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EDUCATION EXHIBIT
737
Percutaneous Imaging-
guided Abdominal and
Pelvic Abscess Drainage
in Children
1
ONLINE-
ONLY CME
See www.rsna
.org/education
/rg_cme.html.
LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
After reading this
article and taking
the test, the reader
will be able to:
䡲
Recognize the indi-
cations for percuta-
neous abscess drain-
age in children.
䡲
Describe the imag-
ing-guided drainage
procedures and the
principles of catheter
management.
䡲
Identify the signs of
fistula at percutane-
ous drainage.
Debra A. Gervais, MD
●
Stephen D. Brown, MD
●
Susan A. Connolly,
MD
●
Sherry L. Brec
●
Mukesh G. Harisinghani, MD
●
Peter R. Mueller, MD
Percutaneous imaging-guided drainage is the first-line treatment for
infected or symptomatic fluid collections in the abdomen and pelvis, in
the absence of indications for immediate surgery. The technology and
expertise needed to perform percutaneous abscess drainage are widely
available and readily adapted for use in the pediatric population. Cath-
eter insertion procedures include the trocar and Seldinger techniques.
Imaging guidance for drainage is most commonly performed with ul-
trasonography (US), computed tomography, or US and fluoroscopy
combined. Abscesses in locations that are difficult to access, such as
those deep in the pelvis, subphrenic regions, or epigastric region, can
be drained by using the appropriate approach—transrectal, transglu-
teal, intercostal, or transhepatic. Although the causes of abscesses in
children differ slightly from those of abscesses in the adult population,
the frequency of successful treatment with percutaneous abscess drain-
age in children is 85%–90%, similar to that in adults. With expertise in
imaging-guided drainage techniques and the ability to adjust to the
special needs of children, interventional radiologists can successfully
drain most abscesses and obviate surgery. Successful adaptation of ab-
scess drainage techniques for pediatric use requires attention to the
specific needs of children with respect to sedation, dedicated resuscita-
tion and monitoring equipment, avoidance of body heat loss, minimi-
zation of radiation doses, and greater involvement of family compared
with that in adult practice.
©
RSNA, 2004
Index terms: Abdomen, abscess, 70.21, 751.21, 761.21, 77.21, 77.245, 775.21, 78.21
●
Abscess, percutaneous drainage
●
Children, infections,
70.21, 80.21
●
Interventional procedures, in infants and children, 70.1211, 70.12141, 70.12986, 70.12989, 80.1211, 80.12141, 80.12986, 80.12989
Pelvic organs, abscess, 811.211, 87.211, 88.311
RadioGraphics 2004; 24:737–754
●
Published online 10.1148/rg.243035107
1
From the Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, 34 Fruit St, White 270, Boston, MA 02115 (D.A.G., S.L.B., M.G.H.,
P.R.M.); and Department of Radiology, Children’s Hospital, Boston, Mass (S.D.B., S.A.C.). Recipient of a Certificate of Merit award at the 2002
RSNA scientific assembly. Received April 14, 2003; revision requested July 1; revision received August 4 and accepted August 11. All authors have no
financial relationships to disclose. Address correspondence to D.A.G. (e-mail: dgervais@partners.org).
See also the article by Maher et al (pp 717–735) in this issue.
©
RSNA, 2004
RadioGraphics
Introduction
Imaging-guided percutaneous drainage of ab-
dominal and pelvic abscesses was initially devel-
oped and used in adults. However, because the
successful treatment of abscesses with percutane-
ous drainage either obviated surgery altogether or
facilitated surgery by providing a clean operative
field, the technique was soon adapted for use in
the pediatric population (1– 4). This article re-
views the indications for and contraindications
against percutaneous abscess drainage, the spe-
cific needs of pediatric patients during the proce-
dure, catheter insertion techniques, use of imag-
ing modalities for guidance, methods of catheter
fixation and management, techniques for draining
abscesses in difficult locations, postdrainage im-
aging, common causes of organ-specific ab-
scesses, and reported results of percutaneous ab-
scess drainage in children.
Indications and
Contraindications
Although fluid collections have diverse origins,
the purposes of percutaneous intervention in all
such collections may be classified in one or more
of the following three categories: to obtain a fluid
sample for diagnosis, to completely drain the fluid
from an abscess or symptomatic collection, or to
treat a recurrent collection by instilling a scleros-
ing agent (1). With respect to diagnosis, aspirated
fluid can be sent for laboratory analysis to deter-
mine whether it is benign or malignant. Microbio-
logic analysis may reveal an organic cause of in-
fection, but when it does not, a cell count per-
formed on the fluid may help confirm the
presence of white blood cells and, thus, infection.
A positive result of aspirate culture may provide
additional guidance with respect to antibiotic
choice, through susceptibility testing of the cul-
ture. In some cases, laboratory analysis of a speci-
men may reveal the cause of the abscess; for ex-
ample, a high creatinine level helps confirm a di-
agnosis of urinoma, and a high bilirubin content
helps confirm a diagnosis of biloma or bile leak.
With respect to treatment, abscesses generally
require a combination of either percutaneous or
surgical drainage and antibiotics for complete
cure, since antibiotics do not reach sufficient con-
centrations within abscess cavities. Exceptions are
very small abscesses of 1–3 cm in diameter, which
sometimes resolve with antibiotic therapy alone.
In these cases, a period of observation and waiting
may be appropriate. To obtain material for cul-
ture and susceptibility testing, needle aspiration
may be performed. Infection is not the only indi-
cation for drainage. Symptoms such as pain or
pressure from a large noninfected fluid collection,
or obstruction of the bowel or ureter, are also in-
dications for drainage. Patients with abscesses
under pressure benefit from the immediate de-
compression provided through drainage. Finally,
the percutaneous drainage catheter also may be
used as a conduit for infusing a sclerosing agent
into a recurrent collection.
Contraindications for percutaneous treatment
are relatively few. The main ones are uncorrect-
able coagulopathy, lack of safe percutaneous ac-
cess, and inability of the patient to cooperate. For
practical purposes, the absence of a safe percuta-
neous path is the only factor that prohibits percu-
taneous abscess drainage, since in most instances
coagulopathy can be corrected to allow drainage.
The presence of bowel near the abscess may pre-
clude percutaneous abscess drainage (Fig 1). Ab-
scesses located near or between bowel loops are
not amenable to percutaneous catheter drainage
and may require surgery if the patient experiences
symptoms of peritonitis. However, in the absence
of acute peritonitis, needle aspiration of an inter-
loop abscess can be performed to obtain material
for culture. Transection of the bowel with a small
(19 –22 gauge) needle is generally safe. However,
transgression of the colon should be avoided, as
the colonic flora will contaminate the specimen
and may cause infection in the fluid collection.
Figure 1. Axial CT image obtained in a 13-year-old
male patient shows an appendiceal abscess (solid ar-
rows) surrounded by bowel (open arrows), a finding
that precluded drainage with a percutaneous approach.
Because the abscess was also located too far cephalad
to allow use of a transrectal approach (compare with
Fig 5), surgery was performed.
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Other structures through which catheter place-
ment is contraindicated include the large blood
vessels and organs such as the spleen and pan-
creas. Patient cooperation can generally be en-
sured with the assistance of an anesthesiologist,
if need be.
Specific Needs of Children
Physicians, nurses, and technologists in pediatric
hospitals are attuned to the needs of children, but
the interventional radiology team in a general
hospital must remember that children in the in-
terventional radiology suite have specific needs.
These needs include an appropriate level of seda-
tion, dedicated equipment for monitoring and
resuscitation, avoidance of body heat loss, mini-
mization of radiation doses, and greater involve-
ment of parents and family compared with that in
adult practice. Young children require deep seda-
tion or general anesthesia during interventional
procedures. Sedation is a continuum with four
recognized stages: anxiolysis (mild sedation),
moderate sedation (so-called conscious sedation),
deep sedation, and general anesthesia. The induc-
tion of deep sedation requires specific training
and is generally performed either by anesthesiolo-
gists or by nurses or radiologists who have under-
gone that training (5–7). Competence in the de-
livery of deep sedation includes the ability to re-
store the patient from a condition of general
anesthesia to deep sedation if an unintended tran-
sition to the deeper level takes place. A plan of
sedation is established during the preprocedural
assessment of the patient, and the methods used
for the delivery of sedation must comply with the
hospital policies (6,7). Intraprocedural monitor-
ing and documentation of physiologic parameters
(blood pressure, pulse, and blood oxygen satura-
tion) is necessary, as is intermittent assessment of
airway patency (6,7). The deepest sedation is
needed during the most painful part of the proce-
dure, whereas more moderate sedation may be
used during preparation and while the catheter is
being secured.
Intravenous pentobarbitol (2–3 mg per kilo-
gram of body weight, titrated to a maximum dose
of 6 mg per kilogram of body weight), midazolam
(0.05 mg per kilogram of body weight, titrated to
a maximum dose of 0.15 mg per kilogram), and
fentanyl citrate (1 mcg, titrated to a maximum
dosage of 3– 4 mcg per kilogram of body weight
per 20 minutes) are typically used for deep seda-
tion (5–7). Recently, intravenous ketamine (2 mg
per kilogram of body weight) has been introduced
as an effective alternative to general anesthesia for
interventional radiologic procedures in selected
pediatric patients, in whom it has been adminis-
tered under the radiologist’s supervision (8,9).
Atropine sulfate (0.01 mg per kilogram of body
weight) or glycopyrrolate (0.005 mg per kilogram
of body weight) may be administered intrave-
nously as an adjunct to ketamine, to decrease tra-
cheobronchial and salivary secretions that result
from ketamine (9). The use of ketamine may re-
sult in nightmares and hallucinations in adoles-
cent patients and therefore is generally restricted
to younger patients (9). If ketamine is used in
older children, intravenous midazolam may be
added to reduce the frequency of nightmares (8).
If sedation is performed by an anesthesiologist,
intravenous propofol may be used to achieve deep
sedation with rapid onset and rapid recovery.
Certification in either pediatric advanced life sup-
port or a combination of basic life support, airway
education, and sedation education is mandatory
for nurses and physicians who administer deep
sedation in children.
The interventional radiology suite must be
equipped with blood pressure cuffs, oral airways,
endotracheal tubes, face masks, and venous lines
of the various sizes appropriate for use in children
(6). In addition, because children’s bodies have a
higher surface area–to–volume ratio and therefore
lose heat more quickly than those of adults, all
body parts that need not be exposed for the pro-
cedure should be covered. The use of heating
lamps, blanket warmers, and warm US gel can
help to limit heat loss. Because children vary in
size, various amounts of radiation will be needed
to obtain images of sufficient quality to guide per-
cutaneous intervention. If computed tomography
(CT) is used to guide abscess drainage, the lowest
possible tube current and scanning time are used.
For fluoroscopically guided interventions, the use
of pulsed fluoroscopy should be considered if the
means are available. Gonadal shields also should
be used if possible. Standard techniques for de-
creasing the patient’s overall radiation exposure—
for example, minimization of the distance be-
tween the image intensifier and the patient, as
well as of the magnification power, collimation,
and number of spot film images acquired—also
should be used. The capture of fluoroscopic im-
ages with the photograph-and-store option is an
effective strategy for reducing the number of spot
film images that must be acquired.
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Catheter Insertion Techniques
There are two methods for introducing a catheter
into an abscess, both of which start with the inser-
tion of a needle into the abscess cavity. Each
method has its proponents, as well as its advan-
tages and disadvantages. Operator preferences are
usually a matter of personal experience.
Trocar Technique
The trocar technique involves a catheter mounted
on a sharp trocar and inserted into the abscess in
tandem with a guiding needle (Fig 2). The accu-
rate placement of the guiding needle is of the ut-
most importance to ensure the safety of this tech-
nique and the accurate positioning and deploy-
ment of the catheter. The needle length should be
chosen so that several centimeters extend outside
the skin while the needle is securely positioned
within the abscess. The external portion of the
needle serves as an accurate guide for catheter
placement. When the guiding needle is in the cor-
rect position, a small incision is made in the skin
alongside the needle, and blunt dissection is per-
formed. The catheter, mounted on the trocar, is
then advanced in perfect parallel with the guiding
needle to a premeasured depth. Even if the shape
of the abscess is affected by respiratory or other
motion, the external portion of the guiding needle
will indicate the appropriate path and angle of
entry into the abscess. Advantages of this tech-
nique include the ability to rapidly deploy the
catheter, which is essential if the temporal win-
dow for sedation is nearing its end. Disadvantages
include the difficulty of repositioning a catheter
that has been deployed suboptimally on the first
pass.
Figure 2. Imaging-guided drainage of an appendiceal
abscess with use of the trocar technique in an 11-year-
old male patient. (a– c) Axial CT images obtained with
oral and intravenous contrast material show a thick-
walled abscess (arrow in a), a guiding needle placed in
the abscess (arrow in b), and a 10-F drainage catheter
(black arrow in c) deployed parallel to the guiding
needle in the abscess (white arrow in c), which has
been decompressed.
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Seldinger Technique
The Seldinger technique (Fig 3) involves the in-
sertion of a hollow needle into the abscess cavity
and the placement of a guide wire through the
needle to create a percutaneous path for a drain-
age catheter. After the guide wire is inserted, the
needle is withdrawn and the catheter is placed
over (ie, around) the wire and inserted into the
abscess. The percutaneous deployment of 8 –14-F
catheters requires the use of 0.035- or 0.038-inch
wires. The needle puncture can be performed
with a needle system that accommodates these
wires (generally, 18-gauge angiographic needles
or 19-gauge needles sheathed in 5-F catheters) or
with a “skinny” (21- or 22-gauge) needle that
accommodates a 0.018-inch wire. In the latter
case, a dilator-and-sheath system is used either to
exchange the 0.018-inch wire for a 0.035- or
0.038-inch wire (Fig 3) or to insert a 0.035- or
0.038-inch working wire while the 0.018-inch
wire is left in place as a safety wire. Advantages of
the Seldinger technique include the ability to di-
rect the wire to the precise location desired for
catheter deployment. Precise positioning is espe-
cially necessary in large abscesses, such as those
that occur in the subphrenic region, and in loca-
tions in which access is tightly restricted. Disad-
vantages of the technique include the difficulty of
Figure 3. Imaging-guided drainage of an appendiceal abscess
with use of the Seldinger technique in a 12-year-old patient with
Crohn disease. (a) Axial CT image shows a large abscess (solid
arrows) with a thick enhancing wall. At this axial level, the prox-
imity of the bowel (open arrows) precludes an anterior percuta-
neous approach. However, inferior to this level, a small anterior
projection of the abscess was readily accessed with US guidance
(not shown). The bowel directly anterior to the abscess at this
level was inflamed, and its appearance is affected by partial-vol-
ume averaging. (b, c) Fluoroscopic spot film images show the
sheath system (b) used to direct a working wire (arrow) into the
largest and farthest cephalic part of the abscess after placement
of a needle with US guidance, and the dilated catheter (c) de-
ployed over the wire. Part of the catheter is seen in duplex, an
artifact caused by catheter motion during pulsed fluoroscopy for
dose reduction.
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working with wires in confined spaces, and the
multiple steps involved in dilation. In addition,
when dilators and wires are used with CT guid-
ance, any buckling or kinking of the wire can be
problematic. Leakage from small fluid collections
around the wire during needle removal and dila-
tions may substantially reduce operating space in
the abscess and make catheter placement more
difficult. Tissue elasticity is typically high in
young children, and the insertion of the dilator or
catheter into the abscess is difficult even in the
best of circumstances; the implement may be de-
flected from the abscess wall and merely displace
the fluid collection instead of penetrating it.
Imaging Modalities
The most straightforward imaging guidance mo-
dality for abscess drainage in children is ultra-
sonography (US). US allows real-time observa-
tion of the abscess and the catheter, without ex-
posure of the patient to ionizing radiation. In
large and readily accessible abscesses, deployment
of the catheter by using the trocar technique with
real-time US observation is the simplest and fast-
est way to achieve percutaneous drainage. How-
ever, if US depicts only part of an abscess or if
more precise catheter positioning is required be-
cause of the proximity of adjacent structures, US
must be supplemented with fluoroscopy for guid-
ance of catheter deployment. Fluoroscopy is used
to monitor wire manipulations in catheters placed
with the Seldinger technique. Limitations of US
include its inability to depict the entire extent of
an abscess in a deep location such as the pelvis. In
addition, an abscess that is partially obscured by
bowel air can be difficult to localize, and an ab-
scess that contains air may be difficult to see or
impossible to differentiate from bowel at US. CT
is free from these limitations (Fig 4). CT guid-
ance can be performed either with standard incre-
mental acquisition of a few contiguous axial im-
ages in the area of interest or with CT fluoroscopy
(10 –12).
Catheter Fixa-
tion and Management
Most radiologists use two means of catheter re-
tention: an internal retention mechanism and an
external fixation device. For internal retention,
most radiologists use locking pigtail catheters. A
string that courses through the catheter is fixed in
place near the hub of the catheter; this “pigtail”
Figure 4. Imaging-guided drainage of an abscess in a 13-year-old female patient after appendectomy. At US, the
abscess could not be differentiated from the adjacent bowel. (a) Axial CT image shows a large abscess (arrows) that
has a thick enhancing wall and contains air. (b) Axial CT image shows the decompressed abscess after drainage with
the trocar technique and an 8.5-F catheter (arrows).
742 May-June 2004
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prevents inadvertent catheter withdrawal. The
string is made in such a way that it will break un-
der excessive tension or pressure, thus ensuring
that the catheter will not rupture inside the pa-
tient, although inadvertent catheter removal may
result. Other specially designed external fixation
devices have been developed to obviate the need
to suture the catheter to the patient’s skin. Cath-
eters may be taped or sewn to a device that ad-
heres to skin. This method avoids the skin irrita-
tion caused by sutures, as well as the need for su-
ture removal. For very young children, however,
even the detachment of a simple adhesive device
may be painful, and an adhesive removal solution
may be useful.
The abscess cavity is decompressed at the time
of drainage with direct suction by using a syringe
attached to the catheter. Some operators use a
method analogous to surgical lavage and irrigate
the abscess cavity with 10 –15-mL aliquots of
0.9% saline to encourage further drainage of thick
debris. Irrigation of the abscess, however, must be
performed with a lesser volume of fluid than that
previously drained from the abscess, to avoid an
increase in intracavitary pressure with resultant
bacteremia and sepsis.
After the catheter is secured in place in the de-
compressed abscess, the catheter should be
flushed every 8 –12 hours with 5–10 mL of saline
solution to clear the tube of any adherent plugs or
encrustations that might cause blockage. The ac-
tive participation of the interventionalist in hospi-
tal rounds will help to ensure that the catheter is
flushed regularly (13). In addition, patient rounds
provide an opportunity to monitor catheter out-
put, assess the clinical course, and observe any
changes in the appearance of the drained fluid
(13,14). Active management by the interventional
radiologist can enhance the success of drainage
and minimize catheter-related problems (13).
The catheter position should be assessed to en-
sure that the catheter is not withdrawing from the
abscess, and the access site and dressing should
be carefully examined. Difficulty in flushing a
catheter may indicate a clog. If the abscess is in-
completely drained, a clogged catheter will have
to be exchanged for a new catheter. Changes in
the character of the drained fluid may be the first
indication of a fistula, and further imaging may
then be indicated. If a fistula is suspected and no
sepsis is present, an abscessogram may be ob-
tained via catheter for signs of communication
with structures such as the bowel, pancreatic and
biliary ducts, or genitourinary system. In the pres-
ence of sepsis, this examination is deferred so as
not to exacerbate sepsis. The interventional radi-
ologist also is actively involved in deciding the
time of catheter removal.
Drainage in
Difficult Locations
With an unobstructed percutaneous pathway to
the abscess and clear depiction of the abscess at
US, placement of a catheter is straightforward.
However, abscesses in some locations may pose
special challenges.
It may be difficult to access fluid collections
deep in the pelvis, because of anterior bowel,
bladder, and uterus; lateral bones and blood ves-
sels; and posterior bones. In such abscesses, per-
cutaneous access with routine anterior or lateral
approaches is often impossible. If an abscess is
close to the rectum, a transrectal approach may
be used. The transrectal approach (Fig 5) has
proved very successful for draining appendiceal
abscesses located posterior to the bladder (15–
17). Dedicated endoluminal US transducers
equipped with specialized hardware may be used
with this approach to guide the needle or catheter
into the appropriate position. In some pediatric
patients, however, the rectal vault may be too
small to allow insertion of the US transducer, or
the patient may not tolerate it. In such patients,
transrectal drainage can still be performed with
US guidance by using an anterior approach, a
routine surface transducer, and bladder disten-
tion to create an acoustic window. The opera-
tor positions the catheter while observing the
real-time US images. Either the trocar or the
Seldinger technique may be used. When consid-
ering use of the transrectal approach, which is not
sterile, the interventionalist should assess the
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Figure 5. Imaging-guided drainage of an appendiceal abscess with the Seldinger technique and a transrectal ap-
proach in a 12-year-old female patient. (a) US image shows a large pelvic abscess (solid arrows) and the computer-
generated path (open arrows) the needle will follow during its insertion into the abscess with the aid of a guide
mounted on the US transducer. (b) US image shows the sheathed needle (open arrow), which has been inserted into
the abscess (solid arrows). (c) US image shows a guide wire (arrows) positioned in the abscess. (d, e) Fluoroscopic
images (e at a higher magnification than d) show the wire and catheter during placement. (f) Axial CT image ob-
tained 5 days later shows that complete drainage has been achieved.
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patient’s overall clinical condition to determine
whether infection is very likely present in the fluid
collection; the goal is to avoid inducing infection
in a sterile fluid collection. Transrectal catheters,
though their presence may seem awkward at first,
are well tolerated by most pediatric patients and
permit them to ambulate and use the bathroom as
they normally would.
The transgluteal approach (Fig 6) through the
greater sciatic foramen is an alternative approach
to deep pelvic abscesses (18,19). Initially de-
scribed by Butch et al (18), the transgluteal ap-
proach requires CT guidance and patient posi-
tioning in either the prone or the decubitus posi-
tion. Butch et al cited a higher incidence of pain
(approximately 20% of patients) with this ap-
proach (18), and some therefore recommend that
the approach not be used in children. However,
Gervais et al (19) have shown the transgluteal
approach to be reasonably well tolerated by chil-
dren. The choice of transrectal versus transgluteal
access to a deep pelvic abscess is often deter-
mined by operator preference. The transgluteal
approach has the advantage of allowing percuta-
neous access to abscesses located farther cepha-
lad. In addition, use of the transgluteal approach
is strongly favored in abscesses in which infection
is uncertain, because this approach allows drain-
age while using strict sterile technique.
Figure 6. Imaging-guided drainage of an appendiceal
abscess with use of the tandem trocar technique and a
transgluteal approach in a 6-year-old male patient.
(a) Axial CT image shows an abscess (arrows) deep in
the pelvic cavity, a location in which an anterior percu-
taneous approach is precluded because of proximity to
the bowel. (b) Axial CT image obtained with the pa-
tient prone shows the placement of a guiding needle
(straight arrow) through the greater sciatic foramen and
into the abscess. A medial approach was used to avoid
impingement on the sciatic nerve, which courses
through the lateral aspect of the foramen (curved ar-
row). (c) Axial CT image shows a catheter (arrows)
that has been inserted alongside the needle.
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Subphrenic Abscesses
Subphrenic abscesses may develop after surgery
or trauma (Fig 7). A left subphrenic abscess, for
example, may occur after splenectomy, and a
right subphrenic abscess may be related to liver
trauma or liver transplantation surgery. When
possible, the abscess is drained with a subcostal
approach. If there is no possible subcostal percu-
taneous path to an abscess, intercostal access may
be necessary (20). Intercostal access is safest with
the most caudal and anterior approach possible,
because the anterior pleural reflection is farther
cephalad than the posterior reflection. Most pa-
tients who undergo intercostal subphrenic abscess
drainage do not develop pleural complications,
but all patients should be carefully monitored for
such occurrences (20,21). Ideally, subphrenic
abscess drainage should be performed by using
US guidance to position a needle in the most cau-
dal aspect of the fluid collection, with the needle
tip pointed cephalad to allow the subsequently
placed wire to migrate cephalad beneath the dia-
phragm. The catheter then should be deployed
with its tip just below the diaphragm.
Epigastric Abscesses
The posterior epigastric region may be difficult to
access with an anterior approach because of the
stomach, with a lateral approach because of the
liver and spleen, and with a posterior approach
because of bone and kidneys. In very young or
small children, a paucity of abdominal fat may
further limit access. In older children with more
abdominal fat, anterior approaches often are used
(Fig 8), but other possible approaches include a
posterior approach lateral or medial to the kid-
neys. CT guidance is extremely valuable for per-
cutaneous drainage of abscesses in this region,
because of the depth of the location and its prox-
imity to vital structures. A transhepatic route may
be used that transgresses the periphery of the liver
(22). More central transgression of the liver should
be avoided because of the large vessels and bile
ducts. The spleen, because of its vascularity, also
is not generally transected to reach another target.
Likewise, the normal pancreas is not typically
transgressed, because of the risk of pancreatitis.
Figure 7. Imaging-guided drainage of an abscess in a 14-year-
old patient with fever after appendectomy at which diffuse peri-
toneal contamination was found. (a) Axial CT image shows a
left subphrenic abscess (arrows) located above the spleen.
(b) Axial CT image at a level inferior to a shows that the abscess
extends lateral to the spleen. The CT findings did not clearly
indicate whether one or two catheters would be needed for suc-
cessful drainage. A first catheter was placed and drainage was
performed with an intercostal approach by using US and fluoro-
scopic guidance. US images obtained after initial catheter place-
ment showed a persistent fluid collection, and a second drainage
procedure therefore was performed at a location slightly inferior
to the first. (c) Fluoroscopic image shows the two catheters (ar-
rows) used to drain the two loculated abscesses. Drainage was
successful after the placement of the second catheter, and there
were no pleural complications.
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Postdrainage Imag-
ing: Challenges and Pitfalls
Many pediatric patients need no further imaging
after percutaneous abscess drainage if the clinical
course improves and catheter output declines to
less than 10 to 20 mL daily. This is especially true
in children with appendiceal abscesses. However,
persistent fever, pain, or leukocytosis after percu-
taneous abscess drainage suggests that further
imaging may be needed. CT is most commonly
used to monitor the adequacy of drainage, as well
as the development of new abscesses. If CT im-
ages show that the abscess is completely drained,
a decision to remove the catheter may be made,
depending on the presence or absence of contin-
ued drainage. However, if CT images show in-
complete resolution of the abscess in spite of opti-
mal catheter positioning, then catheter patency
should be reassessed with a 5- to 10-mL saline
flush. If the catheter is patent and well positioned
but the abscess persists, the catheter should be
exchanged for a larger catheter (Fig 9). Locking
Figure 8. Imaging-guided drainage of a pancreatic abscess in a 16-year-old male patient. (a) Axial CT image
shows an abscess (curved arrows) anterior to the pancreas and posterior to the stomach (open arrow), with unopaci-
fied loops of small bowel located laterally (solid straight arrows). (b) Axial CT image shows the placement of a cath-
eter (open arrow) via a percutaneous route (solid arrow).
Figure 9. Imaging-guided drainage of persistent abscess in a 13-year-old female patient after appendectomy (same
patient as in Fig 4). Despite diminished catheter output and initial improvement in the patient’s condition after initial
percutaneous drainage, a low-grade fever persisted at 10 days. (a) Axial CT image shows a persistent fluid collection
(arrows) around the catheter, a finding that indicates an extension of the abscess into the psoas muscle. (b) Fluoro-
scopic image shows a fluid collection (arrows) with a complex shape; despite the near-optimal position of the catheter
in the abscess, drainage was incomplete. The 8-F catheter was exchanged for a 12-F catheter, and, after 5 more days
of drainage, the abscess and clinical symptoms resolved.
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pigtail catheters as large as 14 F are available. In
general, the smallest catheter that should be
placed initially is 8 or 10 F, since pus is viscous
and will not drain effectively otherwise.
Adjuvant thrombolytic therapy may be used to
break down fibrin and facilitate drainage (23).
Streptokinase in a dose of 120,000 units and tis-
sue plasminogen activator in a dose of 2 to 10 mg
may be administered in normal saline solution.
Although there is little reported experience with
intracavitary tissue plasminogen activator, abun-
dant anecdotal evidence that accumulated when
urokinase was commercially unavailable, from
1998 to 2002, supports its use. Doses of tissue
plasminogen activator have not yet been stan-
dardized and vary among institutions. The vol-
ume of normal saline used may be as much as 50
mL, but it must be adjusted according to the size
of the abscess and the volume of fluid drained. A
200- to 300-mL abscess in an older child will ac-
commodate a 50-mL instillation, but a 30-mL
abscess in a younger child will not. The volume
instilled should be less than the volume of abscess
contents already removed, so as not to place the
abscess contents under excessive pressure and
risk sepsis. The thrombolytic agent is left inside
the abscess for 20 to 30 minutes and is then al-
lowed to drain. Treatment twice daily for 3 days
is generally effective. CT after a 3-day course may
be used to evaluate the effectiveness of thrombo-
lytic therapy and to guide further management.
In some patients with persistent or recurrent
symptoms, CT may show that the catheter has
been displaced and is either no longer in the ab-
scess or remains in the abscess but in a position
suboptimal for drainage. In these situations, the
catheter must be repositioned. CT also may de-
pict new and completely separate fluid collections
that must be drained before the patient’s clinical
condition will improve.
In some patients, a fistula may be suspected.
The presence of a fistula may be indicated by the
underlying disease process or the character of the
drained fluid. Conditions such as Crohn disease
or pancreatic duct injuries, which may occur after
surgery in the left upper abdominal quadrant, are
likely to be associated with fistulas. In addition,
the presence of a fistula may be signaled by a
change in the appearance of the drained fluid. In
the initial period of drainage, most abscesses yield
purulent fluid. However, after 2 or 3 days, most
of the pus will have drained, and if a fistula is
present, the fluid that follows it will have entered
the abscess cavity via the fistula. The drainage
volume may actually increase at this point, and
the appearance and viscosity of the fluid will
change as a result of its different origin. Fistulas
can arise in the gastrointestinal tract, the genito-
urinary tract, the biliary system, or the pancreatic
duct. When a fistula is suspected, a sinogram may
be useful for diagnosis and localization. If the sus-
pected fistula is in the bowel, CT may be per-
formed with oral contrast material to confirm the
diagnosis (Fig 10). Prolonged drainage may allow
a fistula to close, but in some cases surgery may
be necessary. In many situations, adjunctive pro-
cedures short of open surgery may facilitate fistula
healing. For example, in patients with infected
bilomas from trauma or iatrogenic causes, sphinc-
terotomy with endoscopic biliary stent placement
may be performed to facilitate internal drainage
of bile and minimize bile leakage into the abscess
cavity. Likewise, in patients with urinomas
formed by posttraumatic urine leaks, a ureteral
stent or a percutaneous nephrostomy catheter
may be placed to divert flow away from the uri-
noma and facilitate closure of the fistula. In pa-
tients with a high-output enteral fistula, prolonged
parenteral nutrition and exclusion of oral nutri-
tion may be necessary. Abscess recurrence after
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Figure 10. Unsuccessful drainage of multiple abscesses in a 15-year-old female patient with Crohn disease after
sigmoid colon resection and anastomosis creation. (a, b) Axial CT images obtained to determine the source of post-
operative fever show fluid collections (straight arrows in a) just above and posterior to the bladder (curved arrow
in a) and in the paracolic gutters (arrows in b). Because the enhanced peritoneum indicated inflammation, the fluid
had to be sampled for testing or drained. (c–e) Axial CT images show the insertion of a needle (arrows in c), guide
wire (arrows in d), and 10-F catheter (arrows in e) for drainage of the fluid near the bladder with the Seldinger tech-
nique. (Fluid in the paracolic gutters was drained with the trocar technique.) Despite triple antibiotic therapy and
drainage of all fluid collections, the fever did not resolve. (f–h) Axial CT images obtained with instillation of rectal
contrast material show enhancement and distention of the cavities that contain the two most caudal catheters
(straight arrows in f and g), as well as contrast material flowing into the peritoneum (curved arrows in g) and extend-
ing cephalad to the subhepatic space (curved arrows in h). Massive anastomotic leak was diagnosed, and the patient
underwent anastomotic revision.
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successful drainage is rare; it is found in less than
5% of patients (Fig 11). In some patients, re-
peated percutaneous drainage may be successful,
but other patients may eventually require surgery.
In rare cases, drainage failure may result from
misdiagnosis. Many conditions might cause tran-
sient leukocytosis and fever, symptoms that could
lead to the misinterpretation of CT findings as
abscesses. However, minimal fluid drainage and
little change in the appearance of the lesion on
images should prompt consideration of other di-
agnoses, such as low-density tumors (Fig 12).
Tumors, it must be remembered, also may be-
come infected, and percutaneous abscess drain-
age is indicated also for treatment of tumor ab-
scesses. In these abscesses, the catheters may have
to remain in place indefinitely unless the underly-
ing tumor resolves.
Organ-Specific Ab-
scesses and Their Causes
Peripancreatic fluid is a common CT finding in
patients with pancreatitis and does not require
intervention in most cases (24). Pancreatitis in
children is commonly the result of trauma but is
idiopathic in an estimated 30% (25); medications
are another frequent cause of pancreatitis. A stan-
dardized classification system has been developed
for fluid collections associated with pancreatitis,
in part to help guide therapy (26). Acute peripan-
creatic fluid collections are small, generally have a
triangular shape, and are associated with acute
Figure 11. Recurrent abscess in a 6-year-old female
patient with appendicolith. (a) Axial CT image ob-
tained 1 week after initial transrectal drainage shows
only the catheter (arrow) and no residual fluid, a finding
that, with the patient’s improved clinical status and low
catheter output, led to the removal of the catheter.
(b) Axial CT image at a level more cephalad than a
shows an appendicolith (arrow). (c) Axial CT image,
obtained when the patient returned with fever and pain
2 weeks after catheter removal, shows a recurrent abscess
(arrows) that may be secondary to the appendicolith.
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pancreatitis (25). In general, acute collections are
not infected. However, if superinfection of a
peripancreatic fluid collection is suspected, per-
cutaneous imaging-guided needle aspiration may
be performed to obtain a specimen for culture
(Fig 13). By definition, a pancreatic abscess is any
peripancreatic fluid collection that is infected
Figure 12. Drainage failure due to misdiagnosis of a pelvic lesion in a 6-year-old female patient transferred from an
outside hospital for treatment. (a) Axial CT image from the outside hospital shows an apparent pelvic abscess (ar-
rows), in which transrectal drainage was subsequently performed. (b) Axial contrast-enhanced CT image obtained
because of scant drainage 4 days after the procedure shows irregularly enhanced contents and no change in the size of
the apparent abscess, which was subsequently diagnosed as a dysgerminoma.
Figure 13. Fluid collection in a 6-year-old female patient with pancreatitis. (a) Axial CT image shows a peripan-
creatic fluid collection (arrows) that extends caudad in the abdomen and pelvis, in a location in which percutaneous
drainage is indicated only for an infected abscess. Because pancreatitis may cause fever, leukocytosis, and peripancre-
atic fluid accumulation even without the presence of infection, needle aspiration was performed and Gram stains were
analyzed to determine whether complete drainage was necessary. (b) CT fluoroscopic image shows needle placement (ar-
rows) in a retroperitoneal fluid collection in the paranephric space. Three other fluid collections (not shown) also
were aspirated. Gram stains showed no white blood cells or organisms, and drainage therefore was unnecessary.
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(26). In infected fluid collections, percutaneous
drainage is indicated (Fig 14). Alternatively, the
abscess may be surgically drained. A pancreatic
pseudocyst requires 4 to 6 weeks to form, and
most resolve spontaneously (27). Many are
asymptomatic. Drainage is indicated only if the
patient is symptomatic or demonstrates signs of
bowel or biliary obstruction. Pancreatic necrosis
also may result in collections of material with the
attenuation of fluid at CT. This necrotic material,
however, is very viscous and often does not drain
completely via catheter. If the area of necrosis is
not infected, then the recommended treatment is
supportive care. If the area becomes infected,
then surgery is indicated. In some cases, the ne-
crotic tissue liquefies and is then amenable to
catheter drainage.
Pyogenic hepatic abscesses are rare (⬍1% inci-
dence) in children, and their origin is usually he-
matogenous. They are most common in children
who are immunocompromised, but they can oc-
cur also after portoenterostomy or umbilical vein
catheterization. Gallbladder disease also may re-
sult in hepatic abscesses. Small abscesses may
respond to antibiotics without drainage, and
drainage is typically reserved for very large ab-
scesses or those that do not respond to antibiotic
therapy alone (28). Entamoeba histolytica is the
most common cause of hepatic abscesses world-
wide. Diagnosis is based on the results of sero-
logic testing, and amoebic abscesses are generally
treated with metronidazole alone, without percu-
taneous or surgical drainage. Percutaneous drain-
age is performed, however, if pyogenic superin-
fection of an amoebic hepatic abscess is suspected
(29). It also may be performed in an abscess that
is under extreme pressure, to prevent rupture and
discharge of the abscess contents into the chest
cavity or peritoneum (29).
Splenic abscesses (Fig 15) are even rarer than
hepatic abscesses. Most are immunosuppression
associated, are very small, and do not require
catheter drainage. Large splenic abscesses, how-
Figure 14. Imaging-guidance drainage of multiple ab-
scesses in a 10-year-old renal transplant patient with pancre-
atitis and bowel fistula. (a) Axial CT image shows two cath-
eters placed in partially drained abscesses (arrows). (b) Axial
CT image at a level caudad to a shows a third abscess that
contains oral contrast material (arrows), a finding that signi-
fies a bowel leak. (c) Sinogram helps confirm the communica-
tion of the abscess with the bowel and depicts a fistula (arrows)
that is probably secondary to bowel wall digestion by pancre-
atic enzymes. Although pancreatic abscesses often communi-
cate with the pancreatic duct, no contrast enhancement of the
duct is evident in this case. The fistula healed after prolonged
drainage (2 months), and surgery was avoided.
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ever, may be treated with drainage (30). Reports
of successful drainage in infected hematomas sub-
sequent to splenic salvage surgery have been pub-
lished, in parallel with the increasingly conserva-
tive management of splenic trauma (31).
Renal abscesses may develop as a complication
of pyelonephritis or nephrolithiasis, or they may
be hematogenous (32–34). Superinfection of an
existing renal cyst, however, is rare in children. As
with hepatic and splenic abscesses, small renal
abscesses may respond to antibiotics alone,
whereas larger abscesses require drainage (32,33).
Outcomes of Percutaneous
Abscess Drainage in Children
The American College of Radiology has reported
an 80% success rate for percutaneous abscess
drainage in adults, with success defined as com-
plete drainage with no further procedures re-
quired (1). Although the literature about percuta-
neous drainage in children is more limited, the
available data suggest similar outcomes (2–5,16,
17,19). Complications occur in less than 5% of
pediatric patients, and major complications occur
in less than 1%. In the English-language litera-
ture, the largest study of abscess drainage in chil-
dren is that by Jamieson et al (17), who reported
59 drainage procedures (34 percutaneous, 25
transrectal) and five needle aspirations for treat-
ment of appendiceal abscesses in 46 children.
Only four of the 46 (9%) experienced no im-
provement after abscess drainage and intravenous
administration of antibiotics. In reports of percu-
taneous abscess drainage in children, appendicitis
is the most commonly cited cause of abscess (2–
5,16,17,19).
Reported complications of percutaneous drain-
age in children are rare. Jamieson et al (17) re-
ported a single colonic fistula that healed after
prolonged drainage. Towbin et al (3) reported
two complications among nine drainage proce-
dures; one patient developed sepsis after drain-
age, and another developed a small pleural fistula
that resolved without treatment. Stanley et al (2)
reported no complications in 13 pediatric pa-
tients, and vanSonnenberg et al (4) reported one
episode of pulmonary hemorrhage and one case
of pericatheter oozing.
Conclusions
Imaging-guided percutaneous drainage is a safe
and effective treatment for abscesses in children.
Interventional radiologists may use US, fluoros-
copy, and CT for guidance of catheter placement
in numerous locations in the abdomen and pelvis.
Physicians, nurses, and technologists in the inter-
ventional suite should be trained to address the
specific needs of pediatric patients. After catheter
placement, the performance of daily hospital
rounds and the judicious use of follow-up imag-
ing will help to optimize patient outcomes. Ex-
change or repositioning of the catheter, or inser-
tion of an additional catheter, as well as adjuvant
thrombolytic therapy, may be needed to achieve
complete drainage.
Figure 15. Splenic abscesses in a 3-year-old female patient. (a) Axial T1-weighted MR image shows a large fluid
collection (straight arrows) with a small satellite abscess (curved arrows) anterior to it. (b) Axial T1-weighted MR
image shows the positions of two catheters during drainage. Drained pus was found at laboratory analysis to contain
Bartonella henselae, the organism associated with catscratch disease.
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This article meets the criteria for 1.0 credit hour in category 1 of the AMA Physician’s Recognition Award. To obtain
credit, see www.rsna.org/education/rg_cme.html.
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