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Depression, implicit memory, and self: A revised memory model of emotion
Abstract
Cognitive constructs are explored for clinical psychologists interested in cognitive phenomena in depression. Both traditional and modern memory constructs are outlined and described with attention to their contribution to understanding depression. In particular, the notions of memory construction, self-schemas, and autobiographical memory (per [Conway, M.A. (2001). Sensory-perceptual episodic memory and its context: Autobiographical memory. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London: Biological Sciences, 356, 1375-1384.]) are discussed. Then, the phenomenon of implicit memory is described as a way to bring these constructs together to understand depression. The Rehm and Naus (1990) [Rehm, L.P., and Naus, M.J. (1990). A memory model of emotion. In Ingram, R.E. (Ed.), Contemporary Psychological Approaches to Depression (pp. 23-35). New York: Plenum Press.] memory model of emotion is updated and expanded to include these cognitive constructs, and depression is viewed from the perspective of understanding interactions between explicit and implicit memory processes.
... Duygu ile anıların bir arada ele alındığı alanlardan bir tanesi de duygu düzenleme (affect regulation) işlevidir. [18] Burada genel kabul, duygusal kendini düzenlemenin hazza dayandığıdır. İnsanlar iyi hissetmek, iyi duygudurumda kalmak ve kötü duyguduruma sahipseler daha az kötü hissetmek isterler. ...
... Bu iki motivasyon çoğunlukla olumlu duygudurumu sürdürme (positive mood maintanence) ve olumsuz duygudurumu onarma (negative mood repair) olarak bilinir. [18] Duygu düzenleme otobiyografik belleğin temel işlevi olmayabilir, fakat daha önce bahsettiğimiz benlik, sosyal ve yol gösterme gibi birincil işlevlerinin önemli bir parçasıdır. [19] Benlik ve duygu ile ilişkili otobiyografik bellek, insanların istemedikleri duyguları azaltacak şekilde düzenlemesine (down regulation) izin veren geniş bir sistemin içinde çalışır. ...
... [13] Duygusal duruma bağlı etki, kişinin herhangi bir duygudurum sırasında yaşadıklarını, daha sonra yine o duygusal durumdayken daha iyi hatırlayacağı şeklinde tanımlamaktadır. [18] Burada duygu, hatırlama için bir bağlam görevi görmektedir. Burada hatırlanacak olayın duygudurumla benzer veya ilişkili olması gerekmez. ...
Self and mind are constituted with the cumulative effects of significant life events. This description is regarded as a given explicitly or implicitly in vari-ous theories of personality. Such an acknowledgment inevitably brings together these theories on two basic concepts. The first one is the emotions that give meaning to experiences and the second one is the memory which is related to the storage of these experiences. The part of the memory which is responsible for the storage and retrieval of life events is the autobiographical memory. Besides the development of personality, emotions and autobiographical memory are important in the development of and maintenance of psychopathology. Therefore, these two concepts have both longitudinal and cross-sectional functions in understanding human beings. In case of psychopathology, understanding emotions and autobiographical memory developmentally, aids in understanding the internal susceptibility factors. In addition, understanding how these two structures work and influence each other in an acute event would help to understand the etiological mechanisms of mental disorders. In the literature, theories that include both of these structures and that have clinical implications, are inconclusive. Theories on memory generally focus on cognitive and semantic structures while neglecting emotions, whereas theories on emotions generally neglect memory and its organization. There are only a few theories that cover both of these two concepts. In the present article, these theories that include both emotions and autobiographical memory in the same framework (i.e. Self Memory System, Associative Network Theory, Structural and Contextual theories and Affect Regulation Theory) were discussed to see the full picture. Taken together, these theories seem to have the potential to suggest data-driven models in understanding and explaining symptoms such as flashbacks, dissociation, amnesia, over general memory seen in post-traumatic stress disorder; and intrusions, ruminations, biases such as negative memory recall and being unable to recall positive memories seen in depression.
... Loftus et al., 1994;Mercer, 2014). However, substantial trauma research now exists on somatic memory (e.g., Allan & Levin, Ogden et al., 2006;Rothchild, 2000;Scaer, 2001;van der Kolk, 1994van der Kolk, , 2002van der Kolk, , 2014, including that spontaneous memories emerge when neurons and other cells are stimulated (Gelbard-Sagliv, et al., 2008;Verny, 2014), congruent with implicit memory theories (e.g., Barry, et al., 2006;Packard, et al., 2014). Traumatic events are more likely than ordinary memories to be stored in a statedependent manner, rendering them retrievable in the presence of a similar state or stimulus, including altered states that replicate prenatal conditions and play therapy interventions inviting children's normal-state re-enactments of pre-and peri-natal trauma (e.g., Allan & Levin, 1993;Ammaniti, 1991;Bundy-Myrow & Booth, 1993;Emerson, 1987Emerson, , 1996Emerson, , 1998Emerson, , 2000Emerson, , 2007Emerson, , 2020Jernberg, 1988;Lee, 2009). ...
... Complex memory tasks, such as preverbal and prenatal recall, are "best understood by considering the separate component systems involved in performing them-systems that each have their own processes, schemata, and neural bases" (Rubin, 2006, p. 302). Generative retrieval of preverbal and prenatal memories is possible, when someone purposefully searches their autobiographical knowledge, but so is direct retrieval, which produces spontaneous, unexpected autobiographical memory when a stimulus activates event-specific knowledge that spreads to the lifetime, which may or may not rise to the level of a coalesced "memory" (Barry et al., 2006). (For the sake of simplicity, the word memory will be used hereafter to describe recollections, whether implicit or explicit.) ...
This article examines a second set of data produced in a thematic analysis of 68 “earliest memory” narratives submitted to an independent website to explore the question: what do people who claim to remember how they came into the world say about their experience prior to and including birth? Part 1 examined the first and largest subset of the data, narratives of an otherworldly existence consistent with Western reincarnation intermission stage 2 experiences, near-death experience accounts and mythic traditions. This article thematically analyzes descriptions of life in the womb, birth, and apparently veridical out-of-body and other paranormal impressions of events surrounding birth, congruent with pre- and peri-natal psychology, especially early trauma. Surfacing and resolving such early memories may have greater potential for healing than treating later life events.
... Activation of these memories, even years after the event, can lead to a spectrum of symptoms including intrusions that can range from an overwhelming experience, mostly called flashback, to barely noticeable intrusions. These memories lack the feeling of remembering, as described by Barry as memories without "memory awareness" (Barry et al., 2006). This contributes to the lively, actual experience, and sometimes makes it difficult to connect symptoms to the memories behind them. ...
... (C) Patients with affective disorders. The importance of implicit memory in the pathogenesis of depression was already described by Barry et al. (2006). Recent studies link certain types of depression to stressful life events (Kendler et al., 2003). ...
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) therapy has been widely recognized as an efficacious treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In the last years more insight has been gained regarding the efficacy of EMDR therapy in a broad field of mental disorders beyond PTSD. The cornerstone of EMDR therapy is its unique model of pathogenesis and change: the adaptive information processing (AIP) model. The AIP model developed by F. Shapiro has found support and differentiation in recent studies on the importance of memories in the pathogenesis of a range of mental disorders beside PTSD. However, theoretical publications or research on the application of the AIP model are still rare. The increasing acceptance of ideas that relate the origin of many mental disorders to the formation and consolidation of implicit dysfunctional memory lead to formation of the theory of pathogenic memories. Within the theory of pathogenic memories these implicit dysfunctional memories are considered to form basis of a variety of mental disorders. The theory of pathogenic memories seems compatible to the AIP model of EMDR therapy, which offers strategies to effectively access and transmute these memories leading to amelioration or resolution of symptoms. Merging the AIP model with the theory of pathogenic memories may initiate research. In consequence, patients suffering from such memory-based disorders may be earlier diagnosed and treated more effectively.
... A negative IB can be demonstrated in depressed adults [29,[34][35][36] and youth [37] and prospectively predicts depression [38,39]. Behavioural studies have found that HR children more often interpreted emotionally-ambiguous words [40] and sentences [41] in a negative manner. ...
Background
Current preventive interventions for the children of parents with depression demonstrate modest effects on depression incidence. This may be because existing interventions tend to comprise general psychotherapeutic tools, rather than targeting the specific mechanisms underlying familial transmission. Improved theoretical models of familial transmission could enhance the development of targeted interventions. Although existing models assume that cognitive and biological vulnerability factors influence one another, the precise mechanisms are unknown. This project is the first to experimentally test whether negative interpretation bias has an impact on cortisol response in children of parents with depression. This study protocol reports a randomised controlled trial of an interpretation bias intervention which aims to shift participants’ interpretation bias in a more positive direction and thereby alter their stress response.
Methods
Children aged 10–14 years who have i) one parent with a current or previous depression diagnosis, with at least one episode occurring during the child’s lifetime and ii) do not have a current or previous psychiatric diagnosis themselves, will be assigned to one of two conditions: an interpretation bias intervention (n = 50) or a structurally similar placebo intervention (n = 50). The interpretation bias intervention consists of a short lab-based cognitive reappraisal of interpretations training, a four-week app-based Cognitive Bias Modification of Interpretations intervention and interpretation bias specific if–then plans. Interpretation bias will be assessed before and after the intervention using the Scrambled Sentences Task. The effect of the intervention on participants’ stress response will be assessed by salivary cortisol collected at five different time points: from immediately before until 45 min after administering the Trier Social Stressor Test for Children. Stress reactivity will be measured via baseline to peak cortisol and stress recovery will be measured via the 45 min cortisol marker. We hypothesise that children who participate in the interpretation bias intervention will display a positive shift in interpretation bias and this, in turn, will alter their stress response. Children who receive the placebo intervention are expected to show a smaller positive shift in interpretation bias and stress reactivity.
Discussion
The findings of the present study will contribute to models of familial depression transmission as well as informing preventive interventions. If training a more positive interpretation bias subsequently alters participants’ stress response, then incorporating such tools may increase the efficacy of existing preventive interventions.
Trial registration
Deutsches Register Klinischer Studien DRKS00028842. Registered August 19, 2022.
... A negative IB can be demonstrated in depressed adults (29,(34)(35)(36) and youth (37) and prospectively predict depression (38,39). Behavioural studies have found that HR children more often interpreted emotionally-ambiguous words (40) and sentences (41) in a negative manner. ...
Background
Current preventive interventions for the children of parents with depression demonstrate modest effects on depression incidence. This may be because existing interventions tend to comprise general psychotherapeutic tools, rather than targeting the specific mechanisms underlying familial transmission. Improved theoretical models of familial transmission could enhance the development of targeted interventions. Although existing models assume that cognitive and biological vulnerability factors influence one another, the precise mechanisms are unknown. This project is the first to experimentally test whether negative interpretation bias has an impact on cortisol response in children of parents with depression. This study protocol reports a randomised controlled trial of an interpretation bias intervention which aims to shift participants’ interpretation bias in a more positive direction and thereby alter their stress response.
Methods
Children aged 10–14 years who have i) one parent with a current or previous depression diagnosis, with at least one episode occurring during the child’s lifetime and ii) do not have a current or previous psychiatric diagnosis themselves, will be assigned to one of two conditions: an interpretation bias intervention (n = 50) or a structurally similar placebo intervention (n = 50). The interpretation bias intervention consists of a short lab-based cognitive reappraisal of interpretations training, a four-week app-based Cognitive Bias Modification of Interpretations intervention and interpretation bias specific if-then plans. Interpretation bias will be assessed before and after the intervention using the Scrambled Sentences Task. The effect of the intervention on participants’ stress response will be assessed by salivary cortisol collected at five different time points: from immediately before until 45 minutes after administering the Trier Social Stressor Test for Children. Stress reactivity will be measured via baseline to peak cortisol and stress recovery will be measured via the 45 minute cortisol marker. We hypothesise that children who participate in the interpretation bias intervention will display a positive shift in interpretation bias and this, in turn, will alter their stress response. Children who receive the placebo intervention are expected to show a smaller positive shift in interpretation bias and stress reactivity.
Discussion
The findings of the present study will contribute to models of familial depression transmission as well as informing preventive interventions. If training a more positive interpretation bias subsequently alters participants’ stress response, then incorporating such tools may increase the efficacy of existing preventive interventions.
Trial Registration:
Deutsches Register Klinischer Studien DRKS00028842. Registered August 19, 2022.
... In the context of anhedonia, this may be manifest as a lack of desire or an unwillingness to engage in pleasureful or joyful activities 50 . In the context of development, when children are still building an integrated self-concept, discrepancies can be more difficult to reconcile. ...
Anhedonia reflects a reduced ability to engage in previously pleasurable activities and has been reported in children as young as 3 years of age. It manifests early and is a strong predictor of psychiatric disease onset and progression over the course of development and into adulthood. However, little is known about its mechanistic origins, particularly in childhood and adolescence. In this chapter, we provide a socio-cognitive model of the development of anhedonia. This model is substantiated by past literature presented in this chapter to account for how the individual trajectories of emotion knowledge, autobiographical memory, and self-concept representations contribute to the onset, persistence, and progression of anhedonia from early childhood through adolescence.
... In contrast, explicit memory is observed when individuals can consciously and actively recall experiences, skills or information and remember how such knowledge was acquired. Hence, explicit and implicit memories are distinct and do not necessarily correlate; instead they function as parallel systems (Barry, Naus, & Rehm, 2006). Moreover, studies indicate that there is a relative degree of functional and neuroanatomical independence between implicit and explicit systems (Schacter, 1995(Schacter, , 1998, although given the brain's neuroplasticity there is overlap between both systems (Reber, 2013). ...
The psychological literature on implicit processes (IPs), which encompasses an individual’s thoughts, actions, and feelings that occur independently of conscious awareness, has expanded in the last two decades. During this same period, the proliferation of empirically based psychotherapies (EBPs), with emphasis on conscious processes, has gained momentum among many mental health practitioners. However, the literature on the role of IPs in empirically based psychotherapies (EBPs) is sparse. The main goal of this paper is to suggest IP findings that can be used to enhance EBP’s efficacy and effectiveness. Seven IP findings that can have important applications for EBPs are highlighted. Within each of these seven considerations, the impact of IPs on the psychotherapeutic process is discussed. © 2017, Sociedad Interamericana de Psicologia. All rights reserved.
... The self is based upon memories of past events and also guides access to past personal information that interacts with current states of self (e.g. emotion, values, goals) (Conway, 2005;Barry et al., 2006). ...
Autobiographical memory deficits are known in depression. The temporal distribution thereof across periods of life has rarely been considered yet. Autobiographical memories for 5 life periods were investigated in 27 depressed in-patients and compared to 31 matched healthy controls using the Bielefelder Autobiographisches Gedächtnis Inventar. Depressed patients reported significantly less details in memories dating from childhood to 30 years, correlating with severity of depression. Memories from childhood and recent periods were less positive in depressed patients. Thus, we found a distinct pattern of autobiographical memory deficits in depressed patients. Possible etiological factors, however, need further investigations.
... Unlike long-term memory, short-term memory represents the temporary recall of a limited amount of information, and accordingly, any information being remembered at any present moment is considered a subset of short-term memory (Barry, Naus, and Rehm 2006). Sensory memory is a type of short-term memory that receives stimuli from the five senses and records them accurately but briefly. ...
Families seek vacations as a means to improve family interaction and cohesion. Research on the effects of smartphones and other technology on the tourist experience has gained traction in recent years. Unfortunately, there still remains a void in understanding the role smartphones have on interaction and relationship dynamics during family vacations. Therefore, a qualitative research approach was employed to understand the extent to which smartphone usage influences the family vacation experience. The findings revealed that families relied on smartphones to foster a sense of family unity and retain a sense of individuality. Second, smartphones mediated families’ experience of a destination. Third, smartphones altered the traditional internalization and recollection process of family vacation memories.
... Relativamente à comparação do desempenho na memória implícita entre o grupo dos participantes deprimidos e dos não deprimidos, a literatura não é consensual. Na verdade, vários autores referem que existe um efeito de humor congruente em provas de memória implícita, o qual contribui para a obtenção de melhores resultados no grupo dos deprimidos (Beato & Fernández, 1995Bradley, Mogg & Williams, 1995, Ruiz-Caballero & Gonzalez, 1994, Watkins, Vache, Verney, Muller & Mathews, 1996 citados por Barry, Naus & Rehm, 2004;Barry, Naus & Rehm, 2006;Ellwart et al., 2003;Jenkins & McDowall, 2004). Outros investigadores não encontraram diferenças significativas em tarefas de memória implícita em participantes deprimidos (Bazin, Perruchet & Feline, 1996, Bazin, Perruchet, DeBonis & Feline, 1994, Danion, Kauffmann-Muller, Grange, Zimmermann & Greth, 1995, Denny & Hunt, 1992, Ilsley, Moffoot & O'Carroll, 1995, Lang & Craske 1997, Watkins, Mathews, Williamson & Fuller, 1992 todos citados por Barry et al., 2004). ...
According to the literature there is not one but multiple memory systems. In particular, two forms of memory can be distinguished in long-term memory: the explicit or declarative memory and the implicit or non-declarative memory. Different stimuli (words, faces/photographs/images or storytelling) of emotional significance (neutral/positive/negative) have been used to explain the functional interdependence between memory and emotion, with the relevance of affective material in the processing of information appearing to increase with age (Carstensen & Mikels, 2005). With the association of a depressed emotional state, several authors suggest that the information that is affectively congruent with a person’s state of mind/mood is better remembered than information that is affectively incongruent (Joorman & Gotlib, 2006; Lepännen, 2006). In this study we evaluate the conscious and non-conscious mnemonic processing of emotional words. To this end, 200 older adults aged between 60 and 89 were involved and two specific tests were designed (word recognition test and bigram completion test). In both tasks, the emotion words were better recognised and recalled than the ageing words. Despite the research hypotheses have not been confirmed, the emotional content of the stimuli somehow facilitated the retrieval of previously stored information. The differences found when comparing the group of the depressed with the non-depressed elderly are not statistically significant (p > .05) and therefore no mood-congruency effect was found. In turn, the implicit memory test proved the existence of a priming facilitation effect, which contributed to a better performance in this test. The findings suggest that when the priming facilitation effect occurs and affective material is used it is possible to achieve better memory results in both direct and indirect tests.Keywords: Explicit and implicit memory and emotionResumo:De acordo com a literatura não existe um único sistema mnésico, mas múltiplos sistemas. Especificamente, na Memória a Longo Prazo podem-se encontrar dois tipos de memória, a designada memória explícita ou declarativa e a memória implícita ou não declarativa. Vários estímulos (palavras, faces/fotografias/imagens ou histórias narradas) de valência emocional (neutro/positivo/negativo) têm sido utilizadas para explicar a interdependência funcional entre a memória e a emoção, sendo que à medida que se avança na idade parece aumentar a relevância do material afectivo no processamento da informação (Carstensen & Mikels, 2005). Quando associado um estado emocional depressivo, vários autores sugerem que a informação afectivamente congruente com o estado de ânimo/humor dos indivíduos é melhor recordada que a informação afectivamente incongruente (Joormann & Gotlib, 2006; Leppänen, 2006). Neste estudo procuramos avaliar o processamento mnésico consciente e não consciente de palavras emocionais. Para tal, participaram 200 idosos com idades compreendidas entre os 60 e 88 anos e foram construídas duas provas específicas (Prova de reconhecimento de palavras e Prova de completamento de bigramas). Em ambas as provas houve um melhor reconhecimento e evocação das palavras-emoções do que das palavras-envelhecimento. Apesar das hipóteses de investigação terem sido infirmadas, o conteúdo emocional dos estímulos, de certo modo, facilitou na recuperação da informação anteriormente armazenada. As diferenças encontradas quando comparados o grupo dos deprimidos e o dos não deprimidos não são estatisticamente significativas (p >.05), logo não se encontrou um efeito de congruência de humor. Por sua vez, quando utilizada a prova de memória implícita comprovou-se a existência do efeito facilitador priming, o que contribuiu para o alcance de melhores resultados nesta prova.Os resultados obtidos sugerem que quando está presente o efeito de facilitação priming e utilizadomaterial afectivo consegue-se alcançar melhores resultados mnésicos quer em provas directas,quer indirectas.Palavras-Chave: Memória explícita e implícita e emoção
... This situation can be explained with the effect of "mood congruency" or "mood dependency". Mood dependency is to remember certain experiences at a certain mood and repeat them each time of getting in that mood (Barry, Naus and Rehm, 2006). According to the mood dependency effect, investors will avoid the stock investment (risk) whenever they are in a negative mood if they were negatively affected by that investment made in negative mood (also the reverse of the situation is possible). ...
Öz
Psychology literature founds that suicides are the happiness barometers of societies and negative mood of society has a dominant role in the increment of suicide cases. This study uses suicide cases as the proxy variable of mood and investigates its effect on Turkish stock market. Our study finds co-incidence in periods of increased suicide rates with hike in the stock returns in the Turkish stock exchange. This upshot is consistent with the hypothesis that negative mood increases the demand for risky assets. Furthermore, this study explains how specifically the Turkish market returns are affected by the negative mood of society from psychological point of view. One of the major contributing facts is, individuals in a negative mood demand for risky assets in order to reward themselves. Moreover, the buying behavior towards all risky or risk-free assets has an antidepressant effect in individuals with negative mood.
... 67 Error, causality, and attribution correction is fundamentally a learning process emancipating the unitary self (explicit and implicit] from false beliefs. [67][68][69][70][71][72][73] ...
p>What we sense as a “self” emerges from stimuli both from within and without our body through complex levels of neural integration. The integration of memory and self is not a one-time occurrence but involves lifelong development. The autobiography of self is the accumulated unique mental narrative that emerges from our experiencing and participating in the flow of events and interpersonal encounters that reach a level of awareness critically facilitated by emotional tone. Autobiographical memory plays an important role in the construction of personal identity. An individual’s construction of themselves through time serves the function of creating a coherent and largely favorable view of their present selves and circumstances.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Barton J. Blinder, MD, PhD, is Clinical Professor, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine.
Address correspondence to: Barton J. Blinder, MD, PhD, 400 Newport Center Drive, Suite 706, Newport Beach, CA 92660; fax 949-721-9572; or email bblinder@uci.edu .
The author disclosed no relevant financial relationships.</p
... The perspective outlined above has many similarities with multi-representational accounts like Interacting Cognitive Subsystems (Teasdale & Barnard, 1993) and Schematic Propositional Analogical Associative Representation Systems (SPAARS;Power & Dalgleish, 1997). It is also consistent with work conducted over the last two decades by clinicians who have attempted to use models taken from cognitive psychology to understand disorders such as depression (e.g.Brewin, 1989;Rehm & Naus, 1990;Williams et al. 1997;Ingram et al. 1998;Barry et al. 2004Barry et al. , 2006). In addition to this theoretical underpinning, evidence within the depression literature also implies support for the revised perspective. ...
The main objectives of this study were to compare the perceived utility of two definitions of schema (i.e. a standard Beckian vs. a revised definition). Fifty clinicians with varying degrees of training in cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) received a presentation on the Beckian definition of schema before completing two questionnaires, one assessing the perceived utility of the definition, and another assessing the targets they would address in therapy and the techniques they would use to do so, using the Beckian definition. They then received a presentation on a revised definition before completing the questionnaires again; this time in relation to the revised definition. In a non-inferiority analysis the revised definition was rated as possessing not less clinical utility than the Beckian definition and was indeed rated higher. More targets and techniques were selected following the revised definition, relative to the Beckian definition. Further, there was a significant interaction between definition and targets and techniques selected, with a greater increase in the targets and techniques that are consistent with the revised definition. The results were independent of experience within mental health and practising CBT therapists. The revised definition was perceived to have clinical utility and the use of it in therapy would lead to a wider range of targets being addressed while using a wider range of clinical techniques. Importantly, those targets and techniques relate specifically to the revised definition. The implications of the results and future areas of research are discussed.
... Así mismo, los datos disponibles señalan que los trastornos depresivos, tienen una fuerte asociación con alteraciones en variables neuropsicológicas como memoria y atención (Barry, Naus & Rhem, 2006) y más recientemente con alteraciones en aspectos asociados a función ejecutiva (Favre, Hudges, Emslie, Stavinoha, Kennard & Carmody, 2009). La caracterización de perfiles neuropsicológicos de niños con trastornos del estado de ánimo y trastornos de ansiedad del municipio de Itagüí confirma el compromiso de estos trastornos con las funciones cognitivas de atención, memoria y función ejecutiva (Montoya, 2005). ...
The purpose of this study was to estimate the presence of depressive symptoms in a nonclinical sample of school children and describe the neuropsychological functioning of children with depressive symptoms to compare them with a similar demographic group without depressive symptoms. To this end the Child Depression Inventory (Children Depression Inventory, CDI) was administered to 312 school children aged between 9 and 12. Based on the results 62 children were selected and distributed into two groups: one with depressive symptoms and one without symptoms. Neuropsychological assessment included: the Perceptions and Differences Test -FACES, the Cancelación de la A [A Cancellation Test], the Trail Making Test (TMT) forms A and B, the Rey Figure Test, the Stroop Test and the California Verbal Learning Test for Children (CVLT). The CDI showed that 13.78% of children have symptoms of depression. Neuropsychological assessment showed only significant differences in the conflict task of the Stroop Test. This suggests that the ability to inhibit automatic responses is affected at a subclinical level.
... Finally, work in the field of depression has highlighted the critical role of negative memories in shaping beliefs about the self. Depression is frequently characterised by both distressing, intrusive memories of negative life experiences (Kuyken & Brewin, 1994;Lemogne et al., 2006) and stable negative self-beliefs (e.g., being a failure; overlapping with the concept of negative core beliefs, Beck et al., 1979), leading researchers to propose that models of depression should include cognitive constructs of self and memory (e.g., Barry, Naus, & Rehm, 2006). As described above, the self-memory system proposes that beliefs about the self are both supported by and influence autobiographical retrieval (Conway & Pleydell-Pearce, 2000). ...
The relationship between developmental experiences, and an individual's emerging beliefs about themselves and the world, is central to many forms of psychotherapy. People suffering from a variety of mental health problems have been shown to use negative memories when defining the self; however, little is known about how these negative memories might be organised and relate to negative self-images. In two online studies with middle-aged (N = 18; study 1) and young (N = 56; study 2) adults, we found that participants' negative self-images (e.g., I am a failure) were associated with sets of autobiographical memories that formed clustered distributions around times of self-formation, in much the same pattern as for positive self-images (e.g., I am talented). This novel result shows that highly organised sets of salient memories may be responsible for perpetuating negative beliefs about the self. Implications for therapy are discussed.
... Furthermore, Rehm and Naus (1990) emphasize the central role of memory in cognitive functioning and emotions and provide a memory processing framework to account for various aspects of depression. Barry, Naus and Rehm (2005) also put forward a revised memory model of emotion, which highlights the importance of both encoding and retrieval considerations to understanding the relationship of memory and depression. ...
... Again, specific task characteristics may be an important contributory factor in these different results. For example, Barry et al (2006) suggested that higher-level conceptual memory tasks are more likely to elicit biases than purely perceptual tasks. Neuroimaging studies suggest that these biases are mediated by limbic regions, including the amygdala; depressed patients showed greater right amygdala response and enhanced amygdala-hippocampal connectivity to subsequently remembered negative pictures (Hamilton and Gotlib, 2008). ...
Cognitive abnormalities are a core feature of depression, and biases toward negatively toned emotional information are common, but are they a cause or a consequence of depressive symptoms? Here, we propose a 'cognitive neuropsychological' model of depression, suggesting that negative information processing biases have a central causal role in the development of symptoms of depression, and that treatments exert their beneficial effects by abolishing these biases. We review the evidence pertaining to this model: briefly with respect to currently depressed patients, and in more detail with respect to individuals at risk for depression and the effects of antidepressant treatments. As well as being present in currently depressed individuals, negative biases are detectable in those vulnerable for depression due to neuroticism, genetic risk, or previous depressive illness. Recent evidence provides strong support for the notion that both antidepressant drugs and psychological therapies modify negative biases, providing a common mechanism for understanding treatments for depression. Intriguingly, it may even be possible to predict which patients will benefit most from which treatments on the basis of neural responses to negative stimuli. However, further research is required to ascertain whether negative processing biases will be useful in predicting, detecting, and treating depression, and hence in preventing a chronic, relapsing course of illness.
... Nesta área, o termo se refere às aparentes confabulações de eventos que nunca ocorreram, mas que foram sugeridas de algum modo. Uma vasta literatura tem surgido para explicar fatores que poderiam influenciar o desenvolvimento em memórias de eventos não ocorridos (Ellis & Moore, 1999; Ekman, Sullivan & Frank, 1999; Barry, Naus & Rehm, 2006; Smeets, Jelicic & Merckelbach, 2006). ...
Tese (doutorado)—Universidade de Brasília, Instituto de Psicologia, Departamento de Processos Psicológicos Básicos, 2009. Este trabalho investigou a produção de falsas memórias em relação a três fatores: tipos de processamento, carga afetiva das listas DRM e contexto emocional. Foram testadas quatro hipóteses gerais: primeira, índices superiores de falsas memórias ocorrerão em tarefas que demandam maior participação de processamentos conscientes. Segundo, haverá um aumento no fenômeno das falsas memórias na presença de contexto emocional comparados aos participantes não submetidos a um contexto emocional. Terceiro, haverá maior produção de falsos reconhecimentos em contextos de alerta baixo. E, quarto, haverá maior falsificação de memória nas listas DRM com carga negativa. Duas hipóteses específicas também foram investigadas: primeiro, ocorrerá uma maior produção de falsas recordações na condição de 1500 ms, com listas negativas, em contexto de valência desagradável, e segundo, haverá maior produção de falsas memórias (a) na condição de 1500 ms, lista negativa e alerta baixo comparada com as outras condições do mesmo tempo, e (b) no tempo de 40 ms, na lista negativa e alerta alto. Foram realizados dois experimentos cruzando fatorialmente três fatores, sendo que o experimento 1 manipulou a valência do contexto e o segundo manipulou o alerta do contexto. O contexto emocional foi manipulado pela inserção de fotografias do IAPS em ambos experimentos. Participaram 150 estudantes no primeiro experimento e 100 no segundo. Os resultados do experimento 1 confirmaram as hipóteses gerais 1, 2, 4 e a parcialmente a primeira hipótese específica. Confirmou-se uma produção maior de falsas memórias, no tempo de apresentação mais lento, com listas negativas e contexto desagradável. O contexto desagradável aumentou o efeito dos falsos reconhecimentos das listas negativas quando os participantes tiveram que codificar conscientemente as palavras; o mesmo efeito foi verificado no intervalo de 40 ms porém, em menor magnitude. No experimento 2 foram confirmadas as hipóteses gerais 1, 3, 4 e parcialmente a segunda hipótese específica. Na condição de 1500 ms houve maior produção de falsas memórias no contexto de alerta baixo e lista negativa, enquanto em 40 ms houve maior evidência de falsificação no alerta alto e lista negativa. Concluiu-se que a influência da valência negativa depende de processamento consciente para produzir falsas memórias, mas esse padrão também ocorre sob a condição de processamento automático em menor magnitude. O alerta alto tem o efeito de inibir a produção de falsos reconhecimentos em tempos que envolvem um processamento consciente e, por outro lado, tem um efeito inverso em tempos rápidos que podem aumentar a falsificação. Essas conclusões podem ser explicadas tanto por teorias de redes quanto pela teoria do traço difuso. Recomenda-se estudos futuros que possam melhorar as ferramentas necessárias para a pesquisa experimental na área. _________________________________________________________________________________ ABSTRACT The present study investigated false memories in the DRM paradigm manipulating three independent variables: presentation time, emotional context and emotional valence of the DRM lists. Four general hypothesis were tested: 1) longer presentations durations should produce higher levels of false memories; 2) emotional contexts should produce more memory falsification than non emotional contexts; 3) more false memories should be obtained in contexts that manipulated low levels of arousal compared to higher levels; 4) more false recognitions should be obtained in DRM lists with negative valence. Two specific hypothesis were also tested: 1) more false memories should be observed in the 1500 ms condition, with negative lists and unpleasant valence contexts; and 2) superior memory falsification should be observed with low arousal and negative lists in the 1500 ms condition and with high arousal and negative lists in the 40 ms condition. These hypothesis were tested in two experiments, which manipulated all three factors, differing from one another only by the manipulation of the emotional context factors: valence in the first experiment and arousal in the second. The emotional context was manipulated by the insertion of IAPS pictures. One hundred and fifty university students participated in experiment 1 and 100 in the second. Results in the first experiment confirmed hypothesis 1, 2, 4 and partially the first specific hypothesis. Data indicated that longer presentations with negative list valence and unpleasant contexts produced more false memories compared to other conditions. Results from the second experiment confirmed hypothesis 1, 3, 4 and partially the second specific hypothesis. Long presentations with low arousal and negative lists favored false memories, on the other hand, fast presentation with high arousal did the same. Analysis of results in the negative valence context indicated that production of false memories in these contexts is influenced by conscious processes with similar effects in automatic processes, but in a smaller degree. High arousal inhibits the production of false recognitions only in longer time presentations. These facts can be explained within theories of dual memory systems or by dual activation and monitoring theories. It is recommended that future studies contribute in the construction of better tools that could promote more accurate approaches to experimental research on this topic.
... Because the concept of self-defining memories is important in neurological and psychiatric populations, we also suggest that this method might be appropriate for generating personally relevant memories and memories of critical periods in life-span development. Furthermore, because both self and AM are implicated in clinical depression (Barry, Naus, & Rehm, 2006; Lemogne et al., 2006 ), research could focus on the distributions of memories cued by positive and negative statements. Rubin and Berntsen (2003) found that reminiscence bumps were generated only for highly positive events, not for negative events. ...
The self-memory relationship is thought to be bidirectional, in such a way that memories provide context for the self, and equally, the self exercises control over retrieval (Conway, 2005). Autobiographical memories are not distributed equally across the life span; instead, memories peak between ages 10 and 30. This reminiscence bump has been suggested to support the emergence of a stable and enduring self. In the present study, the relationship between memory accessibility and self was explored with a novel methodology that used generation of self images in the form of I am statements. Memories generated from I am cues clustered around the time of emergence for that particular self image. We argue that, when a new self-image is formed, it is associated with the encoding of memories that are relevant to that self and that remain highly accessible to the rememberer later in life. This study offers a new methodology for academics and clinicians interested in the relationship between memory and identity.
... The emotional content of the material may influence the self-reference effect. For example, depressed patients remember more negative emotional content than non-depressed patients, such as negative autobiographical memories (Barry, Naus, & Rehm, 2006) or negative emotional adjectives (Bradley & Mathews, 1983). Cognitive theories of depression suggest that depressed patients have a negative bias in their thinking (Beck, 1967). ...
Neural activity associated with self-referential processing of emotional stimuli was investigated using whole brain functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Fifteen healthy subjects underwent fMRI scanning while making judgments about positive and negative trait words in four conditions (self-reference, other-reference, semantic processing, and letter processing). Significant activity was observed in the right ventral anterior cingulate gyrus and the right amygdala in the negative-word/self-reference condition, and in the left amygdala in the positive-word/self-reference condition. Compared with the semantic-processing condition, the self-reference conditions showed significantly more activity in the medial prefrontal and temporal gyri, posterior cingulate gyrus, and precuneus. These results suggest that the medial prefrontal gyrus, posterior cingulate gyrus, and precuneus are associated with a self-referential processing, and the ventral anterior cingulate gyrus is involved in self-referential processing of negative emotional stimuli. The results also suggest that the amygdala is associated with self-referential processing of both positive and negative emotional stimuli.
... 2007; Hamann et al., 1999; Taylor et al., 1998) studies, being this enhancement either for positive or negative stimuli. With respect to the relation between emotion and implicit memory, the scarce studies existing are in most cases behavioral and neuropsychological studies (Barry et al., 2006; Bradley et al., 1992; Lim and Kim, 2005; Padovan, 2002; Richards et al., 1999; Williams et al., 1997). Although results are not clear or conclusive on how implicit recall is affected by the emotional content of incidentally encoded stimuli, Williams et al.'s review of implicit memory bias in anxiety finds evidence for a bias towards negative material, in coincidence with some of the above-mentioned explicit memory studies. ...
Emotional stimuli are better remembered than neutral stimuli. Most of the studies taking into account this emotional bias refer to explicit memory, use behavioral measures of the recall and predict better recall of negative stimuli. The few studies taking into account implicit memory and the valence emotional dimension are inconclusive on the effect of the stimulus' emotional valence. In the present study, 120 pictures (30 positive, 30 negative, 30 relaxing and 30 neutral) were shown to, and assessed by, 28 participants (study phase). Subsequently, event related brain potentials (ERPs) were recorded during the presentation of 120 new (shown for the first time) and 120 old (already shown in the study phase) pictures (test phase). No explicit instructions or clues related to recovery were given to participants, and a distractor task was employed, in order to maintain implicit the memory assessment. As expected from other studies' data, our results showed that old stimuli elicited an enhanced late positive component 450 ms after stimulus onset (repetition effect). Moreover, this effect was modulated by the stimuli's emotional valence, since the most positively valenced stimuli were associated with a decreased repetition effect with respect to the most negatively valenced stimuli. This effect was located at ventromedial prefrontal cortex. These results suggest the existence of a valence-mediated bias in implicit memory.
Victims of sexual violence are often punished by the legal system when their version of the incident—or fact finders' perception of their version—violates expected sexual violence schemas. We investigated the influence of sexual violence schemas on mock jurors' ability to accurately recognize facts presented in a hypothetical case. Participants ( N = 155) read a vignette depicting one of four scenarios: expectancy consistent, expectancy inconsistent, no detail control, or no crime control condition. Participants then indicated whether certain evidence (e.g., victim‐perpetrator relationship) was presented, and if so, what the correct information was. Although participants generally demonstrated accurate recognition of the case evidence, errors were more likely to be made when the vignette was inconsistent with expected sexual violence schemas. We end with a discussion of how the present research can advance our understanding of the underlying cognitive mechanisms of victim blaming and the practical implications for the legal system.
Ces dernières années, les émotions et la cognition, et en particulier le lien entre ces deux domaines, ont fasciné les scientifiques du monde entier, donnant naissance à de nombreux travaux de recherche en psychologie, sciences cognitives et neurosciences. L’une des fonctions cognitives qui a éminemment attirée l’attention des chercheurs, en lien avec la modulation émotionnelle à laquelle elle est assujettie, est la mémoire épisodique. Aussi, les travaux de recherche réalisés chez l’Homme se sont largement accordés sur un point : les émotions participent à l’amélioration de la mémoire épisodique, un phénomène qui, dans la littérature, porte le nom de Emotional Enhancement of Memory (EEM). Si ce phénomène a amplement été étudié dans la population adulte, la nature de l’interaction entre mémoire et émotions reste largement inexplorée au cours du développement ontogénétique. Or, l’enfance est une période charnière durant laquelle des modifications majeures émergent au niveau du fonctionnement cérébral, sous-tendant le développement cognitif et émotionnel de l’enfant jusqu’à l’âge adulte. Ce travail de thèse s’est donc centré, dans un premier temps, sur l’étude de l’EEM chez l’enfant au développement typique (DT) afin de mettre en exergue de potentielles modulations développementales comparativement à la population adulte. Dans un deuxième temps, afin d’élargir nos connaissances sur l’EEM au cours du développement, ce travail de thèse a adopté une approche neuropsychologique avec l’étude de ce phénomène auprès d’enfants et d’adolescents porteurs d’un trouble neuro-développemental appelé syndrome de Williams-Beuren (SWB). Ainsi, plusieurs études expérimentales ont été conduites afin d’évaluer l’EEM chez l’enfant au DT et dans le SWB, à la fois avec des évaluations comportementales, comprenant des tâches d’encodage et de récupération en mémoire de stimuli émotionnels (négatifs et positifs) et neutres, ainsi qu’avec des mesures neurophysiologiques grâce à l’électro-encéphalographie (EEG). En particulier, les évaluations comportementales se sont intéressées à l’analyse de la mémoire épisodique dans sa globalité, c’est-à-dire en tenant compte de ses deux composants principaux qui sont la mémoire de l’item et la mémoire associative. Les résultats obtenus dans ce travail de recherche ont permis, pour la première fois, de mettre en évidence l’émergence d’un EEM à la fois en mémoire de l’item et en mémoire associative chez les enfants au DT âgés de 8 à 11 ans, et ceci de façon similaire à des jeunes adultes. Des premiers indices de la modulation des réponses neuronales lors de l’encodage de stimuli émotionnels pouvant prédire les performances comportementales en mémoire, ont également été apportés chez les enfants au DT. Par ailleurs, ce travail de recherche a contribué à fournir des premières preuves de l’émergence d’un EEM chez les enfants et adolescents porteurs du SWB âgés de 8 à 18 ans, qui apparaissait de façon similaire à un groupe de jeunes enfants au DT. Dans l’ensemble, ce travail de thèse a permis de démontrer que l’EEM est un phénomène robuste, qui se mettrait en place précocement au cours du développement et qui ne semblerait pas être affecté par l’immaturité de certains processus mnésiques observée chez les enfants au DT, ni par l’altération de ces processus dans le cas du SWB.
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a heterogeneous disease affecting one out of five individuals and is the leading cause of disability worldwide. Presently, MDD is considered a multifactorial disease with various causes such as genetic susceptibility, stress, and other pathological processes. Multiple studies allowed the formulation of several theories attempting to describe the development of MDD. However, none of these hypotheses are comprehensive because none of them can explain all cases, mechanisms, and symptoms of MDD. Nevertheless, all of these theories share some common pathways, which lead us to believe that these hypotheses depict several pieces of the same big puzzle. Therefore, in this review, we provide a brief description of these theories and their strengths and weaknesses in an attempt to highlight the common mechanisms and relationships of all major theories of depression and combine them together to present the current overall picture. The analysis of all hypotheses suggests that there is interdependence between all the brain structures and various substances involved in the pathogenesis of MDD, which could be not entirely universal, but can affect all of the brain regions, to one degree or another, depending on the triggering factor, which, in turn, could explain the different subtypes of MDD.
Background: In recent years, eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) has been applied to different psychiatric conditions beyond post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and an increasing number of studies have evaluated its effect on depression. To date, no quantitative synthesis of the efficacy of EMDR on depression has been conducted.
Objective: To meta-analytically review the studies on EMDR for depression as the primary target for treatment.
Method: Studies with a controlled design evaluating the effect of EMDR on depression were searched on six electronic databases (PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Cochrane database, and Francine Shapiro Library) and then selected by two independent reviewers. A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted.
Results: Eleven studies were included for qualitative synthesis. Nine studies were included in the meta-analysis, involving 373 participants. The overall effect size of EMDR for depressive symptoms is large (n = 9, Hedges’ g = – 1.07; 95%CI [–1.66; – 0.48]), with high heterogeneity (I² = 84%), and corresponds to a ‘number needed to treat’ of 1.8. At follow-up (range 3–6 months), the effect remains significant but moderate (n = 3, Hedges’ g = – 0.62; 95%CI [–0.97; – 0.28]; I² = 0%). The effect of EMDR compared with active controls is also moderate (n = 7, g = – 0.68; 95%CI [–0.92; – 0.43]; I² = 0%). No publication bias was found, although the results are limited by the small number and poor methodological quality of the included studies.
Conclusions: Review findings suggest that EMDR may be considered an effective treatment for improving symptoms of depression, with effects comparable to other active treatments. However, findings need to be interpreted in light of the limited number of the studies and their quality. Further research is required to understand the longer-term of effects EMDR in treating depression and preventing depression relapse.
Protocol registration: PROSPERO (CRD42018090086).
Prior literature reports that the activation of conceptual processing is necessary, albeit insufficient, for the detection of implicit mood- congruent memory bias. The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of self-referential processing on this bias in individuals with subclinical depression. Two groups of participants (subclinical depressed vs. non-depressed) were given a perceptive or conceptual implicit memory task involving adjectives that varied in terms of their emotional valence and the manner in which they had been encoded. Our main finding was that those individuals with subclinical depression recorded a bias in the conceptual task, but only when they had encoded the content in a more self-referential manner. The findings are consistent with the activation of cognitive self-schema during the processing of emotional information of a self-referential nature in subclinical depression.
This study investigated relationships between perfectionism and psychological distress in a sample of first year college students further divided between those who were enrolled in an honors curriculum (n = 60) and those who were not (n = 53). Participants completed the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (PCI), the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS), and the profile of mood states (POMS) at the start of the semester and then again 6 weeks later. Results revealed that one dimension of the MPS—maladaptive evaluative concerns (EC)—was positively associated with tension-anxiety and depression-dejection scores, while a second factor—pure personal standards (PS)—was negatively related to distress after extraneous variance was removed. Perfectionism cognitions as measured by the PCI either fully or partially mediated most relationships. Honors students reported higher personal standards than did controls, a difference that was consistent at 6-week follow-up.
Depression adversely affects explicit memory when implicit memory remains intact unless implicit retrieval requires conceptual processes. The impairment of conceptual implicit memory could be the consequence of the completion of implicit memory tests being contaminated by a voluntary retrieval strategy, hence similar results to those in explicit tests are observed. In this study we adopted a method sensitive to the presence of contamination. Depth-of-study-processing effects were observed for the controls completing the explicit version of a word-association task but were absent for the controls completing the implicit version when compound associates were retrieved. This dissociation indicated the adoption of the designated retrieval strategy in each test with the conceptual implicit memory test being uncontaminated. Subclinically depressed participants showed impairment in the explicit version, while for those completing the implicit version there was evidence that they used a voluntary retrieval strategy. The theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.
A model of cancer as a chronic illness is proposed as a new direction for quality of life research. In the cancer survivor adaptation (CSA) model, adjustment to cancer survivorship is a life-long process involving three interacting components. Personal context incorporates cancer survivorship and personal characteristics across biological, psychological, and social domains. The adaptation process involves a specific cognitive mechanism of change, where the ongoing appraisal of goals and world assumptions occur in the context of the cancer survivor's personal memories and sense of self. Finally, quality of life outcomes are viewed as multidimensional and personally weighted for importance, with expectations for both positive and negative physical, emotional, cognitive, and spiritual adjustments over time. Research and clinical implications are explored.
the purpose of the present chapter is to consider functional dissociations between these two classes of tasks and to sketch a theory rationalizing their interrelation
the first section of the chapter reviews an approach to explaining dissociations developed within the domain of laboratory memory tasks
the second section briefly reviews dissociations between explicit and implicit measures of retention, as a function of both subject variables and independent variables under experimental control
the third section considers the standard explanations of functional dissociations between measures of retention in terms of differing memory systems, particularly the episodic/semantic distinction and the declarative/procedural distinction
the fourth section is devoted to spelling out an alternative theory that, in many ways, embodies the notion of encoding specificity to explain the dissociations between explicit and implicit retention
the fifth section of the chapter is aimed at specifying these ideas better and providing further evidence about their validity
the sixth and final section addresses problems of the transfer-appropriate processing approach and suggests future research (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Mood-congruent memory (MCM) bias in depression was investigated using 4 different implicit memory tests. Two of the implicit tests were perceptually driven, and 2 were conceptually driven. Depressed participants and nondepressed controls were assigned to 1 of 4 implicit memory tests after studying positive and negative adjectives. Results showed no MCM bias in the perceptually driven tests. MCM was demonstrated in 1 of the conceptually driven tests, but only for adjectives that were conceptually encoded. Results support the theory that mood-congruent processes in depression are limited to conceptual processing. However, activation of conceptual processes may not be sufficient for demonstrating mood congruency.
Two experiments (modeled after J. Deese's 1959 study) revealed remarkable levels of false recall and false recognition in a list learning paradigm. In Experiment 1, subjects studied lists of 12 words (e.g., bed, rest, awake ); each list was composed of associates of 1 nonpresented word (e.g., sleep). On immediate free recall tests, the nonpresented associates were recalled 40% of the time and were later recognized with high confidence. In Experiment 2, a false recall rate of 55% was obtained with an expanded set of lists, and on a later recognition test, subjects produced false alarms to these items at a rate comparable to the hit rate. The act of recall enhanced later remembering of both studied and nonstudied material. The results reveal a powerful illusion of memory: People remember events that never happened.
The authors provide a new framework that integrates autobiographical memory with other early achievements (e.g., gesturing, language, concept formation). In this theory, the emergence and early development of autobiographical memory does not require the invocation of specialized neurological or multiple memory mechanisms but rather arises as a natural consequence of developments in related domains including in the ''software'' that drives general memory functioning. In particular, autobiographical memory emerges contemporaneously with the cognitive self, a knowledge structure whose features serve to organize memories of experiences that happened to ''me.'' Because this cognitive self emerges in the 2nd year of life, the lower limit for early autobiographical memories is set at about 2 years, with subsequent accumulation of memories linked to improvements in children's ability to maintain information in storage.
Describes experiments in which happy or sad moods were induced in Ss by hypnotic suggestion to investigate the influence of emotions on memory and thinking. Results show that (a) Ss exhibited mood-state-dependent memory in recall of word lists, personal experiences recorded in a daily diary, and childhood experiences; (b) Ss recalled a greater percentage of those experiences that were affectively congruent with the mood they were in during recall; (c) emotion powerfully influenced such cognitive processes as free associations, imaginative fantasies, social perceptions, and snap judgments about others' personalities; (d) when the feeling-tone of a narrative agreed with the reader's emotion, the salience and memorability of events in that narrative were increased. An associative network theory is proposed to account for these results. In this theory, an emotion serves as a memory unit that can enter into associations with coincident events. Activation of this emotion unit aids retrieval of events associated with it; it also primes emotional themata for use in free association, fantasies, and perceptual categorization. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this review I describe research conducted in my laboratory concerning implicit mood-congruent memory (MCM) bias in clinical depression. MCM is the tendency for depressed individuals to retrieve more unpleasant information from memory than nondepressed controls, and may be an important maintenance mechanism in depression. MCM has been studied frequently with explicit memory tests, but relatively few studies have investigated MCM using implicit memory tests. I describe several implicit memory studies which show that: (a) an implicit MCM bias does not appear to exist when perceptually driven tests are used; (b) implicit memory bias can be found when conceptually driven tests are used, but (c) not all conceptually driven tests show implicit MCM bias. I conclude that conceptual processing is necessary, but is not sufficient for demonstrating implicit memory bias in depression. Future studies should investigate specific components of conceptual elaboration that support implicit memory bias in depression.
Proposes a prototypical schema theory of memory. Such a theory assumes the operation of 4 central encoding processes: selection (a process that chooses only some of all incoming stimuli for representation), abstraction (a process that stores the meaning of a message without reference to the original syntactic and lexical content), interpretation (a process by which relevant prior knowledge is generated to aid comprehension), and integration (a process by which a single, holistic memory representation is formed from the products of the previous 3 operations. The supportive and critical evidence for these processes is evaluated in light of the need for any theory of memory to account for 3 fundamental observations; accuracy, incompleteness, and distortion. The central retrieval process of schema theory, reconstruction, is also discussed in this context. Evidence indicates that the memory representation is far richer and more detailed than schema theory would suggest. (6 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
The existence of multiple memory systems has been proposed in a number of areas, including cogni- tive psychology, neuropsychology, and the study of animal learning and memory. We examine whether the existence of such multiple systems seems likely on evolutionary grounds. Multiple sys- tems adapted to serve seemingly similar functions, which differ in important ways, are a common evolutionary outcome. The evolution of multiple memory systems requires memory systems to be specialized to such a degree that the functional problems each system handles cannot be handled by another system. We define this condition as functional incompatibility and show that it occurs for a number of the distinctions that have been proposed between memory systems. The distinction be- tween memory for song and memory for spatial locations in birds, and between incremental habit formation and memory for unique episodes in humans and other primates provide examples. Not all memory systems are highly specialized in function, however, and the conditions under which memory systems could evolve to serve a wide range of functions are also discussed. Memory is a function that permits animals and people to ac- quire, retain, and retrieve many different kinds of information. It allows them to take advantage of previous experience to help solve the multitude of problems with which their environment confronts them, such as how to recognize the familiar, predict events, return to particular places, and assess the consequences of behavior Recently the question has arisen as to whether the
Tested the 2-process theory of detection, search, and attention presented by the current authors (1977) in a series of experiments. The studies (a) demonstrate the qualitative difference between 2 modes of information processing: automatic detection and controlled search; (b) trace the course of the learning of automatic detection, of categories, and of automatic-attention responses; and (c) show the dependence of automatic detection on attending responses and demonstrate how such responses interrupt controlled processing and interfere with the focusing of attention. The learning of categories is shown to improve controlled search performance. A general framework for human information processing is proposed. The framework emphasizes the roles of automatic and controlled processing. The theory is compared to and contrasted with extant models of search and attention. (31/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In Study 1, pleasant and unpleasant personality trait words and abstract nouns were encoded in neutral mood and recalled in either induced depressed or induced happy mood, using 32 female and 32 male undergraduates assigned in equal numbers to 1 of the 4 conditions. Females recalled more pleasant than unpleasant words when in a happy mood and more unpleasant than pleasant words when in a depressed mood. Males failed to show this effect. Both sexes responded equally well to the induction procedures. There were no sex differences in pleasantness ratings of the words to be recalled. A prediction that differential effects of mood on recall would be greater for trait words than abstract nouns was not confirmed. In Study 2, everyday usage ratings by 36 Ss from Study 1 were obtained for the trait words from Study 1. Females gave higher usage ratings than males and, within the females, usage predicted the extent to which a word was preferentially recalled in a congruent mood state. Findings are discussed in relation to the associative network model of mood and memory, sex differences in depression, and cognitive vulnerability to depression. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Used posthypnotic suggestions to investigate how emotional states influence the learning and memory of a text. Exp I (using 16 undergraduates with high scores on the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale) found that happy or sad readers identified with (and recalled more facts about) a character who was in the same mood as they were. In Exp II (with 16 experienced mental health professionals), this selective recall by character could not be produced by inducing the mood at recall after Ss had read the story in a neutral mood. In Exp III (with 32 Ss), mood during reading caused selective learning of mood-congruent incidents, but mood during recall had little effect. Exp IV (with 16 Ss) found that inducing the mood only during recall produced no selective recall of happy vs sad incidents. In Exp V (with 16 Ss), Ss selectively learned whatever affective material was congruent with their emotional state, rather than identifying exclusively with the same-mood character. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In three experiments subjects performed one of five tasks after an initial study phase. Results showed that performance on conceptually driven retention tasks (those requiring the processing of meaning) was consistently dissociated from that on data-driven tasks (those relying more on analysis of physical features). Performance on conceptually driven tasks of free recall, semantic cued recall, and a task of answering general knowledge questions was enhanced most when target items had been generated rather than read at study (Experiment 1) and when subjects formed mental images of item referents at study (Experiment 3). Conversely, the data driven tasks of word fragment completion and recall using graphemic cues were performed best when subjects read rather than generated items at input (Experiment 1) and when the physical features of study and test items matched in terms of modality (Experiment 2) and typography (Experiment 3). These findings indicate that dissociations among memory tasks are better explained in terms of the degree of overlap between mental operations at study and test than in terms of various memory systems underlying different tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two experiments (modeled after J. Deese's 1959 study) revealed remarkable levels of false recall and false recognition in a list learning paradigm. In Exp 1, Ss studied lists of 12 words (e.g.,
bed,
rest,
awake); each list was composed of associates of 1 nonpresented word (e.g.,
sleep). On immediate free recall tests, the nonpresented associates were recalled 40% of the time and were later recognized with high confidence. In Exp 2, a false recall rate of 55% was obtained with an expanded set of lists, and on a later recognition test, Ss produced false alarms to these items at a rate comparable to the hit rate. The act of recall enhanced later remembering of both studied and nonstudied material. The results reveal a powerful illusion of memory: People remember events that never happened. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A 2-process theory of human information processing is proposed and applied to detection, search, and attention phenomena. Automatic processing is activation of a learned sequence of elements in long-term memory that is initiated by appropriate inputs and then proceeds automatically--without S control, without stressing the capacity limitations of the system, and without necessarily demanding attention. Controlled processing is a temporary activation of a sequence of elements that can be set up quickly and easily but requires attention, is capacity-limited (usually serial in nature), and is controlled by the S. A series of studies, with approximately 8 Ss, using both reaction time and accuracy measures is presented, which traces these concepts in the form of automatic detection and controlled search through the areas of detection, search, and attention. Results in these areas are shown to arise from common mechanisms. Automatic detection is shown to develop following consistent mapping of stimuli to responses over trials. Controlled search was utilized in varied-mapping paradigms, and in the present studies, it took the form of serial, terminating search. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Recent changes in pretheoretical orientation toward problems of human memory have brought with them a concern with retrieval processes, and a number of early versions of theories of retrieval have been constructed. This paper describes and evaluates explanations offered by these theories to account for the effect of extralist cuing, facilitation of recall of list items by non-list items. Experiments designed to test the currently most popular theory of retrieval, the generation-recognition theory, yielded results incompatible not only with generation-recognition models, but most other theories as well: under certain conditions subjects consistently failed to recognize many recallable list words. Several tentative explanations of this phenomenon of recognition failure were subsumed under the encoding specificity principle according to which the memory trace of an event and hence the properties of effective retrieval cue are determined by the specific encoding operations performed by the system on the input stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Proposes a framework for the conceptualization of a broad range of memory phenomena that integrates research on memory performance in young children, the elderly, and individuals under stress with research on memory performance in normal college students. One basic assumption is that encoding operations vary in their attentional requirements. Operations that drain minimal energy from limited-capacity attentional mechanisms are called automatic. Automatic operations function at a constant level under all circumstances, occur without intention, and do not benefit from practice. Effortful operations, such as rehearsal and elaborative mnemonic activities, require considerable capacity, interfere with other cognitive activities also requiring capacity, are initiated intentionally, and show benefits from practice. A 2nd assumption is that attentional capacity varies both within and among individuals. Depression, high arousal levels, and old age are variables thought to reduce attentional capacity. The conjunction of the 2 assumptions of the framework yields the prediction that the aged and individuals under stress will show a decrease in performance only on tasks requiring effortful processing. Evidence from the literature on development, aging, depression, arousal, and normal memory is presented in support of the framework, and 4 experiments with 301 5–40 yr old Ss are described. (5½ p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Memory for a recent event can be expressed explicitly, as conscious recollection, or implicitly, as a facilitation of test performance without conscious recollection. A growing number of recent studies have been concerned with implicit memory and its relation to explicit memory. This article presents an historical survey of observations concerning implicit memory, reviews the findings of contemporary experimental research, and delineates the strengths and weaknesses of alternative theoretical accounts of implicit memory. It is argued that dissociations between implicit and explicit memory have been documented across numerous tasks and subject populations, represent an important challenge for research and theory, and should be viewed in the context of other dissociations between implicit and explicit expressions of knowledge that have been documented in recent cognitive and neuropsychological research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes experiments in which happy or sad moods were induced in Ss by hypnotic suggestion to investigate the influence of emotions on memory and thinking. Results show that (a) Ss exhibited mood-state-dependent memory in recall of word lists, personal experiences recorded in a daily diary, and childhood experiences; (b) Ss recalled a greater percentage of those experiences that were affectively congruent with the mood they were in during recall; (c) emotion powerfully influenced such cognitive processes as free associations, imaginative fantasies, social perceptions, and snap judgments about others' personalities; (d) when the feeling-tone of a narrative agreed with the reader's emotion, the salience and memorability of events in that narrative were increased. An associative network theory is proposed to account for these results. In this theory, an emotion serves as a memory unit that can enter into associations with coincident events. Activation of this emotion unit aids retrieval of events associated with it; it also primes emotional themata for use in free association, fantasies, and perceptual categorization.
Scientists Making a Difference is a fascinating collection of first-person narratives from the top psychological scientists of the modern era. These readable essays highlight the most important contributions to theory and research in psychological science, show how the greatest psychological scientists formulate and think about their work, and illustrate how their ideas develop over time. In particular, the authors address what they consider their most important scientific contribution, how they got the idea, how the idea matters for the world beyond academic psychology, and what they would like to see as the next steps in research. The contributors, who were chosen from an objectively compiled list of the most eminent psychological scientists, provide a broad range of insightful perspectives. This book is essential reading for students, researchers and professionals interested in learning about the development of the biggest ideas in modern psychological science, described firsthand by the scientists themselves.
For a number of years, four theories of depression have predominated in the psychological literature: Peter Lewinsohn’s (1974) behavioral theory, Martin Seligman’s (1974) learned helplessness theory, Lynn Rehm’s (1977) self-control model, and Aaron Beck’s (1972) cognitive theory. These theories have been influential in generating new research and new findings have influenced the theorists to revise and update their theories. For the most part these revisions have been in the direction of adopting more cognitive approaches.
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The development of thinking is discussed from a sociocultural perspective. Three features of the social and cultural context that play important roles in organizing and directing cognitive development are presented and illustrated empirically: (a) activity goals and values of the culture, (b) material and symbolic tools for satisfying cultural goals and values, and (c) higher level structures that instantiate cultural goals and values in everyday practices. The article concludes with a discussion of the utility of this approach for advancing understanding of human intellectual growth.
A small number of studies have reported impaired explicit memory and intact implicit memory performance in participants classified as depressed. In the present study we examined this finding taking account of the distinction between datadriven and conceptually driven processing. The performance of participants diagnosed with depression was examined on implicit and explicit memory tasks which were designed to tap either predominantly perceptual or conceptual processes. Depressed participants demonstrated performance deficits on both the implicit and explicit conceptual tasks (category association and free recall, respectively) but showed intact performance in the implicit perceptual task (word-fragment completion). These results suggest that people with severe depression show deficits in conceptual processing and that this deficit occurs under both explicit and implicit task instructions.
The question was whether a person's emotional mood could serve as a distinctive context for learning and retrieval of memories. Hypnotized subjects learned a word-list while feeling happy or sad, and recalled it in the same or the opposite mood, either immediately (Exp. 1) or after one day (Exp. 2). Retention proved to be surprisingly independent of the congruence of learning and testing moods. Experiment 3 had subjects learn two lists, one while happy, one while sad. Later recall of both lists while happy (or sad) revealed a powerful congruence effect. Thus, learning mood provided a helpful retrieval cue and differentiating context only in multi-list circumstances where confusions and interference among memories would otherwise obtain.
Influences of mood on qualitative aspects of cognitive processing are examined within a semantic priming paradigm. The priming effect reflects the reduction of latency for a lexical decision task when a target word is presented in combination with an associatively related prime word. The effect was higher for subjects in whom positive affect had been induced than for a control group, if prime and target were high-associatively related. There was no effect of mood on priming for low-associatively related prime-target pairs. The results are interpreted in terms of a general facilitating influence of mood on spreading activation independent of the affective quality of the processed material.
Recent research on young children's memory for personal episodes provides new insights into the phenomenon of infantile amnesia, first identified by Freud. New research indicates that children learn to share memories with others, that they acquire the narrative forms of memory recounting, and that such recounts are effective in reinstating experienced memories only after the children can utilize another person's representation of an experience in language as a reinstatement of their own experience. This competence requires a level of mastery of the representational function of language that appears at the earliest in the mid to late preschool years.
from the perspective of cognitive psychology, the most striking characteristic of research on cognitive factors in mood disorders is the narrow range of experimental paradigms that have been used / at a general level, most of the research has focussed on conscious processes / the memory research has concentrated on explicit memory for declarative knowledge, with recall being preferred to recognition as the retention test
common sense suggests that a full understanding of the role of cognition in mood disorders is unlikely to be forthcoming from such a narrowly focussed approach / more importantly, there are reasons for assuming that mood-disorder patients may differ from normal controls in theoretically significant ways on some of the aspects of cognitive processing that have received very little attention (e.g., automatic processes; implicit memory)
at the most general level, the search for cognitive vulnerability factors underlying clinical anxiety and depression should be theoretically motivated / the evidence increasingly indicates that some aspects of cognitive functioning may form part of a cognitive vulnerability factor whereas other aspects may simply reflect clinical mood states / we need to understand why it is that only some aspects of cognitive functioning apparently reflect a vulnerability factor
the memory system [structural aspects of memory, episodic and semantic memory, procedural and declarative knowledge, semantic networks, schemata, memory processes, levels-of-processing theory, explicit and implicit memory] / perception and attention [date-driven and conceptually driven processes in perception, automaticity] (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
the issues addressed in this chapter are very general ones / in the memory domain, the question is: why do older children and adults remember more than younger children / in the metamemory domain, the question is: why are older children and adults more aware of their own memory performance than younger children (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This book introduces you to the fascinating phenomena involved in human memory: the theories about how memory works, the supporting evidence for those theories, and the methods scientists use to explore human memory. With this emphasis on theory and models as well as on research, the author maintains an ideal balance between historically significant findings and current, state-of-the-art research. He vividly illustrates the process of designing and conducting diagnostic research, and in the process gives you an appreciation of experimental design. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
consider research that has adopted the information processing paradigm, and used cognitive-experimental research techniques to investigate the cognitive characteristics of anxiety and depression / until recently the application of the information processing approach to the study of these emotions was restricted to the investigation of associated cognitive deficits, and this research will be reviewed / go on to consider how the cognitive-experimental approach has been extended to directly address more recently clinically motivated hypotheses concerning the role of cognitive factors in the emotional disorders
affect-related cognitive impairments [cognitive deficits in depression, cognitive deficits in anxiety]
models of affect congruent information processing [Beck's schema theory of mood and cognition, Bower's network model of mood and cognition, comparing the schema and network models]
evidence for mood congruent information processing [cognitive products in depression and anxiety, cognitive processes in depression and anxiety] (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
identify the circumstances necessary for emotion to influence memory and, more specifically, to speculate about the mechanisms by which emotion mediates memory / review some of the literature on emotion and memory and propose a general framework that accounts for the effect of emotion on both explicit and implicit memory / build a theoretical bridge between the study of emotion and memory and the broader issue of contextual effects in memory / a second bridge we hope to build is between cognitive psychology and theories concerning the nature of emotion (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Discusses the role of affect in memory, and stages in the memory process; origins, methodological considerations, and theory in memory research; empirical research in the intensity of perceived affect, and selective learning and retention; and the conceptual framework for an integrative model of affective intensity and selective recall. (6 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
recent research has examined how many different factors influence implicit memory performance / of these factors, age, is perhaps the most interesting because, as well as providing insights into the mechanisms of implicit memory, studies of aging allow the concept of implicit memory to be examined from a broader developmental perspective
consider two basic questions: 1. does implicit memory change with age / 2. are there age-related changes in the contribution that implicit memory makes to overall memory performance (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Recently, several studies have addressed the question of whether depression affects priming in implicit memory tasks. The main aim of this experiment was to assess the presence of a bias for negative information in explicit memory (free recall) and implicit memory (word-stem completion) tasks among subclinically depressed subjects compared to nondepressed subjects, using the typical levels of processing manipulation. The results of this study show the existence of a mood-congruent memory bias for both implicit and explicit memory in depressed subjects. The theoretical implications of these findings for implicit and explicit memory biases associated with depressed mood are discussed.
The relationship of pleasantness and intensity of affect to retrieval of reallife experiences was investigated in three experiments. Subjects reported the first specific personal experience that came to mind for a series of prompt words. Latency of report was regarded as a measure of memory accessibility. The first study compared retrieval time for prompts that sampled affects varying in pleasantness and intensity. Experiments II and III assessed the possible contributions of demand characteristics and implicit inferential processes to retrospective judgments of feelings. Judgments of the intensity of feeling engendered when the events occurred were inversely related to report latency. Results support the conclusion that intensity ratings were reliable indices of memory information rather than inferences or reconstructions mediated by report latency. Other characteristics of recollections such as pleasantness, recency, or relative frequency of the specific affects were not correlated with report latency. Two explanations of the findings are considered: an arousal hypothesis and an extent-of-processing hypothesis. The latter provides the most adequate account and relates the present findings to a more general theory of memory processes. The results are also relevant to investigations of mood-dependent retrieval.