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Special review
Evolution of the human fear-circuitry and acute sociogenic
pseudoneurological symptoms: The Neolithic
balanced-polymorphism hypothesis
H. Stefan Bracha*, Dawn T. Yoshioka,
Nicole K. Masukawa, Deborah J.J. Stockman
National Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Department of Veterans Affairs,
Pacific Islands Health Care System Spark M. Matsunaga Medical Center 1132 Bishop St. #307, Honolulu, USA
Received 10 December 2004; accepted 16 May 2005
Available online 18 August 2005
Abstract
In light of the increasing threat of large-scale massacres such as terrorism against non-combatants (civilians), more attention
is warranted not only to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) but also to acute sociogenic pseudoneurological (bconversionQ)
symptoms, especially epidemic sociogenic symptoms. We posit that conversion disorders are etiologically related to specific
evolutionary pressures (inescapable threats to life) in the late stage of the human environment of evolutionary adaptedness
(EEA). Bracha et al. have recently argued that from the neuroevolutionary perspective, medically unexplained efferent
vasovagal syncope and medically unexplained craniofacial musculoskeletal pain in young otherwise healthy individuals,
may be taxonomized as stress and fear-circuitry disorders. In the present article, we extend neuroevolutionary perspectives
to acute pseudoneurological sociogenic (bconversiveQ) symptoms: psychogenic non-epileptic attacks (bpseudoseizuresQ),
epidemic sociogenic disorders (DSM-IV-TR Epidemic bHysteriaQ), conversive motor deficits (pseudo-paralysis and pseudo-
cerebellar symptoms), and psychogenic blindness. We hypothesize that these perplexing pseudoneurological stress-triggered
symptoms, which constitute psychopathology in extant humans, are traceable to allele-variant polymorphisms which spread
during the Neolithic EEA. During Neolithic warfare, conversive symptoms may have increased the survival odds for some non-
combatants by visually (i.e., bnon-verballyQ) signaling to predatory conspecifics that one does not present a danger. This is
consistent with the age and sex pattern of conversive disorders. Testable and falsifiable predictions are presented; e.g., at the
genome–transcriptome interface, one of the major oligogenic loci involved in conversive spectrum disorders may carry a
developmentally sensitive allele in a stable polymorphism (balanced polymorphism) in which the gene expression mechanism is
gradually suppressed by pleiotropic androgens especially dehydroxyepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S). Taxonomic implica-
0165-0327/$ - see front matter. Published by Elsevier B.V.
doi:10.1016/j.jad.2005.05.013
* Corresponding author. National Center for PTSD, Department of Veterans Affairs, Pacific Islands Health Care System, Spark M. Matsunaga
Medical Center, 1132 Bishop St., Ste. #307, Honolulu, HI 96813-2830, USA. Tel.: +1 808 566 1652; fax: +1 808 566 1885.
E-mail address: h.bracha@med.va.gov (H.S. Bracha).
Journal of Affective Disorders 88 (2005) 119– 129
www.elsevier.com/locate/jad
tions for the much-needed rapprochement between the forthcoming Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders,
Fifth Edition (DSM-V) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) are discussed.
Published by Elsevier B.V.
Keywords: Allele-variant polymorphisms; Conversion disorder; DSM-V; Terrorism; Combat; War
Contents
1. Distal (evolutionary) etiological perspectives in psychiatry ............................ 120
2. Up to 95.3% of conversive symptoms remain unexplained ............................ 121
3. Pseudoneurological symptoms as fitness-enhancing Neolithic fear responses ................... 122
4. Neolithic inter-tribal warfare patterns and pseudoneurological conversive symptoms ............... 122
5. Subtypes within the sociogenic–conversive spectrum ............................... 123
5.1. Acute fear-induced motor deficits ..................................... 123
5.2. Sociogenic fear-induced motor (non-epileptic) attacks ........................... 123
5.3. Acute fear-induced epidemic faintness ................................... 123
6. Insights from recent bio-anthropological research ................................. 124
7. Implications for DSM-V and some empirically testable and falsifiable predictions ................ 124
7.1. Predictions for research across culture-bound genomes .......................... 124
7.2. Toward a rapprochement between DSM and the European ICD . . . ................... 125
7.3. Conversive (pseudoneurological) disorder may be a more robust construct than dissociation,
and thus a better target for biological research ............................... 125
7.4. Implications for the taxonomy of fear-induced faintness in DSM-V . ................... 125
7.5. Some possible implications for the DSM-V terminology ......................... 125
7.6. Predictions empirically testable in non-human simians........................... 126
7.7. Predictions for transcriptomic research into the sociogenic (conversive) spectrum ............. 126
7.8. Testable pharmacological treatment approaches .............................. 126
7.9. Toward stigma reduction in clinical settings ................................ 126
7.10. Toward a psychiatric taxonomy that is more etiologically based . . . ................... 126
8. Concluding remarks ................................................ 126
9. In summary .................................................... 127
Acknowledgements ................................................... 127
References ....................................................... 127
1. Distal (evolutionary) etiological perspectives in
psychiatry
This article’s focus on the question of bwhyQ(distal
or neuroevolutionary etiology) may be a useful com-
plement to the standard biological psychiatric research
focus on bhowQ(proximal/proximate or neurochem-
ical etiology). Experimental and evolutionary neuros-
cientists have cogently argued that the distal/ultimate
etiology of many phobias is a fear-circuitry adaptation
that served to enhance survival and reproduction dur-
ing mammalian or early primate evolution. For land-
mark empirical studies and comprehensive recent
reviews of the empirical research, see Cosmides and
Tooby (1992, 1999),Blanchard et al. (1993),Cook
and Mineka (1989, 1990),Menzies and Clarke
(1993),Ohman and Mineka (2001) and Poulton et
al. (1999).
The neuroevolutionary perspective is most clear
regarding specific phobias triggered by situations
that were potentially lethal throughout the human
EEA, such as high elevations, confined spaces, or
being under the simultaneous visual scrutiny of
many non-kin conspecifics. Nesse summarized most
of the literature prior to 1999 in a series of landmark
reviews (Nesse, 1999a,b). Nesse has pointed out that
H.S. Bracha et al. / Journal of Affective Disorders 88 (2005) 119–129120
subsequent assortative mating may also play a role in
amplifying polygenic transmission resulting in shift-
ing the severity of these responses from the normative
range into the clinical range (a similar argument can
be made for oligogenic transmission). Similar per-
spectives were echoed by Bracha (in press, 2004),
Bracha et al. (2005a),Buss et al. (1998),Marks
(1987, 1988),Klein (1993),Marks and Nesse
(1997),Niculescu and Akiskal (2001),Perry and Pol-
lard (1998),Perry et al. (1995), and Stein and Bouwer
(1997).
More recently, we have argued that from a neuroe-
volutionary (distal etiology) perspective, medically
unexplained facial pain, clenching–grinding symp-
toms, as well as habitual efferent vasovagal neurocar-
diovascular syncope, are traceable to fear-circuits
wired during the early Paleolithic (early Pleistocene)
or earlier, and conserved in the human clade, and may
be taxonomizable in the fear-circuitry disorders spec-
trum (Bracha, 2004; Bracha et al., 2005a,b).
In light of the increasing threat of large-scale mas-
sacres, especially terrorist attacks against non-comba-
tants (civilians), more attention to sociogenic symptoms,
particularly epidemic sociogenic symptoms, may be
warranted (Bartholomew and Wessely, 2002; Wessely,
2000). Biological psychiatric researchers have paid
little attention to this perplexing spectrum of fear-
induced syndromes. While the evolutionary etiology
of many specific phobias is intuitively clear, certain
symptoms within the sociogenic–conversive spectrum
remain less obvious.
In a landmark article on dissociative symptoms,
Perry et al. have pointed out that:
bHumans evolved... in the presence of two major
predators: large cats (e.g., tigers, panthers) and, the
most dangerous predators, other hominids, including
humans... To the cats, all humans (males, females,
and children) were roughly equivalent prey, with
some preferences for the small, slow, and weak. To
other hominids, however, there was a dramatic differ-
ence between males, females, and young children...
One need not imagine long the response of a violent
human male when faced with one female who will
willingly comply with the commands to move to his
camp and with another who is screaming, yelling,
hitting, fighting, and trying to run away. Hyperarousal
(fighting or fleeing) would clearly reduce... the prob-
ability that her genes would be passed to another
generationQ(Perry et al., 1995).
In the present article, we extend a similar neuroevo-
lutionary perspective to acute pseudoneurological
symptoms. This neuroevolutionary hypothesis is com-
plementary to the clinical and basic research on the
neurophysiology (proximal/proximate etiology) of con-
versive spectrum disorders. Our primary focus is on
psychogenic, non-epileptic attacks (bpseudoseizuresQ),
and epidemic sociogenic syndromes (epidemic faint-
ness being the most common form) (Boss, 1997; Mof-
fatt, 1982; Van Ommeren et al., 2001).
Some pseudoneurological symptoms, which have
outlived their usefulness and thus are non-fitness-
enhancing in the modern environment, may have
been fitness-enhancing fear-circuitry responses to
war-related, inescapable stress in the late stage of
the human EEA. We posit that a firm-wired (prepo-
tentiated) limbic extreme-stress response resembling a
severe handicap, such as pseudo-paralysis (limping),
pseudo-cerebellar symptoms (staggering), psycho-
genic loss of eyesight (psychogenic blindness), or
psychogenic motor attacks (falling to the ground
with epileptic-like behavior) may have been selected
into some genomes specifically during the Neolithic.
We posit that during Neolithic periods of warfare,
acute pseudoneurological symptoms may have pro-
vided a clear non-verbal (visual) signal to predatory
conspecifics (often raiders from a tribe that spoke a
different language) (Keeley, 1996; LeBlanc and Reg-
ister, 2003) that one is severely injured or severely
diseased and thus unlikely to be an immediate threat.
Evolutionary pressures such as these have been shown
to result in balanced (stable) polymorphisms (Cavalli-
Sforza, 2000; Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994).
2. Up to 95.3% of conversive symptoms remain
unexplained
In clinical settings, the importance of a comprehen-
sive neuropsychiatric work-up of the first episode of
acute conversive symptoms cannot be overemphasized
(Saygi et al., 1992). However, the wording regarding
conversive symptoms in the DSM-IV-TR reflects the
extreme caution with which academic psychiatry pre-
sently regards these symptoms. This caution was lar-
H.S. Bracha et al. / Journal of Affective Disorders 88 (2005) 119–129 121
gely in response to the often cited 1965 study by Elliot
Slater (Slater, 1965; Slater and Glithero, 1965). Slater
found previously undetected localized neurological
disorders in 56% of patients originally diagnosed
with conversive disorders. However, newer, more
carefully conducted studies do not support Slater’s
conclusions published 40 years ago. The 1998 study
by Crimlisk et al. (bSlater RevisitedQ) done at the
British National Hospital for Nervous Disease found
that 95.3% (61 out of 64) of conversive disorder
patients referred to tertiary-care centers had no neuro-
logical explanation after a 6-year follow-up (Crimlisk
et al., 1998). Similarly, a study by Mace and Trimble
on conversive disorders found that the presenting
symptoms were still neurologically unexplained at
10-year follow-up in 86.0% (68 out of 79) of their
patients (Mace and Trimble, 1996). These two British
landmark studies on conversive disorders may not
have been considered by the DSM-IV-TR work group.
As the DSM-V publication deadline approaches, it
is noteworthy that since the 1994 publication of DSM-
IV, advances in neuroimaging and other neurological
diagnostic techniques have resulted in a decrease in
the percentage of localizable neurological lesions mis-
diagnosed as a conversive disorder. Thus, we predict
that the majority of patients diagnosed with conver-
sive disorders will remain in the realm of psychiatry at
least for the next decade.
3. Pseudoneurological symptoms as
fitness-enhancing Neolithic fear responses
There has been surprisingly little discussion of
neuroevolutionary etiologies as applied to conversive
symptoms. While pseudoneurological symptoms are
not part of the pan-mammalian hard-wired fear
response sequence (freeze, flight, fight, fright) (Bra-
cha, in press, 2004; Bracha et al., 2004a), we posit
below that due to long, nearly continuous warfare
during the Neolithic EEA, certain pseudoneurological
fear-circuitry responses were selected into the genome
of neurally modern humans through what Darwin
termed bsexual selectionQ(also known as mate selec-
tion or mate choice). Darwin dedicated 70 pages of his
book bDescent of Man, and Selection in Relation to
SexQto human sexual selection. However, it was not
until the mid-1990s that experimental psychologists
revived Darwin’s ideas regarding sexual selection of
behavioral traits. Reviews of recent research empha-
sized the importance of adaptations shaped by Dar-
win’s sexual selection. Miller concluded that b...sex
differences are highly diagnostic of sexual selectionQ
(Miller, 2001, p. 226). Similar arguments have been
made by Cosmides and Tooby (1999),Campbell
(1999), and Morgan (1990).
4. Neolithic inter-tribal warfare patterns and
pseudoneurological conversive symptoms
It could reasonably be argued that during the Neo-
lithic EEA, any antagonistic encounter with non-kin
conspecifics was consistently associated with threats to
life. As Perry has noted, dissociative symptoms may
have been one of the effective survival responses for
some individuals in settled Neolithic communities
when under attack by predatory conspecifics (Perry
et al., 1995). Similarly, we posit that inheriting non-
species typical (non-wild type) polymorphic alleles
predisposing (firm-wiring), an individual to manifest
acute symptoms resembling a neurological injury dur-
ing extreme fear may have increased the odds of sur-
viving Neolithic inter-group warfare and hence was
selected into some genomes. A wide range of such
Neolithic evolutionary pressures have been shown
to result in a balanced (stable) allele polymorphism
(Harvey et al., 1998; Holden and Mace, 1997).
Paleo-anthropological research has documented a
specific pattern of prehistoric inter-group warfare in
the Neolithic. In contrast to warfare in historical times,
Neolithic inter-group warfare almost exclusively
involved attacks against non-combatants in unsuspect-
ing settlements by raiding parties of mateless young,
post-pubertal males in search of material and especially
reproductive resources. Neolithic combat occurred
exclusively between young males, with females and
children serving as objects of competition. This has
been clearly documented by research on prehistoric
human remains. It has been estimated that the victors
killed 15%–50% of post-pubertal males and most
infants and toddlers, and took females and most
weaned pre-pubertal individuals captive (Lambert,
1997; Larsen, 1999; LeBlanc and Register, 2003;
Maschner and Reedy-Maschner, 1998). These Neo-
lithic patterns of intra-human killing have also been
H.S. Bracha et al. / Journal of Affective Disorders 88 (2005) 119–129122
confirmed by studies of male lineages through the Y
chromosome (Underhill et al., 2001) and of female
lineages through mitochondrial DNA (Seielstad et al.,
1998).
Fear-induced acute pseudoneurological symptoms
were thus probably non-fitness-enhancing for Neo-
lithic post-pubertal males, resulting either in death,
severe injury, or, at minimum, a drop in mate avail-
ability or in mate choice hierarchy. In contrast, for all
reproductive-age women and for weaned pre-pubertal
individuals, fear-induced acute pseudoneurological
symptoms may have been fitness-enhancing since
they increased the likelihood of preserving life and
reproduction. Consistent with the above reasoning,
conversive symptoms are rare among post-pubertal
males (DSM-IV-TR) (Boss, 1997, p. 496). Conversive
symptoms are significantly less common among men
than women, with reported female-to-male ratios ran-
ging from 2:1 to 10:1 (Boss, 1997). Additionally,
epidemiological studies have universally documented
that conversive symptoms mostly affect young and
healthy individuals under age 20 and rarely occur after
age 35 (Boss, 1997).
5. Subtypes within the sociogenic–conversive
spectrum
5.1. Acute fear-induced motor deficits
Conversive motor deficits are typically marked by
unilateral pseudo-paralysis (limping) or pseudo-cere-
bellar symptoms (staggering). We posit that during the
Neolithic EEA some healthy individuals who reflex-
ively limped or staggered away rather than engaged in
combat were less likely to be attacked by predatory
con-specifics during inter-tribal warfare. As Perry et
al. have presciently noted, the reverse would be
expected if an unsuspecting human settlement was
attacked by non-human predators (typically large
cats, which prefer to prey on the small, the slow,
and the already-injured) (Perry et al., 1995).
5.2. Sociogenic fear-induced motor (non-epileptic)
attacks
Conversive non-epileptic attacks account for
approximately 20% of all patients discharged from
tertiary epilepsy centers (Benbadis, 2001; Krumholz,
1999). Prior to such referrals, patients with acute fear-
induced non-epileptic attacks often endure ineffective
and costly pharmacological treatment. These patients
are often prescribed multiple anti-convulsants due to
lack of response. Conversive non-epileptic attacks
have also been identified as a significant healthcare
cost issue, although exact figures are not available
(Goldstein, 2004). Consistent with the neuroevolution-
ary hypothesis presented here, young women account
for approximately 75% of conversive motor (non-epi-
leptic) attacks (Tojek et al., 2000). This age and sex
distribution is similar to fainting induced by blood-
letting-related stimuli (Bienvenu and Eaton, 1998).
5.3. Acute fear-induced epidemic faintness
There has been little attention paid to the fact that
epidemic sociogenic illness is also being reported in
developed countries (Brown and Trimble, 2000; Mof-
fatt, 1982; Wessely, 2000). However, a high percen-
tage of the reports on epidemic sociogenic illness are
published in languages other than English, making it
difficult to summarize all available data. Boss has
critically reviewed the 70 English-language reports
on epidemic sociogenic illness published between
1973 and 1993 (Boss, 1997). In her comprehensive
review, symptoms which we consider in the
bfaintness-spectrumQ(fainting, swooning, dizziness,
lightheadedness, pseudo-seizures, unconsciousness)
were reported by 84% of individuals (Boss, 1997).
In all published studies of epidemic sociogenic dis-
orders, symptoms were most often reported in healthy
individuals under age 20 (Bartholomew and Wessely,
2002; Boss, 1997; Jones et al., 2000; Wessely, 2000).
In her review, Boss noted that epidemic sociogenic
symptoms frequently occur in indoor settings such as
classrooms. Therefore, dehydration, overheating (sun-
stroke), physical fatigue, and/or prolonged standing
are unlikely causative agents of the symptoms. Boss
has also called attention to the fact that such epidemic
faintness occurs primarily in individuals who are in
the line of sight of the index case (Boss, 1997). This
is consistent with visual (non-verbal) signaling. There
has been little attention paid to the findings of Boss
and others that epidemic sociogenic illness most often
manifests as epidemic faintness (i.e., faintness in
response to the fainting of a peer group member)
H.S. Bracha et al. / Journal of Affective Disorders 88 (2005) 119–129 123
(Boss, 1997; Moffatt, 1982; Van Ommeren et al.,
2001).
Epidemic sociogenic syndromes may be ripe for a
science-based theoretical conceptualization. In this
theoretical article, we posit that during the Neolithic
(a period of nearly continuous intertribal predation)
seeing a peer drop to the ground (thus appearing
severely injured) non-verbally signaled to others in
the group that there was a cause for alarm. We posit
that a predisposition to faint in response to fainting of
a member of one’s peer group may have increased the
odds of survival. Epidemic faintness in modern clin-
ical settings may be a manifestation of this hard-wired
or prepotentiated (firm-wired) neolithic alarm-signal-
ing response, now encoded in some genomes and
possibly amplified through assortative mating.
6. Insights from recent bio-anthropological
research
The high density of populations required for the
hypothesis we present in this paper came into exis-
tence only in the Neolithic. It may not be immedi-
ately obvious that the Neolithic period was of
sufficient time depth (i.e., sufficient duration) to
allow the spread of balanced polymorphisms. Lit-
tle-known evolutionary anthropological and allele
frequency studies may be instructive in this regard.
The Neolithic period lasted approximately 480 gen-
erations (12,000 years) in those parts of the world
that pioneered agriculture and in parts of the world
that pioneered pottery. This would have permitted
the spread of polymorphic traits with moderate selec-
tion coefficients. The best known example of an
adaptation, which is specifically of Neolithic time
depth (origin) and which entered the human genome
as a balanced (stable) polymorphism, is hereditary
persistence of intestinal lactase (the ability to digest
lactose past the age of four) (Harvey et al., 1998;
Holden and Mace, 1997). Cavalli-Sforza et al. have
calculated that a high selection coefficient (3%) will
result in a 100-fold increase in allele frequency in
3800 years. Furthermore, a moderate selection coef-
ficient of 1% will result in a 100-fold increase in
allele frequency in 11,500 years (e.g., from 0.05% to
5% of the population) (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994).
Thus, we posit that most acute pseudoneurological
syndromes are evolved fear-circuits of Neolithic time
depth (12,000 years).
Geographical differences are especially instructive.
Another example of a balanced polymorphism of
Neolithic time depth is the region-specific reduction
in the size of human dentition after the development
of pottery. Pottery technology was first developed in
East Asia in the early Neolithic. Pottery cooking
greatly decreased the survival advantage of large
teeth in the East Asian culture-bound genomes (Eur-
opean culture-bound genomes still retain tooth size
similar to that of the more archaic non-neurally mod-
ern humans). A directional selection resulting in a
reduction in tooth size, which progressed at 2% per
1000 years, has been proposed (review by Hill, 2004).
Sex differences are also instructive; e.g., reduction in
tooth size evolved more rapidly in females than in
males. This is attributed to the pioneering role of
females in developing both agriculture technologies
and pottery technologies and their lower consumption
of game meat during the Neolithic (review by Hill,
2004). Our hypothesis that pseudoneurological syn-
dromes are of recent (Neolithic) time depth is also
evinced by the observation that the predisposing
alleles were not driven to fixation but rather remained
species atypical.
7. Implications for DSM-V and some empirically
testable and falsifiable predictions
The purpose of theory-driven articles is to look at
conventional wisdom from a new angle, often from
the perspective of a seemingly distant scientific dis-
cipline. Hypotheses presented in theory-driven articles
are, by definition, conjectural. However, they serve
the purpose of generating testable and falsifiable pre-
dictions. As Nesse points out, neuroevolutionary
hypotheses are not untestable (Nesse, 1999b). Possi-
ble implications for the DSM-V research agenda and a
few testable and falsifiable predictions are listed
below.
7.1. Predictions for research across culture-bound
genomes
Based on the literature reviewed here, we predict
that the highest prevalence of sociogenic pseudoneur-
H.S. Bracha et al. / Journal of Affective Disorders 88 (2005) 119–129124
ological syndromes would be found in culture-bound
genomes whose geographic ancestry is in ecological
locations of the globe where agriculture and pottery
were pioneered (and thus the Neolithic period lasted
the longest). These regions are the Fertile Crescent,
North Africa, Anatolia, and parts of South Asia and of
East Asia. We predict that pseudo-neurological dis-
orders will demonstrate high genotypic variance as
evinced by high h-squared, high phenotypic variance,
and lack of universality across cultures.
7.2. Toward a rapprochement between DSM and the
European ICD
The importance of rapprochement between the
forthcoming DSM-V and the ICD taxonomy has
been emphasized by Perugi et al. (1998). ICD-10
has re-categorized the conversive disorders and re-
conceptualized them as more akin to dissociative dis-
orders (Guggenheim, 2000; Kupfer et al., 2002).
Our neuroevolutionary perspective also suggests
that DSM-V should similarly delete bConversion
DisordersQfrom the somatization section and re-
conceptualize them as part of a new bDissociative–
Conversive Spectrum,Qwith conversive and disso-
ciative syndromes falling along a continuum, as in
the ICD-10 and in the forthcoming ICD-11.
7.3. Conversive (pseudoneurological) disorder may
be a more robust construct than dissociation, and
thus a better target for biological research
The nebulous construct of dissociation has been
recently widely criticized, primarily for being a hetero-
geneous syndrome consisting of unrelated etiologies.
Research on dissociation over the last three decades
has been a challenging enterprise, since neurological
phenocopies of dissociation, especially frontal lobe
seizures and other hyper-glutamatergic states (endo-
genous or exogenous), are difficult to rule out. Heur-
istically, it may be easier to focus early research on the
more extreme manifestations of a clinical spectrum.
We posit that conversion is a much more robust con-
struct than dissociation. Unlike dissociation, the diag-
nosis of conversion relies much less on self-report of
symptoms and much more on collateral history and
clinically observable signs. Clinical research toward
the development of the DSM-V and ICD-11 may
benefit by shifting some of the focus from dissociative
to conversive syndromes, which we posit, lie at the
extreme end of the Dissociative–Conversive Spectrum.
7.4. Implications for the taxonomy of fear-induced
faintness in DSM-V
As we have argued in two recent reviews (Bracha,
2004; Bracha et al., 2005a), blood-injection-injury
phobia is a pseudo-neurocardiovascular disorder,
which is physiologically puzzling and hemodynami-
cally paradoxical when compared with all other anxi-
ety disorders. We posit that blood-injection-injury
fears are better conceptualized as part of a new
DSM-V bDissociative–Conversive SpectrumQbecause
of shared features, which are all in the bfaintness-
spectrumQ(fear-induced fainting, swooning, bmedi-
cally unexplained dizziness,Qand lightheadedness).
This is consistent with reports in the neurological
literature that medically unexplained syncope is highly
comorbid with conversive motor (non-epileptic)
attacks (Brenner, 1997; Zaidi et al., 1998). More the-
ory-driven research in this inter-disciplinary area
between neurology and psychiatry is needed.
7.5. Some possible implications for the DSM-V
terminology
The current American terminology for the conver-
sive spectrum frequently includes terms that are
increasingly perceived as stigmatizing. The British
term bacute sociogenic illness,Qcommonly used in
Europe, has the advantage of emphasizing the brief
nature of these particular pseudoneurological attacks.
It was originally coined by Wessely (2000) and may
be preferable for this spectrum of conditions, ranging
from conversive motor deficits to pseudo-convulsive
(non-epileptic) attacks. Other terms such as bacute
pseudo-localized disorderQor acute pseudoneurologi-
cal disorder can also be considered. Sociogenic symp-
toms in epidemic form have been reported under a
variety of names since circa 400 BC. The DSM-IV-TR
continues to use the original 2400-year-old Herodo-
tian term epidemic bhysteria,Qwhich is stigmatizing
and should not be retained in DSM-V.
On the other hand, we argue that the prefix
bepidemic,Qused in the DSM-IV-TR (p. 494) should
be retained in DSM-V and is preferable to the lay term
H.S. Bracha et al. / Journal of Affective Disorders 88 (2005) 119–129 125
bmassQbecause it may help minimize association with
terms such as bmass injuryQand bmass trauma.Q
Furthermore, bepidemicQemphasizes the acute and
benign nature of the disorder. The term bepidemic
sociogenic attacksQis increasingly used by epileptol-
ogists and should also be considered for epidemic
sociogenic disorders in DSM-V. An additional advan-
tage of the term bepidemic sociogenic attacksQmay be
its resemblance to the term bpanic attacksQand to
bataque de nervios.Q
7.6. Predictions empirically testable in non-human
simians
One testable prediction, based on the Neolithic
balanced polymorphism hypothesis, is that sociogenic
pseudoneurological symptoms would not be found in
extant non-human simians (i.e., that these symptoms
are species-specific and limited to neurally modern
humans).
7.7. Predictions for transcriptomic research into the
sociogenic (conversive) spectrum
In addition to anatomically identifying fear-circuits
(Bracha et al., in press), it is critical to identify the
epigenetic transcriptomic processes involved. One of
the major (oligogenic) loci involved in the conver-
sive/dissociative spectrum disorders may carry a
developmentally sensitive allele (existing in a
balanced polymorphism) in which the expression
mechanism is gradually suppressed by pleiotropic
androgens, such as dehydroxyepiandrosterone sulfate
(DHEA-S). This is likely to manifest as a decrease in
gene penetrance following puberty in males. The above
prediction is testable and may provide a plausible
genetic model for our explanation of the age and sex
pattern of sociogenic pseudoneurological disorders.
The above hypothesis may thus facilitate a candidate-
gene approach to research into these syndromes.
7.8. Testable pharmacological treatment approaches
The possible role of the pleiotropic adreno-cortical
androgen DHEA-S is especially intriguing because,
unlike testosterone (that decreases during combat-
training stress), DHEA-S increases during combat-
training stress in males (Charney, 2004; Morgan et
al., 2004). DHEA-S is also intriguing from a clinical
point of view because, unlike testosterone, it is an
over-the-counter compound and may thus be a pro-
mising treatment option for sociogenic pseudo-neuro-
logical syndromes.
7.9. Toward stigma reduction in clinical settings
Acute medically unexplained physical symptoms
in young healthy individuals after exposure to war
zones are a rapidly growing concern and includes a
sub-group with sociogenic etiology (Clauw et al.,
2003; Jones and Wessely, 2003). We have argued
elsewhere that stigma has been the major self-imposed
barrier to early identification and early treatment of
medically unexplained physical symptoms, especially
in active duty military personnel and veterans (Bracha
et al., 2004b, 2005b). We posit that stigma about this
spectrum of disorders may be reduced by a new non-
psychodynamic conceptualization and by shifting the
emphasis from ontogenetic etiologies to phylogenetic
neuroevolutionary etiologies. Diminished stigma may
increase acceptability of evidence-based treatments,
such as the ones already used for other neuroevolu-
tionarily based fear-circuitry syndromes such as social
phobia.
7.10. Toward a psychiatric taxonomy that is more
etiologically based
The discussion of etiologies has been judiciously
minimized in DSM-III, DSM-IV, and DSM-IV-TR.
However, the published research agenda for the forth-
coming DSM-V has specifically highlighted the need
for a more etiologically based classification (Charney
et al., 2002; Kupfer et al., 2002). The neuroevolution-
ary etiological perspective presented in this paper is
consistent with, and may serve a useful purpose in, the
DSM-V research agenda.
8. Concluding remarks
Evolutionary psychiatrists have primarily focused
on non-species specific (bbasicQ) fear-circuitry
mechanisms, which were wired much earlier than
the Neolithic, such as the fear of snakes (which, as
we have argued elsewhere, is of Cenozoic time depth
H.S. Bracha et al. / Journal of Affective Disorders 88 (2005) 119–129126
and thus is a simian-wide fear) (Bracha, in press).
Similarly, we have recently articulated a neuroevolu-
tionary hypothesis for other fear-circuitry symptoms
which extant humans share with other extant pri-
mates—jaw-clenching and tooth-grinding (Bracha et
al., 2005b). In contrast, in the present theory-driven
article, we attempt to articulate a neuroevolutionary
hypothesis for a number of puzzling and difficult-to-
treat neuropsychiatric syndromes for which an evolu-
tionary hypothesis has not been previously articulated.
It is important to emphasize that:
!We are not proposing newly emerged genomic loci.
Rather, we posit that rare allele variants that had
little or no survival value throughout most of the
Paleolithic EEA (when large African cats were the
primary terrestrial predators) did spread widely
during the Neolithic EEA when non-kin conspecific
predators replaced large cats as the primary cause
of premature violent death among young, healthy
humans.
!We posit an oligogenic genetic transmission (not a
distinctive singular allele) in the etiology of the
syndromes addressed in this review. Nevertheless,
a candidate gene approach may also warrant
exploration.
!Non-protein-coding genome regions responsible
for complex modulation of existing genes (e.g., at
the transcriptome level), while less well understood
at present, are also hypothesized to undergo
changes as a result of evolutionary pressures. Sin-
gle nucleotide polymorphisms in non-protein-cod-
ing regions should also be explored as part of
future research into the post-genomic etiology of
acute sociogenic pseudoneurological syndromes.
9. In summary
More theory-driven research on, and a re-concep-
tualization of, acute pseudoneurological sociogenic
symptoms are warranted. In this theoretical article,
we endeavor to use creative lumping to obtain a
conceptual gain in the understanding of these com-
mon, often treatment-resistant symptoms. We present
a neuroevolutionary etiological perspective on the
acute pseudoneurological symptoms. We argue that
some presently hard to treat and perplexing pseudo-
neurological symptoms may be traceable to allele
variants which were fitness-enhancing during the
Neolithic, the latest period of the human EEA. We
posit that at the transcriptome level, one of the major
oligogenic loci involved may carry a developmentally
sensitive allele (in a balanced polymorphism) in
which the gene expression mechanism is gradually
suppressed in post-pubertal males by pleiotropic
androgens, such as DHEA-S. Possible taxonomic
implications for rapprochement between the forth-
coming DSM-V and the ICD are also discussed.
Acknowledgements
This material is based upon work supported in part
by the Office of Research and Development, Medical
Research Service, Department of Veterans Affairs, VA
Pacific Islands Health Care System, Spark M. Matsu-
naga Medical Center. Support was also provided by a
National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and
Depression (NARSAD) Independent Investigator
Award, and the VA National Center for Posttraumatic
Stress Disorders.
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