve pesticide abatement. The three-year results showed that both systems lowered down pesticide concentrations and loads by more than 40 %. However, a wide range of efficiencies was recorded. The most contrasted results were obtained for the fairly mobile herbicide isoproturon. On-site multi-tracer experiments concluded in a 66.5-h water residence time in the artificial wetland. Delay was observed in pesticide transfer probably due to adsorption, but desorption was also suspected. Wetland sediments, wetland plants, forest soil and litter were sampled on-site. On these substrates, 14C radio-labelled pesticides were used to study epoxiconazole (fungicide) degradation under flooded conditions as well as adsorption and desorption of isoproturon, metazachlor (herbicides) and epoxiconazole. Apart from plants, adsorption coefficients (Koc) for the three molecules were in the upper range of literature values indicating a high sorption potential of the buffer zone substrates. Epoxiconazole showed the lowest desorption properties whereas metazachlor was more easily released from most substrates. Epoxiconazole mineralization was low and occurred at a very slow rate. Degradation occurred as attested by metabolite production. Sorption-desorption seemed an important phenomenon to consider particularly for systems with low residence time in which degradation may not have time to occur. In addition, such temporarily anoxic environment does not prevent pesticide degradation from taking place but may slow it down by a factor depending on pesticide properties.
... Most POPs under normal environmental conditions are recalcitrant as a result of the difficulty to degrade biologically, and their residues especially in agricultural soils can enter the food chains and consequently present a potential risk to public health via tropic transfers (Fantke and Jolliet 2015;Liu et al. 2016). Seepage and run-off of POPs owing to their mobility and continuous cycling of volatilization and condensation have resulted in their presence in fog, rain and snow (Dubus et al. 2000). About 1.7-8.8 million metric tons of oil is released yearly into water bodies globally, and more than 90% of this oil pollution is directly linked to accidents due to human failures in addition to deliberate activities such as waste disposal ) (see Fig. 9.2). ...
Metals are ubiquitous for life sustenance on earth, but their tremendous accumulation in ecosystems has caused contamination of soil and water resources. “Ex situ” and “in situ” are two possible remediating options. Ex situ remediation involves excavation of polluted soil followed by treatment, rendering it an expensive cleanup method. In situ phytoremediation is the onsite contaminant removal through plant uptake in a cost-effective and eco-friendly way. Phytoextraction and phytostabilization are two commonly practiced in situ phytoremediation strategies. This chapter focuses on basic concepts of in situ phytoremediation and removal of toxic heavy metals from soil–water environment.
... Most POPs under normal environmental conditions are recalcitrant as a result of the difficulty to degrade biologically, and their residues especially in agricultural soils can enter the food chains and consequently present a potential risk to public health via tropic transfers (Fantke and Jolliet 2015;Liu et al. 2016). Seepage and run-off of POPs owing to their mobility and continuous cycling of volatilization and condensation have resulted in their presence in fog, rain and snow (Dubus et al. 2000). About 1.7-8.8 million metric tons of oil is released yearly into water bodies globally, and more than 90% of this oil pollution is directly linked to accidents due to human failures in addition to deliberate activities such as waste disposal ) (see Fig. 9.2). ...
... Most POPs under normal environmental conditions are recalcitrant as a result of the difficulty to degrade biologically, and their residues especially in agricultural soils can enter the food chains and consequently present a potential risk to public health via tropic transfers (Fantke and Jolliet 2015;Liu et al. 2016). Seepage and run-off of POPs owing to their mobility and continuous cycling of volatilization and condensation have resulted in their presence in fog, rain and snow (Dubus et al. 2000). About 1.7-8.8 million metric tons of oil is released yearly into water bodies globally, and more than 90% of this oil pollution is directly linked to accidents due to human failures in addition to deliberate activities such as waste disposal ) (see Fig. 9.2). ...
Agricultural pollution is a global environmental concern. Agricultural pollution is mainly caused by the application of farming inputs (e.g., fertilizers and pesticides) and practices (e.g., excessive tillage of the land and runoff). Agricultural pollutants may include essential plant nutrients (e.g., excessive amounts of nitrate and phosphate), toxic inorganic (e.g., heavy metals), and organic compounds (e.g., pesticides). Due to their high toxicities, agricultural pollutants pose a grave threat to the biological system. Thus, the removal of such toxic substances is crucially important for the safety of the ecosystem and human health. Phytoremediation is believed to be a promising option for the removal of agricultural pollutants and holds a great promise as a mean to cleanup polluted water and soil environments. In this chapter, we compiled data regarding phytoremediation of organic and inorganic agricultural pollutants and discussed different strategies of plants for pollutant removal. Although plants alone have the ability to utilize different strategies to remove the toxic agricultural pollutants, integrated approaches such as microbes and plant associations (rhizoremediation) are seemed to be attractive options for improving removal of agricultural pollutants.
... For some POPs their high stability is related to their aromatic ring structure, carbon-chlorine bond, and other chemical arrangements (UNEP, 2007). Large amounts of these compounds may persist for up to 20 years (Table 4) (Dubus et al., 2000). About 1.7 to 8.8 million metric tons of oil is released yearly into water bodies globally and more than 90% of this oil pollution is directly linked to accidents due to human failures in addition to deliberate activities such as waste disposal ) (see Figure 2). ...
The unprecedented growth in industrialization has significantly increased pollution in the environment causing public health concerns. The remediation of various contaminated environmental matrices presents a global challenge. Phytoremediation using native plants can serve a dual purpose of site remediation and ecological restoration. Native plants provide an ideal residence for microbial community in their rhizosphere with enzymatic ability to accumulate, stabilize, biodegrade or volatilize various inorganic and organic contaminants. A case study that compared a native plant, Chromolaena odorata, from crude oil-polluted land in Nigeria against a referenced plant, Medicago sativa, for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) remediation is presented in this chapter. It was observed that the native plant thrived, tolerated and degraded PAHs better than the reference plant but with no significant difference in PAH degradation. The use of plants is well suited to its natural contaminated area and solar-driven, prevents erosion and eliminates secondary airborne and waterborne waste but with some challenges. Phytoremediation using native species may be effective and efficient than its non-native counterparts, and it is ecologically safer, cheaper, aesthetically pleasing, socially acceptable and easier to cultivate. Native plants in phytoremediation can be further enhanced and improved using molecular techniques to optimize the harvest time, reduce growth duration and increase biomass production and root depth.
... Precipitation is an important media and transport pathway for OCPs (Sun et al., 2006). OCPs in precipitation have been extensively monitored and studied in North America (Aulagnier and Poissant, 2005;Brun et al., 2008;Carlson et al., 2004;Simcik et al., 2000;Sun et al., 2006;Venier and Hites, 2010) and Europe (Carrera et al., 2002;Dubus et al., 2000;Grynkiewicz et al., 2001Grynkiewicz et al., , 2003Quaghebeur et al., 2004;Siebers et al., 1994;Teil et al., 2004). However, less information is available in Asian environments, particularly China (Huang et al., 2010;Wong et al., 2004;Xiong et al., 2007;Zhang et al., 2010a;Zhou et al., 2008). ...
... Responses to pyrethroid insecticides by fish are wide ranged, depending on the compound, exposure time, water quality, concentration and species [5]. Non-point source pollutants are mainly transported overland and through the soil by runoff [6]. These pollutants ultimately find their way into groundwater, wetlands, rivers and lakes, and finally, to oceans in the form of sediment and chemical loads carried by rivers [7]. ...
The study focused on the alterations in steroid hormone levels of Clarias gariepinus. Fish were exposed to sub-lethal concentrations of cypermethrin over a 28 days period. A total of 200 sub-adults of C. gariepinus with a mean weight of 55.280 ± 6.281g were used throughout the study. Sub-adults of C. gariepinus were exposed to 0.00 ppm, 0.0125 ppm, 0.025 ppm, 0.100 ppm and 0.400 ppm of cypermethrin. The concentration of 17β-Estradiol and testosterone in C. gariepinus sub-adults exposed to 0.0125 ppm, 0.025 ppm, 0.100 ppm and 0.400 ppm of the toxicant for 7, 14, 21 and 28 days decreased significantly from the control, with increase in toxicant at p<0.05, except for 17β-Estradiol and testosterone in fish exposed to 0.0125 ppm of cypermethrin for 21 days and 7 days. The mean levels of estradiol decreased in 0.400 ppm group compared to the control; from 212.4 ± 3.156 pg/mL to 118.9 ± 9.682 pg/mL (Day 7); 210.5 ± 8.286 pg/mL to 90.70 ± 7.554 pg/mL (Day 14); 131.7 ± 5.652 pg/mL to 80.77 ± 6.882 pg/mL (Day 21) and 177.6 ± 12.25 pg/mL to 52.77 ± 11.08 pg/mL (Day 28). The mean levels of testosterone decreased in 0.400 ppm group compared to the control; from 2.367 ± 0.208 pg/mL to 0.823 ± 0.276 pg/mL (Day 7); 2.700 ± 0.200 pg/mL to 0.466 ± 0.152 pg/mL (Day 14); 3.200 ± 0.300 pg/mL to 0.300 ± 0.100 pg/mL (Day 21) and 2.933 ± 0.251 pg/mL to 0.366 ± 0.208 pg/mL (Day 28). Due to adverse alteration in 17β-Estradiol and testosterone concentration of the test fish, we recommend that the Government sensitizes the farmers properly on the proper use of pesticides and also enforce against an excess application of pesticides. More of similar studies should be funded to continue monitoring the effects of various pesticides on fishes and the aquatic eco-system at large.
... As well as a control group. Fishes were dissected for histological preparations after each (2,4,6,8) weeks of exposure time. Gills were fixed by Bouin's fluid and stained with Hematoxylin and eosin. ...
This study aimed to identify the histological changes of mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis) exposed to vydate pesticide. (48) female fishes were collected from local markets and also from the stream that surround Baghdad university campus at Al-jadyria, fishes divided into (4) groups and each group consist of 12 fish: T1(exposed to 0.0000001 mg/L),T2 (exposed to 0.0000002 mg/L ) and T3 (exposed to 0.000001 mg /L) of vydate pesticide for (8) weeks. As well as a control group. Fishes were dissected for histological preparations after each (2,4,6,8) weeks of exposure time. Gills were fixed by Bouin’s fluid and stained with Hematoxylin and eosin. Histological study showed that the structure of gill in a control group consists of primary and secondary gill lamellae appeared parallel and oblique. The secondary gill lamellae lined with squamous epithelial and pillar cells, and each secondary lamellae have capillary derived from blood vessel in primary lamellae, chlorid cells and few mucous cells found between secondary lamellae. The histological alterations in gills included hyperplasia of chloride cells, congestion of blood vessels, lamellar disarray, lifting of epithelial cells, Oedema, fusion of adjacent secondary lamella and Aneurysm. Results concluded that vydate had a vicious effect on gills and caused severe histological alterations such as hyperplasia of chloride cells and simple alterations such as lamellar disarray, and also these histological changes commensurate direct proportion with concentrations were used in this study.
... Pesticides originating from human activity can also enter water bodies through surface runoff, leaching, and/or erosion (Khan and Law, 2005). Meanwhile, drift, evaporation, and wind erosion can carry pesticide residues into the atmosphere, which can lead to contamination of surface waters, soils, flora, and fauna via precipitation, often at sites distant from their place of origin (Dubus et al., 2000). ...
Pesticides are known for their high persistence and pervasiveness in the environment, and along with products of their biotransformation, they may remain in and interact with the environment and living organisms in multiple ways, according to their nature and chemical structure, dose and targets. In this review, the classifications of pesticides based on their nature, use, physical state, pathophysiological effects, and sources are discussed. The effects of these xenobiotics on the environment, their biotransformation in terms of bioaccumulation are highlighted with special focus on the molecular mechanisms deciphered to date. Basing on targeted organisms, most pesticides are classified as herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. Herbicides are known as growth regulators, seedling growth inhibitors, photosynthesis inhibitors, inhibitors of amino acid and lipid biosynthesis, cell membrane disrupters, and pigment biosynthesis inhibitors, whereas fungicides include inhibitors of ergosterol biosynthesis, protein biosynthesis, and mitochondrial respiration. Insecticides mainly affect nerves and muscle, growth and development, and energy production. Studying the impact of pesticides and other related chemicals is of great interest to animal and human health risk assessment processes since potentially everyone can be exposed to these compounds which may cause many diseases, including metabolic syndrome, malnutrition, atherosclerosis, inflammation, pathogen invasion, nerve injury, and susceptibility to infectious diseases. Future studies should be directed to investigate influence of long term effects of low pesticide doses and to minimize or eliminate influence of pesticides on non-target living organisms, produce more specific pesticides and using modern technologies to decrease contamination of food and other goods by pesticides.
Emerging contaminants (ECs), encompass both natural and synthetic chemicals that are present or transformed to new chemical compounds across the globe. These pollutants are
frequently found in waterbodies at very low concentration being contributed by various types of pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, cleaning agents, daily use plastic products, industrial effluents, residual pesticides, nanomaterials, narcotics etc. The polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), micro/nanoplastics, biphenyl, phthalate esters, pharmaceuticals, personal care products, pesticides, nanoparticles etc. are being broadly covered under such categories which are imposing negative effects on freshwater sources, rhizosphere soil quality, and human and earth ecosystem. Since contamination has become a challenge for environmental protection, a variety of municipal, national, international, and intergovernmental environmental protection groups are developing policies to control emerging contaminants.
Despite mounting evidence of the rising risks posed by new pollutants is becoming available, research and understanding are relatively restricted while very less is known about their build-up in rhizosphere and plants bioaccumulation. This chapter primarily emphasizes the diversity of emerging contaminants accumulating into the rhizosphere, their fates/transport and claimed significant impact on rhizospheric health.
In modern agriculture, the gap between food production and food consumption caused by the exponential increase in the global population is bridged with the use of agrochemicals. The chapter seeks to highlight the human and animal disease implications of agrochemical use. Fertilizers, soil conditioners, liming and acidifying agents, pesticides, antibiotics, and hormones are commonly used agrochemicals in crop and livestock farming. These agrochemicals are effective in controlling weeds, increasing agricultural productivity, and extending the shelf-life of farm produce but also have nontargeted negative effects on the environment, biodiversity, and human health. Human diseases such as cardio-neurotoxicity (Alzheimer, Parkinson, autism, etc.), endocrine disruption, liver and kidney damage, cancers (non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma), leukemia, brain tumors, different cancers, reproductive defects, diabetes, obesity, respiratory diseases, and different organ and system diseases in humans and animals have been connected to the abuse and misuse of agrochemicals. The need for the proper use of agrochemicals is a necessity to prevent known and emerging diseases caused by agrochemical applications. Emerging effects include pharmaceutical and chemical resistance in humans and animals while disease resistance has also been linked to agrochemical exposure. Farmers should be trained on best practices and appropriate methods of agrochemical application, utilization, and disposal. On the other hand, farmers and agricultural workers need to reduce their overdependence on agrochemicals for food production and preservation by seeking alternative methods of improving food production while maintaining human, animal, and environmental health.
Carbosulfan, a carbamate pesticide extensively employed in rural communities, enters the aquatic environment by the proximity of agricultural lands to water bodies or through direct application in such environments. To know the long-term effect of carbosulfan on carbohydrate and protein metabolism, the fish Cyprinus carpio was exposed to 1/5th sublethal concentration (0.68 mg/L) of 96 h LC50 for 7, 14, and 21 days. Significant (P < 0.05) alterations in the glucose, glycogen, total protein, and free amino acid level, as well as in the activity of enzymes lactate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase, protease, aspartate aminotransferase, and alanine aminotransferase were observed in the tissues of C. carpio and the changes developed progressively with exposure time. The significant alternations in carbohydrate metabolic enzymes demonstrate that carbosulfan causes metabolic interference and shifts aerobic metabolism to anaerobiosis in C. carpio, while changes in protein metabolic enzymes explain that carbosulfan may interact with peptide sequences in C. carpio directly or indirectly. Changes in these characteristics may provide an early warning signal for determining carbosulfan toxicity and its impact on aquatic species. As a result, it is necessary to monitor the aquatic system and forecast the hazardous effect of carbosulfan on fish; precautions should be taken while using even low concentrations of carbosulfan, and prohibiting or restricting carbosulfan usage is preferable.
The use of synthetic pesticides is not allowed in organic production, but traces of synthetic pesticides are regularly detected in organic food. To safeguard the integrity of organic production, organic certifiers are obliged to investigate the causes for pesticide residues on organic food, entailing high costs to the organic sector. Such residues can have various origins, including both fraud and unintentional contamination from the environment. Because the knowledge about contamination from environmental sources is scattered, this review provides an overview of pathways for unintentional and technically unavoidable contamination of organic food with synthetic pesticides in Europe. It shows that synthetic pesticides are widely present in all environmental compartments. They originate from applications in the region, in distant areas or from historical use. Transition into the food chain has been demonstrated by various studies. However, large uncertainties remain regarding the true pesticide contamination of the environment, their dynamics and the contamination risks for the food chain. Organic operators can take certain measures to reduce the risks of pesticide contamination of their products, but a certain extent of pesticide contamination is technically unavoidable. The present paper indicates that (i) a potential risk for pesticide residues exists on all organic crops and thus organic operators cannot meet a ‘zero-tolerance’ approach regarding pesticide residues at the moment. (ii) Applying a residue concentration threshold to distinguish between cases of fraud and unavoidable contamination for all pesticides is not adequate given the variability of contamination. More reliable answers can be obtained with a case-by-case investigation, where evidence for all possible origins of pesticide residues is collected and the likelihood of unavoidable contamination and fraud are estimated. Ultimately, for organic certification bodies and control authorities it will remain a challenge to determine whether a pesticide residue is due to neglect of production rules or technically unavoidable.
Organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs), being an attractive alternative to persistent organochlorine pesticides, are widely used in agriculture. The OPPs are the main components of herbicides, insecticides, and pesticides. They are derivatives of phosphoric acid having amide, ester, or thiol group possessing aliphatic, cyclic, or heterocyclic structure. The OPPs are soluble in water as well as organic solvents owing to their degradable organic nature. Currently more than 140 OPPs are being used all over the world and their careless handling, and inappropriate application contaminating environment by negatively affecting non-target species of humans, birds, animals, and plants through both systematic and non-systematic actions. The OPPs are utilized as fertilizers, agrochemicals, fungicides, pesticides, insecticides, acaricides, herbicides, plasticizers, flame retardants, plant growth factors, chemical warfare agents in agriculture, industrial sectors, as well as for household purposes. The injudicious utilization of OPPs is casting serious threats to global environment and health of living organisms. Nervous system of aquatic and terrestrial fauna is affected due to anti-acetylcholinestrase activity of OPPs such as chlorpyriphos, dimethoate, phorate, trichlorfon, glyphosate, etc. Their soluble nature makes them part of water bodies, thus because of various biotic and abiotic factors, OPPs become part of food chain. Regarding huge devastation caused by OPPs, it is needs of time to eliminate them from ecosystem. Therefore, their detoxification from the environment is necessary. There are various chemical, physical, and biological methods which have been used to reduce OPPs. The photocatalytic degradation of various OPP compounds has been investigated using UV light and TiO2 as photocatalyst. Chlorination of water has been reported to degrade OPPs. Bioremediation is considered as eco-friendly and economical process for the removal of these toxins as compared to other chemical and physical methods. Various microorganisms have been investigated which can degrade OPPs into less toxic compounds. Microbes use OPPs as carbon, phosphorous, and sulfur source, and electron donor by disrupting OPPs native structure, ultimately converting them to fewer toxic compounds in favourable conditions. This chapter highlights toxicokinetic study of organophosphates and their mechanism of action in living organisms. This chapter also highlights various microorganisms, i.e., bacteria, fungi, and algae, potentially involved in biodegradation of OPPs and their mechanism of bioremediation.
Water is linked to every aspect of our life, and the nexus between water and health is well-documented. Lack of access to clean water and waterborne diseases is a significant cause of human misery. Pesticides are a group of chemicals widely detected in water bodies, mainly due to their indiscriminate use in the agricultural sector. Due to possible entry into human and animal food chains, health hazards posed by pesticides have become a considerable area of concern worldwide. Nevertheless, the production and use of pesticides are increasing, and the global pesticide market is expected to reach 24.6 billion USD by 2020–2024. Given the widespread occurrence and potential toxicity, many treatment technologies are in place to treat pesticide-contaminated water. However, the diverse chemical nature of the pesticides and the stringent regulations in drinking water standards, 0.1 μg/L for a single pesticide and 0.5 μg/L for the sum of all pesticides, limit the use of many existing treatment systems. The advancement in nanoscience and nanotechnology suggests that nanoscale materials, especially nanocarbon and its derivatives, are promising candidates for scavenging pesticides in water. This chapter reviews the literature on various nanoscale carbons with exciting properties and their applications for treating pesticide-laden drinking water. The mechanism of removal, challenges, prospects, and future development in the area is discussed. This chapter also covers the origin, occurrence of pesticides in water bodies, and their human and ecological health impacts.
An effective, sensitive, relatively-fast and cost-effective method was developed to determine two types of selected organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) including diazinon and chlorpyrifos in tomato, cucumber and agricultural water samples through applying MIL-101@ graphene oxide-reinforced hollow fiber solid-phase microextraction (MIL-101@GO-HF-SPME). The extracted analytes were desorbed via organic solvent and analyzed through high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection (HPLC-UV) after extraction. MIL-101@ GO sorbent which was previously prepared and characterized was first dispersed in methanol by ultrasonication and then immobilized into the pores of a hollow fiber (HF). Several factors involved in MIL-101@GO-HF-SPME experiment such as desorption volume, ionic strength, desorption time, sample pH, extraction time and stirring rate were screened via Plackett-Burman design and then optimized through Box-Behnken design with the purpose of reaching the highest extraction efficiency. The above method showed a good linear range (1-500 μg L-1) with coefficient of determination higher than 0.9948, low limits of determination (LODs, 0.21 and 0.27 μg L-1), acceptable limits of quantifications (LOQs, 0.72 and 0.91 μg L-1), good enrichment factors (EFs, 49 and 41), acceptable absolute recoveries (AR%, 49 and 41%) and good spiking recoveries (88-104%) under the optimized condition at three different spiked levels for chlorpyrifos and diazinon, respectively. It is worth mentioning that due to the clean-up function of HF, there is no time-consuming sample pretreatment procedure (e.g. filtration or centrifugation) prior to the microextraction. Therefore, the presented method took advantage of both excellent adsorption performance of MIL-101@GO and the clean-up function of HF. The results confirmed that the presented method would be promising for the analysis of various types of these pesticides in environmental and vegetable samples.
The microarray is an excellent platform for the understanding of complex regulatory as well as functional mechanisms operating in various cellular processes and, hence, microarray significantly contributing to human welfare. However, voluminous data generated following to microarray, requiring a series of consecutive-analyses to extract useful information to draw any conclusion. Moreover, bioinformatics is an emerging tool advocated for the generation of valuable information’s from large datasets, such as microarray, RNA sequencing, next-generation sequencing, proteomics, transcriptomics. Therefore, to make these experiments interpretable, a series of algorithms must be applied. Thus, in recent decades, microarray in combination with bioinformatics has transformed the field of biology by enhancing our fundamental understanding of how genome shapes the organism. In this chapter, we discuss key concepts, tools, software, and databases used in bioinformatics for the interpretation of large datasets. Furthermore, some fundamental issues associated with sequence analyses, transcriptomic studies, computational proteomics and metabolomics, bioontologies, and biological databases covered to gain our fundamental understanding of the general approaches and algorithms currently employed in the microarray. Today’s world is suffering from various environmental pollutants that impose a negative impact on our lifestyles. Therefore an economical and eco-friendly way is urgently calling the attention of scientists. Recently, bioremediation emerges as a hopeful tool, which utilizes microbes to clean our environment. The microarray and bioinformatics approach could be applied for the identification and characterization of novel microbes, which will serve as an inoculum in wastes bioremediation. However, this field is remaining elusive because of the complex biological activities of these microbes, and a better knowledge of their interactions could only be possible through microarray and bioinformatics. Several molecular and bioinformatic tools such as genomics, transcriptomics, translatomics, proteomics, evogenimics, metagenomics, metabolomics are used to gather information on such interaction. In this chapter, we discuss the role of microarray-based technologies and bioinformatics in the bioremediation of wastes.
This review aims to briefly describe the potential role of dehalogenase-producing halophilic bacteria in decontamination of organohalide pollutants. Hypersaline habitats pose challenges to life because of low water activity (water content) and is considered as the largest and ultimate sink for pollutants due to naturally and anthropogenic activities in which a substantial amount of ecological contaminants are organohalides. Several such environments appear to host and support substantial diversity of extremely halophilic and halotolerant bacteria as well as halophilic archaea. Biodegradation of several toxic inorganic and organic compounds in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions are carried out by halophilic microbes. Therefore, remediation of polluted marine/hypersaline environments are the main scorching issues in the field of biotechnology. Although many microbial species are reported as effective pollutants degrader, but little has been isolated from marine/hypersaline environments. Therefore, more novel microbial species with dehalogenase-producing ability are still desired.
Pollutant or contaminant refers to any unwanted substance introduced into the environment. These contaminants lead to pollution that has deleterious effects both on the flora and fauna. There has been a rapid increase in the use of chemical substances such as petroleum oil, hydrocarbons including aliphatic, aromatic, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylenes), PCB (polychlorinated biphenyls), TCE (trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene), nitroaromatic compounds, and organophosphorus compounds. Human beings are responsible for 90% of this oil pollution (Zhu et al., 2001). Hydrocarbons are released into the environment majorly by anthropogenic causes and to a much lesser extent naturally. Some hydrocarbons also occur naturally due to diagenesis of bacteriohopanetetrol (a constituent of membrane) to form hopane and hopanoic acids (Stout et al., 2001). Organic chemicals undergo nonstop volatilization and condensation, so they are discernable even in rain, fog, snow, etc. (Dubus et al., 2000). The contaminants that are released into the soil may be present in association with the soil particle, dissolved in soil water, or may be suspended in soil atmosphere. This multiphasic distribution of contaminants makes the bioremediation process complex. Therefore successful bioremediation process involves an interplay of several disciplines including microbiology, engineering, ecology, geology, and chemistry (Boopathy, 2000).
This study examined the effect of two variables of rose pigments, and their extraction methods on optical properties of their synthesized carbon quantum dots. Afterward, a sensitive nanosensor based on fluorescence quenching of as prepared carbon dots is optimized for determination of Diazinon. The results indicated that the yellowish rose compounds obtained from alcoholic extraction are more stable and has higher quantum yield than others. Also the facile and reliable determination method has proved its ability for assessing the Diazinon in laboratory conditions as well as in real samples. The fluorescence decrement of carbon dots in the presence of Diazinon exhibits a linear relationship within the Diazinon concentration range of 0.02 to 1µM and the relative standard deviation (RSD) for the detection of 0.01 μM of Diazinon (n=3) is 3.5%.
Here we overview the recent advances in the fabrication of sustainable composite nanomaterials with decontamination capacity towards inorganic and organic pollutants. In this regards, we present the development of hybrid systems based on clay nanoparticles with different shapes (such as kaolinite nanosheets and halloysite nanotubes) and organic molecules (biopolymers, surfactants, cucurbituril) as efficient removal agents for both aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. Due to their high specific surface area, clay nanoparticles have been successfully employed as fillers for composite membranes with excellent filtration capacity. The preparation of composite gel beads based on biopolymers (alginate and pectin) and halloysite nanotubes has been discussed and their adsorption capacities towards both heavy metals and organic dyes have been highlighted. We describe the successful preparation of kaolinite/graphene composites as well as tubular inorganic micelles obtained by the select functionalization of the halloysite cavity with anionic surfactants. Finally, recent research on Pickering emulsions (for oil spill remediation) and bioremediation technologies has been discussed.
In the modern world, where environmental pollution is a great concern, a cost-effective and environmental-friendly way is the necessity of the time. In the recent past, bioremediation emerges as a promising tool to deal with this problem. Several types of microbes and their bioremediation strategies are reported till date. The system biology and functional genomic approaches in bioremediation of wastes are the need of the hour. However, biological activities are complex and need a better understanding of interactions and networks at molecular, cellular, community, and ecosystem level, which can be achieved by system biology approach. The knowledge of these interactions is helpful in understanding the strategies adopted by the microbes at a polluted site. Several molecular and bioinformatic tools such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, etc. are used to gather the knowledge of cellular interaction at different levels on a polluted site. Similarly, functional genomics also use the knowledge of genomics and transcriptomics to describe the gene functions and interactions in bioremediation process and helpful in phylogenetic identification of microbes involved in bioremediation. In this chapter, we discuss the role of functional genomics and system biology in bioremediation process of organic and inorganic wastes generated from various sources including agriculture.
The purpose of this study was to determine common pesticides in raw milk from the industrial cattle houses of Kermanshah region of Iran. A novel, simple, inexpensive, reliable and environmentally friendly method based on continuous sample drop flow microextraction combined with high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection was developed. In this technique, a few microliters of organic solvent is transferred to the bottom of a conical test tube and the aqueous solution in form of fine droplets passes through the organic solvent. At this stage, target analytes are extracted into the organic solvent. After extraction, 20 μL of organic solvent was injected into the analytical instrument. Some effective parameters on extraction were studied and optimized. Under the optimum conditions, the calibration graphs are linear in the range of 1–800 µg/L and limits of detection are in the range of 0.3–1.0 µg/L. Repeatability (intra-day) and reproducibility (inter-day) of the method based on five replicate measurements of 100 µg/L of target pesticides were in the range of 2.7–4.1 and 4.3–7.2%, respectively. The enrichment factors and recoveries are in the range of 308–372 and 77–93%, respectively.
Emission of organochlorine chemicals in urban, agricultural and industrial regions of the world has resulted in a substantial influx to the Canadian Arctic. Long-range atmospheric transport and what has been referred to as 'global distillation' transport many chemicals from warm source areas to cold, polar regions. Organochlorines are detected in Arctic air, water, and snow, with substantial accumulations in animals, marine mammals, and humans. This has led to concern regarding health effects to native people who consume traditional foods. Speculations on future trends of organochlorines in the Arctic is presented and related to global warming effects and the physical chemistry of the compounds of interest. It is conceivable that high levels of certain contaminants in the Arctic environment may persist for decades despite recent reductions in global emissions.
Complementary studies of land-use, agricultura! pesticide application and pesticide concentrations in rain, river water and groundwater were carried out in the Granta catchment in Cambridgeshire. Cropping pattems are discussed and related to pesticide usage. The concentrations of agricultura! pesticides in environmental waters are viewed in the context of the land-use within the catchment. Certain anomalies in pesticide occurrence were identified, particularly the prevalence of the triazines in groundwaters in excess of the concentrations expected from their agricultura! usage.
Between 1991 and 1993, 18 fogwater samples, 31 rainwater samples and 17 atmosphere (gas and particles) samples were analysed for 13 pesticides (pp'DDT,pp'DDD,pp'DDE, aldrin, dieldrin, lindane, hexachlorobenzene, fenpropathrin, mecoprop, methyl-parathion, atrazine, isoproturon and aldicarb). The samples were collected in a rural area where some of the compounds are in use (experimental INRA farm, "Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique" in Colmar, Eastern France, 80,000 inhabitants). This paper briefly presents the analytical methodology used and, in detail, the contamination level of the different atmospheric phases. The contamination levels are roughly constant throughout the year in all the atmospheric phases and the most abundant pesticides are those commonly used on the experimental INRA farm and other surrounding farms. Nevertheless, some pesticides not used since the 1970s such as 1,1-Bis(4-chlorophenyl)-2,2,2-trichloroethane (pp'DDT) and 2,2-Bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1-dichloroethane (pp 'DDD) are also detected in the atmosphere of Colmar. A small increase in the pesticide concentrations in the atmosphere (gas and particles) was observed during treatments.
Selected polychlorinated compounds and pesticides were determined during winter and summer sampling periods in 1984 at 4 stations along a south-north profile 2500 km long starting at Birkenes, South Norway (58°N, 8°E) and ending at Ny Alesund, Spitsbergen (79°N, 12°E). Several long-range transport episodes were detected by comparing the concentration profiles of the selected substances with calculated air transport trajectories to the measuring stations. The data presented clearly prove that long-range air transport of such substances is possible from North America and Eurasia to the Arctic. -Author
During a measuring campaign in springtime 1991 (NUAC '91) cloud and rainwater was collected from airmasses of atlantic origin at the west side of the Vosges. Atrazine analysis of the samples using an ELISA showed atrazine concentrations in cloudwater between 24 and 260 ng/l and in rainwater between 9 and 137 ng/l. The origin of the atrazine was probably the farmland between Paris and the Vosges where intensive maize cultivation is done.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides and chlorophenols were measured in samples of rain and snow collected at urban and suburban/semi-rural locations in the Zagreb City area, Croatia. PCBs and organochlorine pesticides were extracted with hexane from filtered aqueous samples and from particulate matter isolated by filtration. Chlorophenols were accumulated from rain and snow water by C18 reversed-phase adsorption. All samples were analysed by capillary gas chromatography using an electron-capture detector. Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs) in rain and snow water were checked by gas chromatographic–mass spectrometric analysis of combined hexane extracts. PCBs were detected in all water (<1–203 ng l–1) and particle (40–4155 ng g–1) samples. The only organochlorine pesticide present in all rain and snow water (1–36 ng l–1) and in particle (7–512 ng g–1) samples was γ-hexachlorocyclohexane as a consequence of the regular local usage of lindane. A positive correlation was found between its concentration in the water phase and the average air temperature during the sampling period. Compounds of the DDT-type, trace amounts of which were detected in only two rain water samples, were determined in most particle samples. The DDE : DDT median concentration ratio in particles was lower than unity and indicated a recent input of DDT into the atmosphere. The incidence and concentrations of di-, tri-, tetra- and pentachlorophenols were higher in snow (single compound concentration 11–527 ng l–1) than in rain (single compound concentration 2–171 ng l–1). A quadratic decrease in chlorophenol concentrations in snow and rain with increasing air temperature was observed. Trace amounts of PCDDs and PCDFs were detected in both rain and snow water samples and the highest concentrations were measured for octa-CDD (2 pg l–1 in snow and 6 pg l–1 in rain).
Contamination of rainwater by pesticides has been investigated by analyzing samples from three locations in Norway: Lista,A˚s, and Tromsø. The samples were taken weekly, when possible, during the periods June–September in 1992 and May–September in 1993. The samples were analyzed for nine pesticides, including the five herbicides MCPA, dichlorprop, atrazine, simazine, and ioxynil (1992), the fungicide propiconazole, and the insecticides lindane (γ-HCH), dimethoate, and cypermethrin (1992). Residues were found in the samples from Lista andA˚s. The samples from Tromsø, however, showed no residues of any pesticide. A total of 520 analyses for Lista andA˚s were performed, and every tenth sample showed measurable residues. The highest concentrations (ng/l) measured for MCPA, dichlorprop, atrazine, and lindane were 320, 250, 86, and 84, respectively. The level of pesticides stated in the EEC-directive 80/778 for the quality of water intended for human consuption is 100 ng/l. This level was exceeded twice for the herbicides MCPA and dichlorprop. On average, total deposition of the pesticides in 1992–1993 was 2.4 times higher atA˚s than at Lista. Atrazine and lindane were often found in precipitation when the wind was blowing from the east. As these chemicals were taken off the market before this investigation began, it seems reasonable to conclude that long-distance transport is the probable cause.
The atmospheric fallout of PCBs, ∑DDT and γ-HCH (lindane) to a pond in southern Sweden was studied in relation to uptake by freshwater Zooplankton. The extent of the atmospheric deposition of PCBs and lindane was reflected in the uptake by the Zooplankton; high deposition in the spring and autumn resulted in high uptake by the organisms while a lower uptake during summer was a result of lower deposition. The atmospheric deposition of ∑DDT was dominated by p,p-DDT, p,p-DDE and o,p-DDT, while p,p-DDE and p,p-DDD were dominant in Zooplankton. These differences in ∑DDT composition are probably attributed to microbial conversion; as a result, levels in the Zooplankton appeared not to be governed by atmospheric deposition. The availability of the previously airborne, persistent pollutants to Zooplankton was a function of the compounds chemical properties, e.g. water solubility, and the form of deposition. The results show that atmospheric deposition is an important route by which persistent pollutants are transported to Holarctic, aquatic ecosystems.
Certain implications are discussed of the data in a recent report of atmospheric deposition rates to the Great Lakes by Hoff et al. (Atmospheric Environment 30, 3505–3527, 1996). An analysis of the data suggests that for many persistent, volatile organic chemicals concentrations in water are close to a state of long term (several years, within a factor of approximately five) equilibrium with the atmosphere, but are in a constant state of short-term seasonal adjustment. Under these near-equilibrium conditions the actual magnitude of air to water loadings become relatively unimportant as determinants of lake ecosystem contamination, and the significance of land-based loadings is reduced. Success in decontaminating or restoring the Great Lakes is becoming increasingly dependent on atmospheric concentrations and thus on the processes which determine these concentrations.
Measurements of organic compounds in air and deposition have been carried out in parallel on the Swedish west coast. In this investigation the importance of long-range transport for the occurrence of organic compounds in deposition has been studied. Air samples were collected using a high volume sampler (HVS) and the deposition was sampled on a 1 m2 Teflon-coated horizontal surface with runoff for the precipitation to an adsorbent. The samples were analyzed in order to identify and quantify different semivolatile compounds such as PAH and petrogenic hydrocarbons and chlorinated compounds such as PCB, HCH and HCB. Qualitative differences between the content of organic compounds in air and deposition during periods with varying levels of air pollution and different meteorological conditions have been studied and a comparison with other air pollutants, such as soot, has been carried out. The results of the measurements show that deposition of PAH and other hydrocarbons takes place continuously but the greatest amounts are measured in the deposition in connection with episodes together with heavy precipitation. The highest concentrations of PCB and HCH in the air were obtained during a warm dry period in May and the greatest amounts were deposited in a period in May with heavy precipitation.
Eight pesticides (Alachlor, Pendimethalin, Trifluralin, Malathion, Terbuthylazine, Atrazine, Isoproturon and Fenithrothion), adsorbed on kaolin and fly ash are submitted to irradiation (wavelength above 290 nm) for 40 or 80 min. The first four compounds photodegrade when they are adsorbed on fly ash. The presence of metals and metal oxides in the fly ash seem to be responsible for this rapid degradation (up to 70% in 40 min). They do not degrade, however, when they are adsorbed on kaolin. Terbuthylazine and Atrazine do not degrade significantly, at least during this short irradiation time. Weakening of the pesticide-support bonds after irradiation, promoting the extraction by organic solvents, is important for several pesticides, particularly for Alachlor and Atrazine. Isoproturon and Fenithrothion do not adsorb significantly on these two atmospheric supports and cannot be successfully submitted to irradiation.These results are used to predict the possibility of the meso-scale atmospheric transport of the pesticides from agricultural regions to non polluted areas, like alpine regions.
In a two year study from March 1990 until March 1992 eleven pesticides (atrazine, chlorpyrifos, lindane, isoproturon, parathion, pirimicarb, propiconazole, propoxur, terbuthylazine, vinclozoline and α-HCH) were analyzed in precipitation collected in bulk samplers and in a wet only sampler at three sites in Lower Saxony in northern Germany.The most commonly detected pesticides were atrazine, isoproturon, lindane, terbuthylazine. The occurence of the pesticides in precipitation was mainly limited to the application period except for lindane which was determined all the year round. If detected, the concentration of the pesticides ranged from 10 ng/l to 710 ng/l. Lindane showed higher annual deposition values (0.43 – 0.70 g/ha.a) than the other pesticides (<0.001 – 0.36 g/ha.a). The most pesticides were found at all sites but in regions with arable land in higher quantities.
Since pesticides have the potential for contaminating the air by different mechanisms of atmospheric input, pesticide residues can be detected in precipitation. Examples for s-triazine concentrations in rainwater taken from literature were compiled and evaluated. Seasonal trends were observed, with highest concentrations between April and June during the time of the application of s-triazine herbicides. In relation to the s-triazine input by agriculture, the atmospheric deposition is very low. Therefore, in agricultural regions the atmospheric input of s-triazine is not important; for unpolluted sites, however, atmospheric input is the only source of contamination.
POLLUTION of the environment has long been a subject of public concern and much attention has been paid recently to the new ecological factors introduced by the wide agricultural usage of pesticidal chemicals. Contamination of soil and crops has often featured in environmental studies of these pesticides, but so far little attention has been given to atmospheric pollution, although, as long ago as 1961, Harris and Lichtenstein1 showed that the loss by volatilization of aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor and gammabenzene hexachloride was a major factor in their disappearance from soils treated with these compounds. Later, in the United States, the President's Science Advisory Committee drew attention to the fact that inhalation of air contaminated with pesticides might present a hazard to man2 and recommended that air should be continuously monitored for pesticide residue levels. In 1965, an Advisory Committee of the United States Food and Drug Administration referred to studies which showed the presence of up to 0.075 p.p.m. of dieldrin in total diets3 and considered the possibility that half as much again could be absorbed from “air or other exposures”.
During the PRISMA-Project concentrations of hexachlorocyclohexanes (α-HCH, γ-HCH), polychlorinated biphenyls (the ‘DIN-PCBs’: PCB 28, PCB 52, PCB 101, PCB 153, PCB 138, PCB 180), and triazines (atrazine, simazine, terbutylazine) were determined in the German Bight within the water column and in rain water. In addition, the HCHs, and PCBs were also analysed in sediment samples. The concentration values were combined with average lateral inflow and outflow rates of water masses into and out of the German Bight and with the respective inflow rates of the rivers Elbe, Weser and Ems. Thus an estimation of the annual balances of these compounds was accessible that allowed the following conclusions: a loss of 2 t yr−1 γ-HCH between input into and output out of the German Bight has to be stated, while more α-HCH is leaving this area at its northern boundary. This phenomenon can be explained by the different stability of the two HCH isomers. The mobility of PCBs has to be largely attributed to sediment transport, where during the summer period a larger amount is being transported into than out of the German Bight, while during spring the opposite observation was made. Furthermore, evidence is presented that stresses the importance of the riverine input of triazines to the German Bight. The role of their atmospheric input is not very pronounced within the coastal area, however, it has to be taken into consideration for the more distant North Sea regions. This holds, in particular, for the triazines, where atmospheric transport may become significant already in North Sea areas outside the plume of the river Elbe.
Total atmospheric fallout of organochlorines and heavy metals was determined in Paris, and adjacent areas during 1988. Annual mean values for Pb, Zn, Ni, Cr and Cd were 36, 85, 17, 3.2 and 2.4 mg · m−2 · year−1, respectively, and 83 and 77 μg · m−2 · year−1 for polychlorinated biphenyls and lindane, respectively. The dry fallout for PCBs and lindane amounted to 33 and 1%, respectively of the total fallout.
All of the 18 Swiss lakes analyzed contained detectable quantities of some s-triazine herbicides. Atrazine was the major herbicide present, accompanied by smaller amounts of simazine, terbuthylazine, and occasionally (methylthio)-s-triazines. The concentration of atrazine was lowest (1 ng/L or less) in mountain lakes (altitude >800 msl) and highest (up to 460 ng/L) in lakes situated in areas with intensive use of atrazine. Seasonal trends were observed, with a concentration increase in the epilimnia around June, apparently resulting from previous spring applications of the herbicides. Vertical concentration profiles of the herbicides in Lake Zurich were consistent with stratification of the lake during the warmer season and mixing in the colder one. The data suggest atrazine to be rather stable and its removal from the lakes is mainly by export via outflowing waters and less by degradation. Atrazine and other s-triazines were also detected in rainwater during the warmer season. Volatilization and wind erosion of soil particles from areas treated with these herbicides are likely the cause for the presence of these compounds in rain and aerial transport and subsequent deposition the reasons that we find these compounds in mountain lakes. However, major input of these herbicides in most other lakes stems from agricultural practices and nonagricultural uses along roads and railroads.
A field experiment was established to monitor preferential flow pathways and their capacity to transport isoproturon in a heavy clay soil. A hydrologically defined plot of 600 m2 at a field site on the Oxford University Farm at Wytham was created with integral flow monitoring and sampling devices. Data are presented from two flow events which occurred in April and May 1994. The highest concentrations of isoproturon (130 μg litre−1) were observed in the drainage system. The vast majority of the 0·7% of applied pesticide that left the plot was via the drainage system (75–90%) with lateral subsurface flow accounting for a smaller proportion (max 23%). Whilst high pesticide concentrations could be found in overland-flow water, the volumes of water moved by this route were small (max 3%). Less water was estimated to have left the field in response to rainfall than in the previous year. This was attributed to decay of the mole drain system. Consequently the amount of applied pesticide lost in runoff (0·7%) was less than that estimated for the first year (1·5%). The work has shown that, even when a farmer follows best practice in the application of a herbicide to a winter cereal in a drained clay field, high concentrations of the herbicide (relative to the EC drinking water limit) will contaminate surrounding watercourses.
12 organonitrogen and -phosphorus pesticides were identified in precipitation samples (wet and dry deposition) from 5 locations in Northern Germany and the island of Heligoland (North Sea). The temporal development of the concentrations as well as deposition rates of three triazine herbicides, atrazine, simazine and terbutylazine, and of the metabolite desethylterbutylazine in total deposition samples from locations close to the source (agriculture) are compared to values obtained from the sampler on the island of Heligoland (marine sampling site). The concentrations ranged from < 3 to 500 ng/L. Deposition rates are presented for the respective sampling intervals as well as on a seasonal basis for all sampling sites Furthermore, gradients for the atmospheric transport or deposition, respectively, are calculated which may represent the dilution effect between source and Heligoland. For terbutylazine this gradient turned out to be 5:1, while for atrazine the value was about 1:1. The annual atmospheric deposition of triazine derivatives in the German Bight (North Sea) is estimated to be 20 μg/m2 which implies an input to the German Bight of about 500 kg triazines per year. This value is compared to riverine input of about 3 000 kg atrazine, 16 000 kg simazine and 2 000 kg terbutylazine per year.
Triazines were analysed in 1991 in the air and in the total atmospheric fallout (dry and wet depositions) in the Paris region and in rainwater in Paris. Maximal concentrations in the fallout were 350 and 810 ng/l for atrazine and simazine, whereas concentrations of atrazine in the air were close to the detection limit (0.03 ng/m3).
WRc are undertaking a long term study of pesticides in the aquatic environment. A study of the pesticides in the rain, river water and groundwater of the Granta catchment in Cambridgeshire is now in its fourth year. Preliminary results are presented and the concentrations of agricultural pesticides in environmental waters are related to the land‐use within the catchment.
The Granta study is incomplete but certain anomalies in pesticide occurrence can be identified. In particular, the triazines are much more prevalent in the groundwaters than their agricultural usage would lead one to expect.
The limited data base gives problems with modelling the contaminant transport in groundwater. The present situation is reviewed and areas of future work necessary to fulfil the modelling needs identified. These areas of study.
The historical land‐use and pesticide usage; the groundwater quality data base; the pesticide transport in the unsaturated zone.
A method is described for the determination of pesticides — i.e. insecticides, herbicides and fungicides — in rain. Samples were taken periodically since May, 1990. The results of these measurements allow to extend the knowledge on the distribution of pesticides in the atmosphere after application. Agents from 100 ml–1 l rain samples are enriched by solid-phase extraction and then detected by gas chromatography or RP-liquid chromatography. Results received by gas chromatography are confirmed by GC-MS or RP-liquid chromatography, respectively.
A method for the extraction of organochlorine (OC) residues from rainwater has been developed using coated polyurethane foam. The efficiency of the extraction procedure has been tested at low concentrations (sub-ng l–1) and the effects of flow rate, pH, suspended particulates and the volume of water analyzed have been determined. The coated foam plugs were incorporated into eight sampling units stationed along the eastern coastline of the United Kingdom to monitor the atmospheric deposition of organochlorines. The results obtained have been used to predict the annual contribution of OCs from the British mainland deposited into the North Sea.
Investigation of currently-used pesticides (triazines, acetanilides, organophosphates and organochlorines) was carried out in the Bering and Chukchi marine ecosystems in the summer of 1993. Chlorpyrifos and trace levels of endosulphan were the most frequently identified contaminants in seawater, chlorpyrifos and atrazine were found in marine ice, and chlorothalonil and trifluralin were found in surface microlayer samples. Concentrations of chlorpyrifos were highest (170 ng l -1) in marine ice and higher in seawater (19-67 ng l -1) at locations which were closest to the ice edge. Endosulphan was found as a widely distributed currently used pesticide in the polar atmosphere. The greatest concentration of any one single agrochemical was trifluralin (1.15 μg l -1) in a Bristol Bay surface microlayer sample. Arctic marine fog was sampled and for the first time, several currently-used pesticides (chlorpyrifos, trifluralin, metolachlor, chlorothalonil, terbufos and endosulphan) were detected at concentrations several times higher than in adjacent waters or ice.
The relationship between the global technical HCH use trends and their impact on the arctic atmospheric environment has been studied. Two significant drops in global technical HCH usage were identified. In 1983, China banned the use of technical HCH. This represented the largest drop ever in global use rates. In 1990 India stopped technical HCH usage in agriculture and the former Soviet Union banned the use of technical HCH. Since 1990, India has been the biggest user of technical HCH in the world. Significant drops in atmospheric alpha-HCH in the arctic were observed between 1982 and 1983, and again between 1990 and 1992. The rapid response in atmospheric concentrations to usage is encouraging; however, since alpha-HCH concentrations in the arctic waters have remained relatively unchanged, the decline in atmospheric alpha-HCH has reversed the net direction of air-sea gas bur. The accumulated mass in oceans and large lakes may represent a new source of HCH to the arctic atmosphere.
Persistent organic pollutant (POP) transport and deposition in Europe were investigated using calculations with the TREND model based on high-resolution 1990 emission estimates. Lindane (γ-HCH) and benzo(a)pyrene were chosen to represent components found predominantly in the gas and particle phases, respectively. Atmospheric lifetimes and dispersion of gas-phase POPs are primarily determined by their solubility in water and degradation rate in soils and vegetation; they have much longer lifetimes over land than over water surfaces. Model calculations indicate that γ-HCH has the potential for dispersion throughout the hemisphere, with most of it ending up in large water bodies. Spatial distribution patterns of calculated concentrations in precipitation correlated well with those of wet deposition measurements around the North Sea, but the absolute values were too low by a factor of three. Sensitivity analyses suggest that it is the emission data rather than other model parameters that are responsible for the underestimation. For (particle-phase) B(a)P the size distribution of its carrier particles and its atmospheric degradation rate are the most important, and the most uncertain, parameters affecting dispersion and transport. Results here indicate general overestimation of concentrations by a factor of two or less, but insufficient measurements limit uncertainty analyses and validity of conclusions.
This paper presents the results of a five year study (1986–1991) of the contamination of the Paris area atmosphere by polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and lindane. The main processes affecting their behaviour and fate such as vapour/particle partitioning and washout are described and modelled. The spatial and temporal variations of the concentrations of the compounds are assessed. PCBs did not exhibit a clear seasonal cycle, whilst lindane showed systematically higher concentrations in Spring, reflecting the agricultural use of this pesticide. The mean annual concentration of lindane in the atmosphere was stable during the period of study. PCBs concentrations showed a twofold decrease since 1986, presumably in part because of the effectiveness of pollution prevention measures. Recent spatial variations in PCBs or lindane were not very important and the most recent concentrations recorded (2–6 ng m−3 for PCBs and 1.5 ngm−3 for lindane) were in line with levels commonly reported in the literature. PCBs as a whole were predominantly in the vapour phase (78% on top of the St Jacques Tower in 1989–1990). The amount associated with the particle phase was linked to temperature and increased during winter. The behaviour of individual components showed wide differences reflecting their varying physico-chemical properties: IUPAC no. 18 was not detectable in the particle phase whilst no. 180 was for 70% in the particle phase. Lindane was found only in the vapour phase. The overall washout ratio W (ng m−3 rain/ngm−3 air) was 34 × 103 for total PCBs and 79 × 103 for lindane. It varied between 21 × 103 for component IUPAC no. 28 to 235 × 103 for n 180. Dry deposition amounted to 35% of the total deposition for PCBs and 1 % for lindane. The associated deposition velocity for Aroclor 1254 was 0.12 cm s−1.
An update is presented of the atmospheric loadings of 11 organochlorine chemicals, five trace elements and four polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) to the Great Lakes. Intercomparison of this 1994 estimate is made with earlier loading estimates made in 1988 and 1992 by Strachan and Eisenreich. The flux calculations include wet deposition, dry deposition and two-film vapour transfer across each of the lakes. Of these processes, confidence is highest for wet deposition estimates and lowest for the gas transfer component. This is unfortunate since gas transfer has been estimated to be the most important process for the OC chemicals. PCBs, dieldrin, HCB, DDE, phenanthrene and pyrene are currently showing net loss from the lakes to the atmosphere via volatilization. p,p′-DDT is still being loaded into the lakes from the atmosphere. α- and γ-HCH are near equilibrium with the water bodies and show volatilization in the summer and fall for α-HCH but net deposition for the rest of the year. Hg assessment for the net loading to Lake Superior is given and points out the importance of each of the atmospheric deposition routes for this trace element. The results taken from the IADN program provide a detailed data set for the interpretation of atmospheric impact on the lakes. Relative assessment in relation to other sources of input is difficult due to sparsity of data in other media of the lakes. Particularly important is the inconsistent intercomparison of air and water concentrations from different years leading to gas transfer estimates which could be dated or incorrect. For chemicals which are showing rapidly changing concentrations in the lakes, the calculation of gaseous mass transfer should be made on the basis of short-term, concurrent measurements in both air and water.
A simple generic procedure was developed to determine the potential for long-range transboundary atmospheric transport of substances by means of the residence time of the substance in air. The atmospheric residence time, τa, is defined here as the time period in which the mass of the pollutant in the atmospheric boundary layer is reduced by 50%. This was calculated using first-order and time-averaged reaction rates for the removal processes of dry and wet deposition, and degradation in air. The dry deposition process is described by means of an effective deposition velocity which accounts for the possible re-emission of the substance. Examples of the atmospheric residence time for a number of pesticides, chemicals and combustion products are presented. The atmospheric residence time is recommended as a criterion in screening methods and risk assessments that consider the spatial extent of atmospheric long-range transport of substances.
PCBs, p,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDE and lindane (γ-hexachlorocyclohexane) were monitored in the lower atmosphere of Ross Island, in Antarctica for 2 yr. Geometrical means were 15.2 pg m−3 for PCBs, 2.0 pg m−3 for p,p′-DDT, 1.0 pg m−3 for p,p′-DDE and 25.8 pg m−3 for lindane. Atmospheric levels of lindane were positively correlated with temperature, and a significant difference was found between spring-summer and summer-winter concentrations. No season related differences were found for the other chlorinated hydrocarbons, possibly owing to their lower vapour pressure and the cold climate. Periods with increased atmospheric levels of PCBs and DDT compounds were recorded. Lindane, p,p′-DDE and PCBs were present in fish and zooplankton sampled close to Ross Island. Pollutant levels in the zooplankton (on an extractable fat basis) were highest during the Antarctic spring and autumn and were inversely correlated to their fat content.
The statistical atmospheric transport model TREND has been applied for the calculation of concentrations and depositions of ammonia (NH3) and ammonium (NH4+). The model is capable of describing dispersion, conversion and deposition from both local sources (necessary to obtain good results for NH3) and from more distant sources (necessary to obtain good results for NH4+). Model results show that in western Europe 44% of the emitted NH3 from a 1 m high score is dry deposited as NH3, 6% is wet deposited as the contribution of NH3 to the wet deposition of NHx, 14% is dry deposited as NH4+ and 36% is wet deposited as the contribution of NH4+ to the wet deposition of NHx. The model results agree well with measured NH3 and NH4+ concentrations—the latter in both aerosol form and precipitation—in The Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, the U.K., the F.R.G., Sweden and other parts of Europe. Vertical concentration profiles of NH3 and NH4+ at Cabauw, The Netherlands are also reproduced well, as well as the diurnal variation of the NH3 concentration at Elspeetsche Veld, The Netherlands.
Levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as polychlorinated biphenyls and pesticides have been determined in ambient air at Signy Island, Antarctica, over a period of 17 weeks. Mean concentrations for single polychlorinated biphenyls (0.02-17 pg/m(3)), for chlordanes (0.04-0.9 pg/m(3)), DDT compounds (0.07-0.40 pg/m(3)) and gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH, 22 pg/m(3)) were comparable to those in Arctic air. However, alpha-HCH levels were approximately one order of magnitude lower. Compared to the Arctic, differences were also observed in the concentration ratios of alpha-/gamma-HCH and chlordane compounds. Two possible atmospheric long-range transport episodes from South America were found by comparing 10-day back trajectories with observed concentration changes. The lower limits of determination (LOD) were mainly governed by the field blanks. They were satisfactory for the most volatile PCBs. However, many concentrations for DDT and chlordane compounds were below the LODs (range 0.1-1 pg/m(3)) or even the instrumental detection limit (0.01-0.03 pg/m(3)). (C) 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Most people still consider the Arctic as one of the last non-polluted regions of the world. However, recent studies have shown that the levels of organochlorines such as chlorinated pesticides, dibenzofurans and dibenzo-p-dioxins are surprisingly high in biota such as seals and polar bears from the Norwegian and Canadian Arctic. A short review is given of our knowledge concerning levels and sources as well as consequences of the presence of persistent toxic organochlorines in the Arctic. Long-range air transport, in particular, as the main source of these compounds will be discussed in more detail.
A survey of the potential side effects of volatilized pesticides on fungi and vascular plants in The Netherlands has been made for two herbicides (atrazine and MCPA), a fungicide (captan) and a soil fumigant (metham sodium). By applying existing models, a prediction is presented of post-treatment dispersal and deposition due to volatilization, both at short and long ranges, and of the potential side effects on fungi and vascular plants. The general conclusion is that side effects (stunting and growth anomalies) are to be expected outside the target area, especially close (< 500 m) to treated plots with atrazine and metham sodium. In view of agricultural acreage in The Netherlands, these short-range effects may impinge on a relatively large scale. There may also be an impact at greater distances from treated plots, especially in the case of compounds that are slow to degrade such as MITC (methyl isothiocyanate), the active toxic moiety generated in soil from metham sodium.
The concentrations of organochlorines (PCBs, pesticides) and herbicides (triazines, phenylureas) were determined in the atmosphere. The total fallout in the Paris area in 1992 and in 1993 was measured. Fallout was investigated at two stations, urban and rural and the gaseous phase was studied at the rural one. PCB concentrations (0.3-4.9 ng/m3) and compositions in the atmosphere and in the fallout (20-520 ng/l) varied, according to the local emission, with the temperature and the direction of wind. Compared to our first results in 1986, there were no changes of pollution levels by organochlorines in that area. Pesticide concentrations in the atmosphere and in the fallout reached maximal values after the local agricultural treatments in spring. No phenylurea was detected in any of the gaseous or liquid samples. Lindane, atrazine and simazine were the main pesticides found. Their levels in the vapour phase, expressed as ng/m3, were: lindane 0.3-6.3, atrazine < 0.03-2, simazine < 0.03-3; in the fallout, expressed as ng/l they were: lindane 5-350, atrazine 5-380, simazine 5-650. In relative terms, the Parisian area is very small. No difference in the diversity and in the abundance of the micropollutants introduced by the atmosphere was observed between the rural and the urban stations. The pollution level of atrazine was close to that found in Europe and in North America, while the organochlorine and the simazine levels were higher.
40 rainwater samples were collected in Hannover and near Peine (Lower Saxony, Germany) in 1992 using a wet-only collector. The samples were extracted by solid phase extraction and analyzed by GC/MS for 59 pesticides. 11 pesticides were found in more than 10 samples. The highest concentrations were observed for terbuthylazine (0.003-0.52 microgram/L), metolachlor (0.003-0.51 microgram/L, mean: 0.10 microgram/L), metalaxyl (0.006-0.48 microgram/L, mean: 0.10 microgram/L) and chlorothalonil (0.003-1.1 micrograms/L, mean: 0.16 microgram/L). The concentrations show a seasonal dependence reflecting the application periods.
The presence of pesticide residues in rain, throughfall, stemflow and in ambient air in two Italian forests affected by the forest damage phenomenon were investigated. Pesticides measured were: alachlor, atrazine, carbaryl, 2,4-D, diazinon, dichlobenil, fluazifop-butyl, MCPA, parathion, phorate and trifluralin. Rainwater samples were collected from May to October 1988 at Vallombrosa and Renon, air and atmospheric particulates were sampled during April-June 1989, only at Vallombrosa. A total of 146 samples of rainfall and 20 samples of ambient air were analysed and 49 out of 166 samples contained at least one active ingredient. Herbicides were more frequent than insecticides, and their concentrations were also higher (max 3.44 microg litre(-1)).
Atmospheric contamination by pesticides: determination in the liquid, gaseous and particulate phases. Environmental Science and Pollution Res-earch 4
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Implications of a first-step environmental exposure assessment for the atmospheric deposition of pesticides in the UK
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the 1998 Brighton Conference, Pests and Diseases 4C, 273±278.
Atmospheric deposition of toxic chemicals to the Great Lakes: a review of data through 1994 Annual balances of hexachlorocyclohexanes, polychlorinated biphenyls and triazines in the German Bight Pesticides in rain Deposition monitoring of pesticides in southern Germany
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Ho, R.M., Strachan, W.M.J., Sweet, C.W., Chan, C.H., Shackleton, M., Bidleman, T.F., Brice, K.A., Burniston, D.A., Cussion, S., Gatz, D.F., Harlin, K., Schroeder, W.H., 1996. Atmospheric deposition of toxic chemicals to the Great Lakes: a review of data through 1994. Atmospheric Environment 30, 3505±3527. HuÈ hnerfuss, H., Bester, K., Landgra, O., Pohlmann, T., Selke, K., 1997. Annual balances of hexachlorocyclohexanes, polychlorinated biphenyls and triazines in the German Bight. Marine Pollution Bulletin 34, 419±426. HuÈ skes, R., Levsen, K., 1997. Pesticides in rain. Chemosphere 35, 3013±3024. Jaeschke, W., Gath, B., PfaÈ in, D., 1995. Deposition monitoring of pesticides in southern Germany. In: Arne Helweg (Ed.), Pesticides in Precipitation and Surface Water (Nordic seminar). TemaNord 558, pp. 65±74.
Pesticides in precipitation Ð consequences for the terrestrial environment Pesticides in Precipitation and Surface Water (Nordic seminar) TemaNord 558 Appearance and con-centration ranges of atrazine in spring time cloud and rainwater from the Vosges (France)
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Pesticides in Precipitation and Surface Water (Nordic seminar)
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