Description of the soybean pod gall midge, Asphondylia yushimai sp. n. (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), a major pest of soybean and findings of host alternation

Abstract

The soybean pod gall midge is an important pest of soybean in Japan and is known to occur also in Indonesia and China. This gall midge is described from Japan as Asphondylia yushimai sp. n. and is clearly distinguished from its congeners by the arrangement of the lower frontal horns of the pupa and the sequence of the mtDNA COI region. It is concluded that Prunus zippeliana Miquel is a winter host of the soybean pod gall midge since haplotypes of the soybean pod gall midge coincide with those of the Prunus fruit gall midge that produces fruit galls on P. zippeliana. In addition, phenological and distributional information on the two gall midges and on their host plants supports the identification of the winter host. In Japan, the soybean pod gall midge overwinters as a first instar in the fruit galls on P. zippeliana and emerges as an adult from the galls in May. In summer and autumn, the soybean pod gall midge has two or more generations in the pods of soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merrill or wild fabaceous and caesalpiniaceous plants. Thus host alternation by A. yushimai is confirmed. This is the second finding of host alternation by a species of Asphondylia, the first instance being that of Asphondylia gennadii (Marchal) in Cyprus.

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Bulletin of Entomological Research (2003) 93, 73–86 DOI: 10.1079/BER2002218
Description of the soybean pod gall
midge, Asphondylia yushimai sp. n.
(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), a major pest of
soybean and findings of host alternation
J. Yukawa
1
*, N. Uechi
2
, M. Horikiri
3
and M. Tuda
4
1
Entomological Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture,
Kyushu University, Fukuoka 812–8581, Japan:
2
Entomological Laboratory,
Graduate School of Bioresource and Bioenvironmental Sciences, Kyushu
University, Fukuoka 812-8581, Japan:
3
Akasegawa, Akune, Kagoshima 899-
1611, Japan:
4
Institute of Biological Control, Faculty of Agriculture,
Kyushu University, Fukuoka 812-8581, Japan
Abstract
The soybean pod gall midge is an important pest of soybean in Japan and is
known to occur also in Indonesia and China. This gall midge is described from
Japan as Asphondylia yushimai sp. n. and is clearly distinguished from its congeners
by the arrangement of the lower frontal horns of the pupa and the sequence of the
mtDNA COI region. It is concluded that Prunus zippeliana Miquel is a winter host
of the soybean pod gall midge since haplotypes of the soybean pod gall midge
coincide with those of the Prunus fruit gall midge that produces fruit galls on P.
zippeliana. In addition, phenological and distributional information on the two gall
midges and on their host plants supports the identification of the winter host. In
Japan, the soybean pod gall midge overwinters as a first instar in the fruit galls on
P. zippeliana and emerges as an adult from the galls in May. In summer and
autumn, the soybean pod gall midge has two or more generations in the pods of
soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merrill or wild fabaceous and caesalpiniaceous plants.
Thus host alternation by A. yushimai is confirmed. This is the second finding of host
alternation by a species of Asphondylia, the first instance being that of Asphondylia
gennadii (Marchal) in Cyprus.
Introduction
The genus Asphondylia (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)
contains at least 250 nominal species in the world, most
often responsible for bud, flower and fruit galls on various
plant species (see lists in Skuhravá, 1986; Gagné, 1989, 1994).
Most of them are monophagous or oligophagous within a
single plant genus, whilst some others have a host range
across different plant genera within a single plant family
(e.g. Skuhravá, 1986; Gagné, 1994). In addition, there is an
example of polyphagy across different plant families (Harris,
1975). However, identifications of monophagous or
oligophagous species based on the host range due to
morphological similarities are likely to be unreliable when
gall midges appear to be polyphagous or to exhibit host
alternation between different plant families. In order to
resolve such unreliability, DNA analysis is considered to be
an effective tool when combined with ecological,
distributional, and morphological information.
Eighty-four years ago, Kanzawa (1918) first recorded the
soybean pod gall midge in Yamanashi Prefecture, central
Japan and identified it as Asphondylia sp. He noted that
females laid their eggs inside young pods of soybean,
*Fax: 81 (092) 642 2837
E-mail: jyukawa@agr.kyushu-u.ac.jp
Contribution from the Entomological Laboratory, Faculty of
Agriculture, Kyushu University, Fukuoka (ser. 5, no. 84)

Glycine max (L.) Merrill (Fabaceae) and that the yield of
soybean was considerably reduced owing to the
malformation of pods by larval infestations (see
photographs, C-344a and c, in Yukawa & Masuda, 1996 of an
infested pod and an adult of the gall midge). Thereafter,
similar infestations of the gall midge were reported from
various localities in Japan (Yuasa & Kumazawa, 1937; Naito,
1964; Yukawa, 1983) excluding Hokkaido and Okinawa
Prefecture. The soybean pod gall midge has been considered
to be one of the major pests of soybean in Japan (Chiku &
Miyashita, 1957; Shibuya, 1981b, 1997; Yazawa et al., 1982;
Nagai & Tsuboi, 1983; Yukawa & Masuda, 1996). This gall
midge was recorded also from Indonesia (Nakayama, 1982)
and China (Chen & Bai, 1987), but its pest status in those
countries is unclear.
Besides soybean, seven wild plants of Fabaceae and one
of Caesalpiniaceae (both families were previously included
in Leguminosae) were recorded as summer–autumn hosts of
the soybean pod gall midge in Japan (table 1; Yuasa &
Kumazawa, 1937; Tamura, 1952; Shibuya, 1981a). On
cultivated soybean and on these wild hosts,
summer–autumn generations of the gall midge have been
extensively studied on many occasions (Tamura, 1942, 1952;
Shibuya & Maebara, 1953; Shibuya & Ouchi, 1955; Shibuya,
1981a; Matsui & Kisimoto, 1982; Matsui, 1987). However, the
overwintering site of the gall midge was unknown since
soybean and the other summer–autumn hosts (table 1) die
back completely and the emergent autumn generation has
nowhere to lay their eggs on those hosts. They therefore
require some alternative hosts on which to lay their eggs.
In addition to the soybean pod gall midge, at least five
named and 13 undetermined species of Asphondylia are
found in Japan (Yukawa, 1971; Yukawa & Masuda, 1996).
Most of the undescribed species are morphologically very
similar to one another (Yukawa, 1971, 1984). These
undescribed species are multivoltine. An incomplete
knowledge of the annual life cycle of these species makes it
difficult to identify the summer–autumn and winter–spring
host plants (Yukawa, 1980). The possibility of host
alternation by the soybean pod gall midge was considered
since there is an earlier example of host alternation by
Asphondylia gennadii (Marchal) in Cyprus. It utilizes carob
(Fabaceae) as a winter host, and many other plants,
including pepper (Solanaceae), caper (Capparidaceae), and
squill (Liliaceae) as summer hosts (Harris, 1975; Orphanides,
1975). To determine whether a similar situation occurred in
Japan, field surveys and experiments were attempted to
detect winter hosts of the soybean pod gall midge (Ohsako et
al., 1980; Yukawa, 1980, 1982; Yukawa et al., 1981, 1983).
These attempts provided only indirect evidence of host
alternation. In particular, a host-transfer experiment in a
cage (2  2  2 m) was not successful because females of
Asphondylia gall midges that were tested required a large
space for pre-oviposition flight after mating (Yukawa et al.,
1983).
The lack of overwintering information and the
morphological similarity postponed species identification of
the soybean pod gall midge for many years (Yukawa, 1984),
although there were some attempts to identify the gall midge
(E.P. Felt, a letter to Kanzawa in 1918; Yuasa & Kumazawa,
1937; Yukawa, 1985; Gagné & Orphanides, 1992).
In spite of these difficulties, the current morphological
studies, DNA sequencing of several Asphondylia gall midges,
and their ecological data have finally allowed the authors to
show that the soybean pod gall midge is a distinct species
and utilizes winter and summer–autumn hosts alternately.
In this paper, the authors describe the soybean pod gall
midge as a new species of the genus Asphondylia, identify its
winter host, and outline host alternation by this gall midge.
Materials and methods
Collection and preservation of specimens
Yukawa & Masuda (1996) have been searching for insect
galls in Japan over a period of more than 30 years and found
eight Asphondylia gall midges that produced galls on ten
plant species in winter. Prunus zippeliana Miquel (Rosaceae),
Hedera rhombea (Miquel) Bean (Araliaceae), and Weigela spp.
(Caprifoliaceae) were chosen from the list as potential winter
hosts for the soybean pod gall midge (table 2), because they
are very common; their distribution ranges largely overlap
with that of the soybean pod gall midge (Horikawa, 1972),
and these plants have live tissue during the winter months
which should support gall midge larvae. Phenological
information on gall midge emergence and the flowering or
fruiting seasons of their host plants also played a part in the
choice of candidate plants. In this paper, an English name is
given to each segregate on respective candidate plants and
organs (table 2).
Fruit or bud galls produced on the candidate plants were
collected from various localities in Japan (fig. 1). Some of the
galls collected were dissected under a binocular microscope.
Mature larvae or pupae were picked out of the galls and
divided into two groups. One group was placed in 70–75%
ethanol for morphological studies and another in 99.5%
acetone for DNA analysis. In order to avoid contamination
with internal or external parasitoid larvae in the DNA
analysis, parasitized midge larvae or pupae that were
readily distinguishable were excluded. The remaining galls
were not dissected but kept in plastic containers (10 cm in
diameter, 6 cm in depth) to rear adult midges. Emerged
adults were put into 70–75% ethanol or 99.5% acetone for
morphological studies and DNA analysis, respectively.
Larval and pupal specimens of an Asphondylia on chilli
were collected from Padang, Sumatra, Indonesia in
September 2001 and taken to Japan with permission from
the Indonesian Institute of Sciences. In Indonesia, this gall
74 J. Yukawa et al.
Table 1. Plant families and species that have been considered
summer hosts of the soybean pod gall midge in Japan.
Fabaceae
Glycine max (L.) Merrill
Glycine soja Sieb. and Zucc.
1
Lespedeza bicolor Turcz.
Lespedeza thunbergii (DC.) Nakai
2
Desmodium podocarpum ssp. oxyphyllum (DC.) Ohashi
Desmodium racemosum (Thunb.) DC.
Indigofera pseudo-tinctoria Matum.
Sophora flavescens Ait.
Vicia amoena var. sachalinensis Fr. Schm.
Caesalpiniaceae
Chamaecrista nomame (Sieb.) Ohashi
1
There has been confusion in nomenclature. Sometimes the
names G. ussuriensis or G. max ssp. soja have been applied to this
species.
2
Lespedeza thunbergii should be excluded from the hosts of the
soybean pod gall midge. See discussion for summer hosts.

midge has been identified as Asphondylia capsici Barnes
(Aunu Rauf, 2001, personal communication; see also
Skuhravá, 1986 for the occurrence of A. capsici in the Oriental
Region). In this paper, however, the name A. gennadii is used
tentatively for the chilli pod gall midge in Indonesia,
because Gagné & Orphanides (1992) synonymized A. capsici
from Cyprus with A. gennadii.
In addition to collecting efforts of the authors, many
people cooperated in collecting Asphondylia galls and gall
midges at various localities in Japan.
The soybean pod gall midge, Asphondylia yushimai sp. n. 75
Table 2. Possible winter hosts of the soybean pod gall midge in Japan.
Plant family and species Galled part Asphondylia gall midge*
Rosaceae
Prunus zippeliana Miq. Fruit Prunus fruit gall midge
Araliaceae
Hedera rhombea (Miq.) Bean Flower bud Ivy flower bud gall midge
Fruit Ivy fruit gall midge
Caprifoliaceae
Weigela hortensis K. Koch Bud Weigela bud gall midge
Weigela coraeensis Thunb. Bud Weigela bud gall midge
Weigela japonica Thunb. Bud Weigela bud gall midge
*English names of Asphondylia gall midges that utilize the respective plant species. Among them, only the
weigela bud gall midge has been formally named as Asphondylia diervillae Felt (Shinji, 1938). The others have
been left unnamed.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Hokkaido
Honshu
Shikoku
Kyushu
16,17,18
20
26
23
24
8
7
9
13
14
15
19
10,11
12
21
25
Okinawa Is.
22
Fig. 1. Collection sites of Asphondylia gall midges in Japan. Numerals indicate collection localities as follows (see also tables 3 and 6):
1, Osaki, Furukawa City, Miyagi Prefecture; 2, Mogasaki, Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture; 3, Akiu-ohtaki, Akiu Town, Miyagi Prefecture;
4, Konosu City, Saitama Prefecture; 5, Ohkubo, Urawa City, Saitama Prefecture; 6, Akigase, Urawa City, Saitama Prefecture; 7,
Kitashirakawa-oiwake, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto City; 8, Hagi City, Yamaguchi Prefecture; 9, Kamiyama Town, Myozai, Tokushima Prefecture;
10, Inunaki, Wakamiya Town, Fukuoka Prefecture; 11, Ino, Hisayama Town, Fukuoka Prefecture; 12, Yakuoji, Koga City, Fukuoka
Prefecture; 13, Oro-no-shima, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka Prefecture; 14, Izuhara Town, Nagasaki Prefecture; 15, Shikanoshima,
Higashi-ku, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka Prefecture; 16, Kashii, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka Prefecture; 17, Hakozaki, Higashi-ku,
Fukuoka City, Fukuoka Prefecture; 18, Minamikouen, Chuo-ku, Fukuoka City; Fukuoka Prefecture; 19, Yoshiki, Chikushino City,
Fukuoka Prefecture; 20, Suya, Nishigoshi Town, Kikuchi, Kumamoto Prefecture; 21, Sagi-shima, Hozai Town, Nobeoka City, Miyazaki
Prefecture; 22, Kurino Town, Aira, Kagoshima Prefecture; 23, Shiroyama, Kagoshima City, Kagoshima Prefecture; 24, Korimoto,
Kagoshima City, Kagoshima Prefecture; 25, Kamifukumoto, Kagoshima City, Kagoshima Prefecture; 26, Shin-nishikata, Ibusuki City,
Kagoshima Prefecture.

76 J. Yukawa et al.
Table 3. Asphondylia gall midges used for DNA analysis.
Gall midge Host plant Galled part Specimens Collection site*
examined
Soybean pod gall midge Glycine max Pod 17 1, 3, 13, 21, 22, 23, 27, 28
Lespedeza pod gall midge Lespedeza bicolor Pod 4 1, 2
Prunus fruit gall midge Prunus zippeliana Fruit 9 19, 20, 26
Ivy fruit gall midge Hedera rhombea Fruit 8 14, 15, 17
Ivy flower bud gall midge Hedera rhombea Flower bud 4 13, 24
Asphondylia diervillae Weigela hortensis Bud 6 12, 18
Asphondylia gennadii Capsicum annuum Pod 5 Padang, Sumatra, Indonesia
*See fig. 1 for the location of collecting sites in Japan.
Morphological comparison among Asphondylia segregates
Larvae, pupae, and adults of Asphondylia gall midges that
had been stored in 70–75% ethanol were mounted on slides
in Canada balsam for microscopic study, based on the
techniques outlined both in Yukawa (1971) and in Gagné
(1989).
The numbers of fronto-clypeal and mesepimeral setae of
the slide-mounted adults were counted and compared
among several Japanese Asphondylia segregates. In addition,
the pupal frontal area was observed with a scanning electron
microscope (Hitachi, S-3000N, Japan) for ultrastructural
differences in morphology.
In June 2001, the soybean pod gall midge was compared
at the Department of Entomology, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington DC, USA with Asphondylia websteri Felt, which is
the only Asphondylia species responsible for pod galls on
fabaceous plants in the USA. The slide-mounted specimens
of Fabaceae-infesting Asphondylia gall midges were also
examined at the Natural History Museum, London, UK in
1973–1974 and at Instituut voor Plantenziektenkundig
Onderzoek, Wageningen, The Netherlands in 1974.
DNA analysis
Target gall midges
Partial mtDNA gene fragments were sequenced for the
Asphondylia gall midges listed in table 3. As mentioned
earlier, their host plants were suspected to be potential
candidates as winter hosts for the soybean pod gall midge.
At the same time, the partial mtDNA gene was sequenced
for an Indonesian Asphondylia from chilli pod galls that was
tentatively identified as A. gennadii. Gagné & Orphanides
(1992) had earlier pointed out the similarities between the
soybean pod gall midge and A. gennadii.
DNA extraction, amplification and sequencing
At least four individuals of each segregate were used for
DNA analysis (table 3). For every individual, total DNA was
extracted from the whole body with the Dneasy tissue kit
(Qiagen, Japan), following the manufacturer’s instructions.
A region of the cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene of
mtDNA was amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
(Saiki et al., 1988) following the methods described by
Shirota et al. (1999). This region has been effectively used for
the analysis of intra- or inter- specific variations in various
insect orders: Coleoptera (Funk et al., 1995), Hymenoptera
(Danforth, 1999), Diptera (Shirota et al., 1999; Rodríguez-
Trelles et al., 2000), and Lepidoptera (Ozaki & Ohbayashi,
2001).
The primers used for the amplification were as follows:
forward; 5-GGATCACCTGATATAGCATTCCC-3 (COIS)
and reverse; 5-CCCGGTAAAATTAAAATATAAACTTC-3
(COIA) (Funk et al., 1995). The amplified products were
purified with QiAquick PCR purification kits (Qiagen,
Japan) following the manufacturer’s instructions. The
purified products were sequenced by the dideoxy-
nucleotide cycle sequencing procedure with the
Dye-Terminator cycle sequencing kit (Perkin-Elmer,
Warrington, UK) and TGRADIENT thermal cycler
(Biometrica). Sequencing electrophoresis was done on an
11% Long Ranger
TM
gel with a LIC-4200S-2 automated DNA
sequencer (Aloka Co. Ltd, USA). Both strands of the PCR
products were sequenced. The nucleotide sequence data
reported in this paper will appear in the DNA Data Bank of
Japan, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, and
GenBank nucleotide sequence databases with the following
accession numbers AB085773–AB085787, AB085856–AB085885,
AB085930–AB085934, AB086426–AB086429.
Molecular phylogenetic analysis
The sequence data were analysed by the maximum
parsimony (MP), neighbour-joining (NJ), and maximum
likelihood (ML) methods. A neighbour-joining tree was
constructed by the NEIGHBOR program from PHYLIP
based on Kimura’s two-parameter distances (Kimura, 1980).
The distances were calculated using the DNADIST program
from PHYLIP. Bootstrap values were based on 1000
replications by the neighbour-joining method. A maximum
parsimony tree and a maximum likelihood tree are not
shown in this paper, since they are quite similar to the
neighbour-joining tree.
Pseudasphondylia matatabi (Yuasa & Kumazawa) (Diptera:
Cecidomyiidae) that is responsible for fruit galls on Actinidia
polygama (Siebold & Zuccarini) Planchon & Maximowicz
(Actinidiaceae) was used as an outgroup in the above
analysis .
Age structure and emergence season of the Prunus
fruit gall midge
Based on the results of DNA analysis, P. zippeliana was
investigated as a possible winter host of the soybean pod
gall midge. Although the partial life history of the Prunus
fruit gall midge was briefly outlined in Yukawa & Masuda
(1996), its emergence was monitored on a single tree at

Minami Park, Fukuoka City every other day from 29 April to
25 May 2000. In this survey of 523 galls, about 100 galls were
parasitized or dropped to the ground.
Old emergence data taken in Shiroyama, Kagoshima City
were investigated. The age structure of the Prunus fruit gall
midge was examined under a binocular microscope by
dissecting galls collected occasionally from Shiroyama during
the period from November 1977 to June 1978. The numbers of
first, second, and third instar larvae, pupae, and emerged
adults (counted as exit holes) were recorded at each sampling
date and their relative abundance was calculated. Adult
emergences were monitored from 19 April to 6 May 1978 for a
total of 106 galls produced on five host trees in Shiroyama.
Unfortunately, about 60 out of the 106 galls studied were
parasitized or dropped to the ground during the survey.
Earliest oviposition season on soybean
To assess the earliest oviposition season of the soybean
pod gall midge during the year, soybean seeds cv.
Wasemidori were sown in a crop field at the Kagoshima
Agricultural Experiment Station repeatedly during March
and April of 1980, 1981 and 1982, respectively. These sowing
dates were deliberately made earlier than the normal
cultivation season for soybean in northern and central
Kagoshima Prefecture, because it was suspected that the
soybean pod gall midge might migrate to wild fabaceous
plants earlier in the year. In May and July, 60–70 days after
sowing (= young pod stage, 10–20 days after flowering),
1000 soybean pods (at least 2500 beans) were examined on
every census date to detect midge larvae or pupae.
Dispersal ability of the soybean pod gall midge
In May 1980, 36 soybean seeds cv. Wasemidori were sown
in 12 pots (three seeds per pot) at Kagoshima Agricultural
Experiment Station and moved to Yojirogahama, Kagoshima
City in June 1980 before they were in bud. At that time, a
large area of Yojirogahama was barren land that had been
reclaimed from the sea in the 1970s and was at least 4 km
away from neighbouring soybean fields or vegetated areas.
The presence or absence of soybean pods infested by midge
larvae was examined in July 1980 in order to assess the
dispersal ability of the soybean pod gall midge.
Distributional information
Distributional information on the respective Asphondylia
gall midges was obtained from the collecting data mentioned
earlier. In Yukawa & Masuda (1996), the distribution range of
the ivy fruit gall midge was mixed with that of the ivy flower
bud gall midge since they were considered to be identical at
that time. In this paper, their distribution range was re-
examined through a literature survey as the DNA analysis
revealed that they should be treated as separate species.
Asphondylia yushimai Yukawa & Uechi sp. n.
Japanese name: Daizu Saya Tamabae.
English name: the soybean pod gall midge.
Generic synopsis of Asphondylia: see Gagné (1989) and Gagné &
Waring (1990).
Description. Male. Eye bridge 8 to 14 facets long medially. Palpus
consisting of 2 segments; first palpal segment 2.0 to 2.6 times as long
as wide; second 1.7 to 2.2 times as long as first. Basal enlargement of
fifth flagellomere 4.2 to 5.0 times as long as wide. Wing length 3.0 to
3.6 mm, 2.5 to 2.7 times as long as wide; R
5
meeting with costa
beyond wing apex; 2 sensory pores on distal portion of R
1
, 1 on basal
and 2 or 3 on medial to subdistal portion of R
5
. Fore leg with femur
nearly as long as tibia and a little longer than second tarsomere,
fourth tarsomere 1.8 to 2.0 times as long as fifth; middle leg with
femur nearly as long as or slightly shorter than tibia and distinctly
longer than second tarsomere, fourth tarsomere 1.6 to 1.8 times as
long as fifth; hind leg with femur nearly as long as tibia and
distinctly longer than second tarsomere, fourth 1.7 to 2.0 times as
long as fifth; empodia nearly as long as or slightly shorter than claws
in all legs. Genitalia showing the typical shape for Asphondylia; cerci
divided into 2 lobes; tegmen rather deeply emarginated dorsally,
rather shallowly emarginated ventrally; gonostylus subglobular,
apically with a sclerotized and bidentate tooth; aedeagus laterally
sclerotized, distally tapering, basally with a rather weakly
sclerotized plate-like structure, which is developed into a pair of
small lobes caudo-laterally and connected laterally to inner portion
of gonocoxite. See table 4 for setal counts on various sclerites and
table 5 for measurements of wing, palpus, and flagellomeres.
Female. Basal enlargement of fifth flagellomere 3.8 to 5.3 times as
long as wide. Wing length 3.7 to 4.3 mm, about 2.5 times as long as
wide. Fourth tarsomere of fore leg about 1.6 times as long as fifth;
those of middle and hind legs 1.1 to 1.3 times as long as fifth.
Ovipositor showing the typical shape for Asphondylia; needle part of
ovipositor 1.04 to 1.43 mm, 1.8 to 2.4 times as long as the length of
seventh sternite. Otherwise practically as in male. Setal counts on
The soybean pod gall midge, Asphondylia yushimai sp. n. 77
Table 4. Numbers of fronto-clypeal and mesepimeral setae for Asphondylia species.
Gall midges Male Female
n Mean±s.d. Range n Mean±s.d. Range
Fronto-clypeal setae
Asphondylia yushimai on Glycine max 19 38.3±9.2 18–53 14 37.6±6.4 25–49
Asphondylia yushimai on G. soja 8 36.9±4.3 31–45 1 39.0 39
Asphondylia yushimai on Lespedeza spp. 7 30.4±8.9 21–46 5 31.6±6.4 26–39
Asphondylia yushimai on Prunus 10 39.0±8.8 22–54 8 49.3±6.4 41–60
Asphondylia sp. on Hedera fruit 10 31.6±4.3 26–38 9 35.2±3.8 32–44
Asphondylia sp. on Hedera flower bud 8 22.8±5.6 15–32 9 31.1±6.2 20–38
A. diervillae on Weigela spp. 5 39.6±10.7 22–48 7 35.7±10.3 25–52
Mesepimeral setae
Asphondylia yushimai on Glycine max 28 31.0±4.8 22–37 20 33.8±5.6 26–48
Asphondylia yushimai on G. soja 10 34.4±4.6 28–40 1 37.0 37
Asphondylia yushimai on Lespedeza spp. 6 32.0±6.0 25–42 5 34.0±5.1 27–40
Asphondylia yushimai on Prunus 11 26.7±5.7 16–37 11 33.9±3.9 28–42
Asphondylia sp. on Hedera fruit 11 25.9±4.3 21–33 11 31.3±5.4 25–44
Asphondylia sp. on Hedera flower bud 17 37.9±5.8 30–42 15 31.3±6.8 32–53
A. diervillae on Weigela spp. 8 46.4±4.1 38–51 12 45.8±11.0 22–58

78 J. Yukawa et al.
Table 5. Asphondylia yushimai sp. n.: measurements of wing, palpus, and flagellomeres in m.
Male Female
n mean s.d. range n mean s.d. range
Wing length 27 3023.4 388.4 2500–3688 21 3681.8 347.9 3125–4250
Wing width 24 1101.7 156.1 750–1438 21 1393.6 167.5 1125–1688
Length / width 24 2.8 0.3 2.2–3.6 21 2.7 0.1 2.4–2.9
1st palpal segment 22 68.3 7.7 60–90 19 73.4 7.1 60–85
2nd palpal segment 21 132.0 19.9 105–190 13 132.7 14.5 115–160
3rd flag. ds. 26 16.2 2.8 10–20 21 13.5 2.0 10–15
3rd flag. be. 26 223.1 17.8 185–265 21 203.7 13.9 180–225
3rd flag. w. 26 56.2 4.9 45–65 21 48.9 9.1 40–70
5th flag. ds. 26 16.3 2.5 12.5–20 21 12.9 2.1 10–15
5th flag. be. 26 223.9 17.9 185–265 21 196.3 14.0 170–220
5th flag. w. 26 54.0 6.0 42–68 21 46.0 8.0 40–65
7th sternite l. – – – – 19 601.6 46.2 510–690
Needle of ovip. – – – – 19 1238.9 125.7 1040–1430
be., basal enlargement; ds., distal stem; flag., flagellomere; l., length; ovip., ovipositor; w., width.
Fig. 2. Asphondylia yushimai sp. n., sternal spatula of larva.
Fig. 3. Asphondylia yushimai sp. n., sternal spatula and adjacent
papillae.
Table 6. Asphondylia yushimai sp. n.: list of slide-mounted specimens examined.
M F L P Host plant Locality Date of collection Leg. Cecid. no.
5800 Gm Konosu City, Saitama Prefecture 16–28 Oct. 1963 TN B2401-2413
8* 11 0 0 Gm Kamifukumoto, Kagoshima City 17–24 Oct. 1979 JY B2461-2479
00 010 Gm Kamifukumoto, Kagoshima City 5 Sep. 1981 JY B2417-2426
0040 Gm Kamifukumoto, Kagoshima City 21 May 1982 JY B2427-2430
6000 Gm Naze City, Kagoshima Prefecture 18 Oct. 1982 TO B2431-2436
0122 Gm Yoshiki, Chikushino City,
Fukuoka Prefecture 17 Sep. 2000 NU B2451-2455
0080 Pz Shiroyama, Kagoshima City 6 Mar. 1973 NO C0571-0578
C0501-0514
17 15 0 14 Pz Shiroyama, Kagoshima City 6–25 Apr. 1973 JY C0521-0530
C0544-0565
M, male; F, female; L, larva; P, pupa; Gm, Glycine max; Pz, Prunus zippeliana; JY, J. Yukawa; NO, N. Ohsaki; NU, N. Uechi; TN, T. Nambu;
TO, T. Ohtani.

various sclerites and measurements of wing, palpus, and
flagellomeres are given in tables 4 and 5, respectively.
Mature larva (figs 2, 3, see also fig. 2A in Yukawa, 1985). Second
antennal segment short, conical; 2 ventral and 2 lateral cervical
papillae each with a seta. Number and position of spiracles normal;
6 dorsal papillae each with a seta on all abdominal segments except
eighth (most outer papillae are included in pleural papillae in some
cases when they are close to stigmatal protuberance: see Möhn, 1955
and Yukawa, 1971); 2 pleural papillae present on each side, each
with a seta; 2 dorsal papillae of eighth abdominal segment each
with a seta; 2 of 6 terminal papillae somewhat cone-shaped, the
remaining 4 each with a short seta. Sternal spatula strongly
sclerotized, 225 to 270 m in length, 2.6 to 2.8 times as long as
maximum width, distally with 4 lobes, which are usually pointed
apically; outer lobes longer than inner lobes; width between tips of
2 outer lobes 60 to 85 m; sternal and inner pleural papillae each
with a seta on all thoracic segments; 3 inner and 2 outer lateral
papillae each with a seta on all thoracic segments; 2 anterior ventral
papillae and 2 posterior ventral papillae each with a seta; 2 ventral
papillae of eighth abdominal segment each with a seta; anal papillae
without setae.
Pupa (figs 4–6; see also figs. 2B, 2C and 2D in Yukawa, 1985).
Antennal horn long, strongly sclerotized, finely denticulate on inner
margin; upper frontal horn simple, strongly sclerotized, pointed
apically; lower frontal horn consisting of 3 pointed lobes, of which
outer 2 are a little longer and situated more anteriorly than central
lobe; usually a pair of lower facial papillae each with a short seta;
apical papillae with relatively long setae.
Material examined. Holotype,  (on slide, Cecid. No. B2461, an
infested soybean pod was collected from Kamifukumoto,
Kagoshima City, Japan in mid October 1979, an adult emerged on
17 October 1979); paratypes, 35 , 35 , 14 larvae, 26 pupae (on
slides, Cecid. Nos. B2401–2413, B2417–2436, B2451–2455,
B2462–2479, C0501–0514, C0521–0530, C0544–0565, C0571–0578, see
table 6 for host plant and collection data, and fig. 1 for the location of
collecting sites).
Distribution. Japan, China and Indonesia.
Etymology. The specific name, yushimai, honours the late Dr Takeshi
Yushima who was previously at the Kyushu National Agricultural
Experiment Station and supported these studies for many years in
various ways.
The soybean pod gall midge, Asphondylia yushimai sp. n. 79
Fig. 4. Asphondylia yushimai sp. n., ventral view of pupal head.
Fig. 5. Asphondylia yushimai sp. n., lateral view of pupal head.
Fig. 6. Asphondylia yushimai sp. n., pupa, dorsal view of
abdominal segments 5–8.

DNA analysis
The amplified mtCOI gene fragment was 439 bp in
length. This region corresponded to the bases 1752–2190 of
the genome of Drosophila yakuba Burla (Diptera:
Drosophilidae) (Clary & Wolstenholme, 1985).
Three haplotypes (haplotype 1, 2 and 3) were found in
the sequential variations of the soybean pod gall midge
(table 7). Differences between the three haplotypes were
very small, only 1 to 3 bp difference and there was no
difference in the 146 deduced amino acid residues. The
haplotypes were not representatives of geographical
variations but coexisted frequently within a population. In
particular, haplotype 1 was regarded as a Japanese standard,
since it was common among individuals collected from
various localities in Japan.
The Lespedeza pod gall midge was comprised of three
haplotypes and two of these proved to be identical with
haplotypes 1 and 2 of the soybean pod gall midge (table 7).
The Prunus fruit gall midge consisted of three haplotypes
and all of these proved to be identical with haplotypes 1, 2 or
3 of the soybean pod gall midge (table 7).
In the ivy fruit gall midge, there was no sequence
variation, which was only 2 or 3 bp different from the
soybean pod gall midge sequences (table 7). In addition,
amino acid residues did not differ between the ivy fruit gall
midge and the soybean pod gall midge.
In contrast, the ivy flower bud gall midge sequence was
distinctly different from that of the soybean pod gall midge
and from that of the ivy fruit gall midge (table 7). Weigela
bud gall midge and the chilli pod gall midge sequences were
also quite different from those of the soybean pod gall midge
(table 7).
A neighbour-joining tree (NJ tree) indicated that the gall
midges associated with soybean pod, Lespedeza pod, and
Prunus fruit should be combined into one species. The
analysis also showed that the weigela bud gall midge and
the chilli pod gall midge should not be included in the
cluster of A. yushimai (fig. 7).
Age structure and emergence season of the Prunus
fruit gall midge
Dissection of Prunus fruit galls collected in Kagoshima
City, Japan indicated that the larvae passed the winter as
first instars in the galls, developed through into second and
third instars in March, and pupated in April (fig. 8). Adults
started to emerge on 19 April and emergence continued until
30 April. The accumulated percentage of emergences
reached 50% on 23 April (fig. 9). There were no differences in
the emergence pattern between the five census trees.
At Minami Park, Fukuoka City, the emergence started on
3 May 2000 and continued until 23 May 2000 (fig. 9). The
50% emergence date was 9 May, six days after the
commencement of emergence.
Earliest oviposition season on soybean
In 1980 and 1981, infested beans were not found on
soybean plants that had been sown in early March, but were
found on those sown later in the season (fig. 10). In 1982,
infested beans were found on all soybean plants sown from
early March to mid April (fig. 10). These data indicated that,
when soybean was available, A. yushimai flew to the soybean
fields for oviposition in early to mid May (young pod
development, 60–70 days after sowing).
Dispersal ability of A. yushimai
On two of 36 soybean plants that had been cultivated in
pots at Yojirogahama, a total of seven galled pods were
found contained by mature larvae of Asphondylia. Although
galled pods were few in number, the existence of midge
larvae clearly indicated that at least one female of A.
yushimai had flown more than 4 km to lay eggs in the pods.
Geographical distribution
Asphondylia yushimai is known to occur in Japan (Honshu,
Shikoku and Kyushu, including Amami Island), China and
Indonesia. There are no records of A. yushimai from
Hokkaids and Okinawa Prefectures in Japan. The fruit gall
on P. zippeliona was previously known only from Kagoshima
Prefecture (Yukawa & Masuda, 1996), but it has since been
found in Kyoto City, Tokushima Prefecture, and Fukuoka
Prefecture (fig. 1). The fruit gall on H. rhombea was known to
occur in Fukuoka and Kagoshima Prefectures (Yukawa,
1976), where its existence was confirmed during the course
of this study. In addition, the fruit gall was obtained from
Kyoto City in March 1999, Izuhara, Tsushima Island,
Nagasaki Prefecture in April 2001, Hagi City, Yamaguchi
Prefecture in April 2001, and Tokushima Prefecture in May
2001 (fig. 1). In addition, Mr Shigeshi Usuba informed the
authors in December 2001 that the fruit galls were found in
Urawa City in 1975 and 1977.
Discussion
Morphological differences
Palaearctic Asphondylia species found on Fabaceae (sensu
lato) can be separated into two groups by distinctive features
of the frontal area of the pupa; one group has two or three
upper frontal horns and the other has a single upper frontal
horn (Gagné & Orphanides, 1992). Most Fabaceae- and
Caesalpiniaceae-infesting Asphondylia species belong to the
former group. These include Asphondylia sarothamni Loew
(Stelter, 1957), Asphondylia ervi Rübsaamen (Yukawa, 1985),
Asphondylia cytisi Frauenfeld, Asphondylia lupini Silvestri,
Asphondylia miki Wachtl, Asphondylia pongamiae Felt,
probably Asphondylia tephrosiae Mani (Gagné & Orphanides,
1992) and Asphondylia anatolica Skuhravá & Çam (Gagné &
Orphanides, 1992; Skuhravá & Çam, 1999).
The latter group includes Asphondylia capparis
Rübsaamen, A. capsici, A. gennadii, A. websteri, and the
soybean pod gall midge, Asphondylia yushimai. Asphondylia
websteri is distinguished from the others by the reduced
number of lateral papillae on each side of the larval spatula
(breastbone). Gagné & Orphanides (1992) synonymized A.
capsici with A. gennadii which has a wide host range
including carob (Fabaceae) as a winter host, and pepper
(Solanaceae), caper (Capparidaceae) and squill (Liliaceae) as
summer hosts (Harris, 1975; Orphanides, 1975). Gagné &
Orphanides (1992) suggested that, because of anatomical
similarities, A. capparis and the soybean pod gall midge
might be identical with A. gennadii.
However, the current morphological study revealed that
A. yushimai is distinguished from A. capparis and A. gennadii
80 J. Yukawa et al.

The soybean pod gall midge, Asphondylia yushimai sp. n. 81
Table 7. Sequence divergence of some Japanese Asphondylia gall midges based on Kimura‘s two-parameter method for COI gene sequences (below diagonal for nucleotide, above
diagonal for amino acid).
Gall midge* 1234567891011121314151617
1. Soy1 –0000000001.42.10.713.5 13.5 13.5 11.9
2. Soy2 0.2–000000001.42.10.713.5 13.5 13.5 11.9
3. Soy3 0.20.5–00000001.42.10.713.5 13.5 13.5 11.9
4. Les1 0 0.2 0.2 –0000001.42.10.713.5 13.5 13.5 11.9
5. Les2 0.2 0 0.5 0.2 –000001.42.10.713.5 13.5 13.5 11.9
6. Les3 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.9 1.6 –00001.42.10.713.5 13.5 13.5 11.9
7. Pru1 00.20.200.21.9–0001.42.10.713.5 13.5 13.5 11.9
8. Pru2 0.2 0 0.5 0.2 0 1.6 0.2 – 0 0 1.4 2.1 0.7 13.5 13.5 13.5 11.9
9. Pru3 0.2 0.5 0 0.2 0.5 1.6 0.2 0.5 – 0 1.4 2.1 0.7 13.5 13.5 13.5 11.9
10. IvyFr1 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.7 1.4 0.5 0.7 0.7 – 1.4 2.1 0.7 13.5 13.5 13.5 11.9
11. IvyFl 7.5 7.3 7.3 7.5 7.3 6.5 7.5 7.3 7.3 7.0 – 0.7 2.1 14.3 14.3 14.3 11.9
12. IvyFl2 6.5 6.8 6.3 6.5 6.8 6.0 6.5 6.8 6.3 6.0 0.9 – 2.8 13.5 13.5 13.5 12.7
13. Wei1 4.0 3.8 3.8 4.0 3.8 3.0 4.0 3.8 3.8 4.0 6.8 6.3 – 14.3 14.3 14.3 11.1
14. Chilli1 17.1 16.8 17.1 17.1 16.8 16.8 17.1 16.8 17.1 17.8 18.2 18.3 18.7 – 0 0 16.0
15. Chilli2 17.4 17.1 17.4 17.4 17.1 17.1 17.4 17.1 17.4 18.1 17.9 18.0 18.4 0.5 – 0 16.0
16. Chilli3 17.4 17.1 17.4 17.4 17.1 17.1 17.4 17.1 17.4 18.0 18.3 18.3 18.4 0.7 0.2 – 16.0
17. PM** 22.4 22.0 22.1 22.4 22.0 21.1 22.4 22.0 22.1 21.7 20.8 21.1 21.0 20.3 20.7 21.0 –
* Individual numbers of gall midge: 1. Soybean pod gall midge (haplotype 1); 2. ibid. (haplotype 2); 3. ibid. (haplotype 3); 4. Lespedeza pod gall midge (haplotype 1); 5. ibid.
(haplotype 2); 6. ibid. (haplotype 3); 7. Prunus pod gall midge (haplotype 1); 8. ibid. (haplotype 2); 9. ibid. (haplotype 3); 10. Ivy fruit gall midge (haplotype 1); 11. Ivy flower bud gall
midge (haplotype 1); 12. ibid. (haplotype 2); 13. Asphondylia diervillae on Weigela spp. (haplotype 1); 14. Chilli pod gall midge (haplotype 1); 15. ibid. (haplotype 2); 16. ibid. (haplotype
3); 17. Pseudasphondylia matatabi (haplotype 1).
** Outgroup: Pseudasphondylia matatabi (Cecidomyiidae) on Actinidia polygama (Actinidiaceae).
Dotted lines indicate the boundary between different species groups.

82 J. Yukawa et al.
0.1
100
99.9
99.8
99.6
90.6
97.1
96.7
95.5
93.8
97.2
87.1
P. matatabi
Chilli pod gall midge / Indonesia
Chilli pod gall midge / Indonesia
Chilli pod gall midge / Indonesia
Chilli pod gall midge / Indonesia
Chilli pod gall midge / Indonesia
Ivy flower bud gall midge / Fukuoka
Ivy flower bud gall midge / Kagoshima
Ivy flower bud gall midge / Kagoshima
Ivy flower bud gall midge / Kagoshima
A. diervillae on Weigela spp. / Fukuoka
A. diervillae on Weigela spp. / Fukuoka
A. diervillae on Weigela spp. / Fukuoka
A. diervillae on Weigela spp. / Fukuoka
A. diervillae on Weigela spp. / Fukuoka
A. diervillae on Weigela spp. / Fukuoka
Lespedeza pod gall midge / Miyagi
Lespedeza pod gall midge / Miyagi
Ivy fruit gall midge / Fukuoka
Ivy fruit gall midge / Fukuoka
Ivy fruit gall midge / Fukuoka
Ivy fruit gall midge / Fukuoka
Ivy fruit gall midge / Fukuoka
Ivy fruit gall midge / Fukuoka
Ivy fruit gall midge / Fukuoka
Ivy fruit gall midge / Fukuoka
Soybean pod gall midge / Fukuoka
Prunus fruit gall midge / Fukuoka
Soybean pod gall midge / Kagoshima
Soybean pod gall midge / Fukuoka
Soybean pod gall midge / Kumamoto
Soybean pod gall midge / Miyazaki
Prunus fruit gall midge / Fukuoka
Prunus fruit gall midge / Fukuoka
Lespedeza pod gall midge / Miyagi
Prunus fruit gall midge / Fukuoka
Prunus fruit gall midge / Fukuoka
Soybean pod gall midge / Kumamoto
Soybean pod gall midge / Kumamoto
Soybean pod gall midge / Miyagi
Soybean pod gall midge / Miyagi
Soybean pod gall midge / Miyagi
Soybean pod gall midge / Miyagi
Soybean pod gall midge / Miyagi
Soybean pod gall midge / Kagoshima
Soybean pod gall midge / Kagoshima
Soybean pod gall midge / Miyazaki
Soybean pod gall midge / Fukuoka
Soybean pod gall midge / Fukuoka
Lespedeza pod gall midge / Miyagi
Prunus fruit gall midge / Tokushima
Prunus fruit gall midge / Fukuoka
Prunus fruit gall midge / Fukuoka
Prunus fruit gall midge / Kagoshima
Fig. 7. Neighbour-joining tree based on 439 bp of the mitochondrial COI gene. Bootstrap values are indicated for nodes gaining more
than 80% support (1000 replications). Pseudasphondylia matatabi (Yuasa & Kumazawa) (Cecidomyiidae) on Actinidia polygama Sieb. &
Zucc. (Actinidiaceae) was used as an outgroup.

by the arrangement of the three lobes of the lower frontal
horn. The lobes are arranged in a horizontal row in the
Mediterranean species, while the central lobe is located
posterior to the two outer lobes in A. yushimai (fig. 4). Such a
non-linear arrangement of lobes of the lower frontal horn is
common in Japanese Asphondylia gall midges (Yukawa, 1971;
Yukawa & Miyamoto, 1979; N. Uechi & J. Yukawa, in
preparation). In addition, the DNA sequence indicated a
clear difference between A. yushimai in Japan and A. gennadii
(= A. capsici, the chilli pod gall midge) in Indonesia (table 7;
fig. 7). This evidence indicates that A. yushimai is distinct
from A. gennadii and A. capsici.
Winter host
Partial mtDNA gene fragments have been effectively
used for the analysis of intra- or inter-specific variations,
since they vary within a relatively short period of
evolutionary time (e.g. Funk et al., 1995; Danforth, 1999;
Shirota et al., 1999; Rodríguez-Trelles, 2000; Ozaki &
Ohbayashi, 2001). Therefore the coincidence of sequential
data between two segregates in that region indicates a strong
probability that they are identical species.
Following this probability, the Prunus fruit gall midge is
considered to be identical with A. yushimai based on the
coincidence of sequential variations between them (table 7;
fig. 7). As a consequence, Prunus zippeliana was identified as
a winter host of A. yushimai. The distribution range of P.
zippeliana covers the whole distribution range of A. yushimai
in Japan, except for northern Honshu. Because the northern
limit of P. zippeliana is in the Kanto District, central Honshu
(Horikawa, 1972), alternative winter hosts for A. yushimai
would be necessary in order for this species to occur in
northern Honshu.
The DNA sequence of the ivy fruit gall midge did not
completely coincide with that of A. yushimai, but the
differences were very small and there was no difference in
the amino acid residues (table 7). In addition, H. rhombea is
common and widely distributed from northern Honshu to
southern Kyushu (Horikawa, 1972). Therefore its fruit
would be a likely winter host in the absence of P. zippeliana
in northern Honshu if A. yushimai is conspecific. The
conspecificity of A. yushimai and this segregate cannot be
confirmed unless ivy fruit gall midge individuals that bear
sequential variations overlapping those of A. yushimai can be
found.
The soybean pod gall midge, Asphondylia yushimai sp. n. 83
0
25
50
75
100
23Feb 23Mar
1978
11Mar
3Apr
12Apr
n=88 n=48 n=99 n=58 n=34
Relative abundance (%)
Fig. 8. Changes in the age structure of Asphondylia yushimai
inhabiting fruit galls on Prunus zippeliana in Kagoshima City
( , first instar; , second instar; , third instar). Data on 30
November 1977 and 17 January 1978 are not indicated in this
figure since all larvae were in the first stadium.
12Apr 23Apr 30Apr
0
50
100
n = 29
0
50
100
29Apr 23May9May
n = 343
Cumulative % of adults emerged
a
b
Fig. 9. Cumulative percentage curves of adult emergences for
Asphondylia yushimai inhabiting fruit galls on Prunus zippeliana in
Kagoshima City in 1978 (a) and Fukuoka City in 2000 (b).

In contrast, the flower buds of H. rhombea and the leaf
buds of Weigela species are not considered to be
overwintering sites for A. yushimai, because there were
distinct differences in the sequences between A. yushimai
and the ivy flower bud gall midge or the weigela bud gall
midge (table 7; fig. 7).
Wild hosts in summer–autumn
During their intensive field surveys, Yuasa & Kumazawa
(1937) and Tamura (1952) recorded six wild species of
Fabaceae and one species of Caesalpiniaceae (table 1) as hosts
of A. yushimai. Based on the phenological data of the gall
midge, Tamura (1952) divided these plants into three
categories, pre-soybean host, simultaneous host, and post-
soybean host. Tamura (1952) also emphasized the
relationship of gall midge abundance on the wild hosts to the
degree of soybean infestation. Thereafter, these seven wild
species have been cited on many occasions as host plants of
A. yushimai (e.g. Naito, 1964; Yukawa & Masuda, 1996).
Shibuya (1981a) found pod galls on Lespedeza thunbergii
Nakai (Fabaceae) in Miyagi Prefecture. However, L. thunbergii
may be excluded from the host range of A. yushimai because
it is an ornamental plant and seldom produces pods. It is
possible that Lespedeza bicolor Turczaninov (Fabaceae) was
misidentified as L. thunbergii.
The current DNA analysis confirmed that two of three
haplotypes of Asphondylia on L. bicolor coincided with those
of A. yushimai on soybean (table 7; fig. 7). The coincidence of
the two haplotypes was considered supporting evidence
that L. bicolor is a summer host of A. yushimai, although the
remaining one haplotype was located outside the ivy fruit
gall midge haplotype. Thus, in terms of summer hosts, A.
yushimai was confirmed at the DNA level to be oligophagous
across different genera within the Fabaceae. The
oligophagous habit, together with the field data obtained by
Yuasa & Kumazawa (1937) and Tamura (1952), suggest a
possibility that all the remaining wild host plants should be
considered as summer hosts, although further DNA analysis
is needed for final confirmation.
Japanese multivoltine Asphondylia species and segregates
inhabiting summer–autumn host plants other than Fabaceae
and Caesalpiniaceae exhibit morphological similarities to A.
yushimai (Yukawa, 1971; Yukawa & Masuda, 1996). These
include for example Asphondylia baca Monzen on Ampelopsis
brevipedunculata (Maximowicz) Trautvetter (Vitaceae),
Asphondylia sp. on Helwingia japonica (Thunberg) F.G. Dietrich
(Cornaceae), and Asphondylia sp. on Rhus succedanea L.
(Anacardiaceae). However, there is no evidence at the DNA
level indicating that any of these are identical with A. yushimai
(N. Uechi & J. Yukawa, unpublished data). This means that A.
yushimai does not utilize plants other than Fabaceae and
Caesalpiniaceae for summer–autumn hosts in Japan.
Conclusions
Adults of A. yushimai emerge in May from P. zippeliana
fruit galls (fig. 9), but there are no flowers or young fruit on
P. zippeliana for them to oviposit into since the plant flowers
in autumn (Kitamura & Okamoto, 1971). Therefore they
must seek host plants other than P. zippeliana in which to
oviposit. Their target plants must be wild fabaceous plants
such as Sophora flavescens Aiton (Fabaceae) (pre-soybean host
in Tamura, 1952). Of course, soybean is attacked when it is
cultivated early in the season as demonstrated by the current
experiments (fig. 10), as well as those described by Matsui &
Kisimoto (1982) and Nagai & Tsuboi (1983).
After spending two or more generations on
summer–autumn hosts, adults of A. yushimai emerge in
middle to late autumn, but there are no young pods
available for them to oviposit on wild plants of Fabaceae and
Caesalpiniaceae (Ohsako et al., 1980). Instead they lay their
eggs in the young fruit of P. zippeliana, which is a common
tree species that flowers in the autumn (Kitamura &
Okamoto, 1971). The dispersal ability of A. yushimai seems to
be strong enough for them to search for a winter host away
from soybean fields and vice versa.
This is the second example of host alternation by an
Asphondylia species, the first being that of Orphanides (1975)
for A. gennadii in Cyprus. The current findings, together with
the example of A. gennadii, indicate that host alternation may
occur elsewhere in the genus Asphondylia and that morpho-
logically similar nominal species that utilize different groups
of host plant may be synonymized in the future by DNA
analysis.
It is likely that the discovery of the winter host may
contribute to the establishment of new control measures in
winter against A. yushimai.
84 J. Yukawa et al.
Beans infested (%)
15
10
5
14 Mar.
4 Apr.
22
Jul
9
Jul
I3
Jul
27
Jun
24 Mar.
15
10
5
15
10
5
14 Apr.
15
10
5
24 Apr.
x
15
10
5
13
M
23
M
3
Jun
13
Jun
23
Jun
Fig. 10. Percentage of Glycine max beans infested by Asphondylia
yushimai inhabiting soybean cv. Wasemidori sown in different
seasons during 1980. At least 2500 beans in 1000 pods were
examined for every census date. Arrows indicate the sowing
date; , Young pod season; x, pods were not examined.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express their thanks to Dr R.J. Gagné
and Dr K.M. Harris for their comments and critical reading
of an early draft, and to the late Dr T. Yushima and Dr K.
Umeya for their great support. The authors thank Mr S.
Yamashita who allowed them to use facilities in the
Kagoshima Agricultural Experiment Station. DNA was
analysed with the help of Professor H. Fujii and Associate
Professor Y. Banno, to whom the authors are deeply
indebted. Thanks are also due to all the people who helped
gather galls, provided information on gall midges, and
helped in field surveys and soybean pod dissection. They are
too numerous to mention by name.
References
Chen, Q.E. & Bai, J.K. (1987) An illustrated handbook of soybean
diseases and insect pests in China. pp. 204–205 (in Chinese).
Chiku, T. & Miyashita, T. (1957) On the insect injuries causing
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(Accepted 21 October 2002)
© CAB International, 2003
86 J. Yukawa et al.