Striving for Unwanted Goals: Stress-Dependent Discrepancies Between Explicit and Implicit Achievement Motives Reduce Subjective Well-Being and Increase Psychosomatic Symptoms

Abstract

Three studies investigated the relevance of affect regulation, stressful life events, and congruence between explicit achievement orientation and implicit achievement motive for subjective well-being and symptom formation. According to personality systems interactions (PSI) theory, stressful life events were expected to reduce motive congruence when the ability to self-regulate affect was impaired (i.e., state orientation). Consistent with expectations, the State Orientation x Stress interaction predicted incongruence in healthy participants (Studies 1 and 3) and in patients (Study 2). Furthermore, incongruence partially mediated the direct State Orientation x Stress effect on subjective well-being (Studies 1 and 3) and the course of psychosomatic complaints over 3 months (Study 2). In Study 3, the experimental induction of threat reduced motive congruence in state-oriented participants compared with an acceptance condition. Findings underscore the importance of assessing motive congruence as a "hidden stressor" and validate a new operant multi-motive test.

Full text

Striving for Unwanted Goals: Stress-Dependent Discrepancies Between
Explicit and Implicit Achievement Motives Reduce Subjective Well-Being
and Increase Psychosomatic Symptoms
Nicola Baumann, Reiner Kaschel, and Julius Kuhl
University of Osnabru¨ck
Three studies investigated the relevance of affect regulation, stressful life events, and congruence
between explicit achievement orientation and implicit achievement motive for subjective well-being and
symptom formation. According to personality systems interactions (PSI) theory, stressful life events were
expected to reduce motive congruence when the ability to self-regulate affect was impaired (i.e., state
orientation). Consistent with expectations, the State Orientation ⫻ Stress interaction predicted incon-
gruence in healthy participants (Studies 1 and 3) and in patients (Study 2). Furthermore, incongruence
partially mediated the direct State Orientation ⫻ Stress effect on subjective well-being (Studies 1 and 3)
and the course of psychosomatic complaints over 3 months (Study 2). In Study 3, the experimental
induction of threat reduced motive congruence in state-oriented participants compared with an accep-
tance condition. Findings underscore the importance of assessing motive congruence as a “hidden
stressor” and validate a new operant multimotive test.
Keywords: implicit motives, achievement orientation, self-regulation, psychosomatic symptoms, PSI
theory
Do you know the story of a young man lying content underneath
a tree when a busy old man comes walking by, curious about why
the young fellow doesn’t work? When asked, “What is it good
for?” the old man comes up with many good reasons such as
earning money, learning something new, and testing one’s own
abilities only to hear the young man repeat his question, “What is
it good for?” The old man explains that it is good to take chal-
lenges in order to grow as a person and to feel proud about solving
problems and accomplishing something. Again, the young man
repeats his question, “What is it good for?” The old man becomes
irritated and argues that he could lie back some day and feel
content about his life. “But that is exactly what I am doing
already!” the young man replies.
Subjective well-being and psychological health are influenced
by many factors. On the one hand, stressful life events have been
proposed as potential triggers of emotional problems and symptom
formation (Holmes & Rahe, 1967; Scully, Tosi, & Banning, 2000).
It is well established that stressful life events are especially detri-
mental to subjective well-being and positive affect when self-
regulatory abilities to cope with stress are low (e.g., Chambel &
Curral, 2005; Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004; Koole & Jostmann,
2004; Kuhl & Beckmann, 1994b; Showers & Kling, 1996). On the
other hand, motivational research has proposed that reaching per-
sonal goals is an important predictor of subjective well-being
(Emmons, 1986; Martin & Tesser, 1996). However, not all per-
sonal goals and motivational concerns are equally adaptive in
satisfying basic needs (Cox & Klinger, 2002; Elliot, Sheldon, &
Church, 1997; Klinger, 1993). Motive dispositions moderate the
effects of personal goals on emotional well-being (Brunstein,
Schultheiss, & Gra¨ssmann, 1998; Hofer & Chasiotis, 2003): Per-
sonal goal orientations are associated with high emotional well-
being when they are congruent with motive dispositions. In con-
trast, personal goal orientations are associated with low emotional
well-being when they are incongruent with motive dispositions.
In the present article, we attempt to integrate the different lines
of research mentioned above and show that motive-incongruent
orientations can act as “hidden stressors” that partially mediate the
direct relationship between affect regulation deficits and subjective
well-being or symptom formation. We decided to begin the testing
of our model in the achievement domain. In our model, motive-
incongruent achievement orientation is set up as a mediating
variable (i.e., affect-regulation deficits under stress 3 motive
incongruence 3 reduced subjective well-being and symptom for-
mation). Either type of motive incongruence (i.e., showing a high
achievement orientation on a conscious level despite a low implicit
achievement motive as well as showing a low explicit achievement
orientation despite a high implicit achievement motive) are ex-
pected to have negative effects on well-being and health.
In the following paragraphs, we provide a theoretical analysis of
the concept of motive incongruence because little is known about
the factors that contribute to the formation of motive-incongruent
achievement orientations. A functionally oriented approach per-
sonality systems interaction (PSI; Kuhl, 2000, 2001), is intro-
duced, which purports to explain the mechanisms involved in
motive incongruence.
Nicola Baumann, Reiner Kaschel, and Julius Kuhl, Department of
Human Sciences, University of Osnabru¨ck, Osnabru¨ck, Germany.
This work was supported by Grant DFG: Ku 377/22-2 from the German
Science Foundation awarded to Julius Kuhl.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Nicola
Baumann or Julius Kuhl, Department of Human Sciences, University of
Osnabru¨ck, Seminarstr. 20, 49069 Osnabru¨ck, Germany. E-mail:
nbaumann@uos.de or jkuhl@uos.de
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Copyright 2005 by the American Psychological Association
2005, Vol. 89, No. 5, 781–799 0022-3514/05/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.89.5.781
781

Functional Localization of Explicit Orientations and
Implicit Motives
Implicit motives are measured by operant motive tests, such as
Murray⬘s (1943) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Participants
are asked to write stories about pictures in which they can express
personal fantasies without any self-reference or restriction due to
actual life contexts. Therefore, operant and implicit motive tests
are better qualified for assessing contents of preverbal develop-
mental phases and manifestations of unconscious, affective dispo-
sitions that distinguish actual motive dispositions from motive-
related cognitive values or orientations assessed by explicit self-
report (deCharms, Morrison, Reitman, & McClelland, 1955).
Accordingly, the implicit and explicit motive measures are con-
ceptualized as reflecting distinct motive systems that show distinct
behavioral correlates (Biernat, 1989; deCharms et al., 1955; Mc-
Clelland, 1980; McClelland, Koestner & Weinberger, 1989; Span-
gler, 1992).
According to PSI theory (Kuhl, 2000, 2001), explicit goal ori-
entations and implicit motives are associated with two different
cognitive systems. Goal orientations are associated with the ex-
plicit verbal representation format of intention memory that is
supported by sequential–analytical operations such as thinking and
planning. Intention memory is a network of central executive
functions involving the maintenance of an intended action in
working memory (Baddeley, 1996) and the inhibition of premature
initiation of an intention (Barkley, 1997; Fuster, 1989). The term
is restricted to the representation of intentions in a higher order,
abstract, typically symbolic and explicit format (cf. Kuhl & Kaze´n,
1999). An explicit goal orientation, with its focus on outcome of an
intended action, may be part of an action plan that is held in an
active state in intention memory (Goschke & Kuhl, 1993). In
contrast, implicit motives are associated with implicit representa-
tions in extension memory, an extended semantic network operat-
ing according to connectionist principles and supported by
intuitive– holistic processes (Beeman et al., 1994). This system
permits an overview of extended semantic fields (Rotenberg,
1993), relevant episodes experienced (Wheeler, Stuss, & Tulving,
1997), and integrated self-representations (Kuhl, 2000). According
to PSI theory, extension memory provides access to implicit rep-
resentations of one’s needs, values, and wishes. Motive disposi-
tions can be defined as “intelligent needs,” that is, as implicit
cognitive– emotional networks of possible actions (derived from
autobiographical memory) that can be performed to satisfy basic
social needs in a context-sensitive way across a variety of situa-
tions (Heckhausen, 1991; Kuhl, 2001; McClelland, 1980; Winter,
1996). According to this definition, motives can be considered the
need-related part of the implicit self-system (Greenwald & Banaji,
1995), which in turn can be regarded as the self-related part of
extension memory.
1
Two modulation assumptions of PSI theory state that positive
and negative affect modulate the activation of cognitive systems:
First, the inhibition of positive affect is assumed to activate inten-
tion memory, analytical strategies, and problem solving because
behavioral routines to reach a goal have not been successful and
need to be revised (Kuhl & Kaze´n, 1999). Conversely, activation
of intention memory (e.g., facing difficulties) reduces positive
affect. Second, excessive negative affect is assumed to reduce the
activation of extension memory and implicit self-representations
(Baumann & Kuhl, 2002; Kaze´n, Baumann, & Kuhl, 2003). Con-
versely, activation of extension memory and the self plays an
important role in self-regulation of negative affect (Linville, 1987;
Rothermund & Meiniger, 2004; Showers & Kling, 1996).
According to PSI theory, congruence between explicit and im-
plicit motive measures is expected to occur when information can
be exchanged between the two processing systems. More specif-
ically, intention memory needs to “communicate” with extension
memory in order to form valid representations of implicit needs in
terms of self-congruent goals. An asymmetric activation of inten-
tion memory or, worse, an inhibition of extension memory is
expected to disturb the communication process and reduce con-
gruence between explicit orientations and implicit needs. Accord-
ingly, chronic inhibition of positive affect (frustration) and/or
chronic activation of negative affect (anxiety) are expected to
disturb the communication process because of their modulatory
influence on the cognitive systems. Chronic inhibition of positive
affect is associated with an asymmetric activation of intention
memory and consequently reduces the influence of extension
memory in action control, for example, on explicit orientations
(Kuhl & Beckmann, 1994a). Chronic activation of negative affect
is even worse for information exchange because it directly inhibits
extension memory (Baumann & Kuhl, 2002; Bolte, Goschke, &
Kuhl, 2003) and access to implicit needs. The finding that implicit
and self-attributed motives are positively correlated only for indi-
viduals high in self-determination supports this assumption
(Thrash & Elliot, 2002) because, on a phenomenological level,
self-inhibition should be experienced as low self-determination.
Congruence of personal strivings with organismic needs or
implicit motives has been identified as an important predictor of
emotional well-being, health, and personal growth (Brunstein et
al., 1998; Sheldon & Kasser, 1995). Because participants are often
not aware of their unsatisfying orientation, motive incongruence
can be conceived of as a hidden stress factor that partially mediates
the direct relationship between unattenuated stress and reduced
well-being. Because it is implausible to assume that incongruence
between explicit and implicit motives is the sole reason that
unattenuated stress affects well-being and symptom formation,
partial rather than full mediation is expected (see Sapolsky, 1992,
for evidence demonstrating direct routes from negative affect and
stress to symptom formation).
Stressful Life Events
According to PSI theory, stressful life events can be differenti-
ated into demands and threats. Life events that place high demands
on a person (e.g., goal conflicts, high task difficulty, obstacles, and
uncontrollability) are associated with reduced positive affect
(Kuhl, 2001, p. 243) and activation of intention memory. Threat-
ening life events (e.g., danger, major life changes, painful experi-
ences, unpredictability, tasks that threaten self-worth) are associ-
ated with increased negative affect (Kuhl, 2001, p. 243) and
inhibition of extension memory. However, stressful life events are
expected to impair emotional well-being and balanced activation
of cognitive systems only when a person is not able to cope with
1
See Baumann and Kuhl (2002) for an experimental analysis of a task
that capitalizes on a part of extension memory that is not related to the self.
782
BAUMANN, KASCHEL, AND KUHL

these events. Therefore, individual differences in coping (i.e.,
self-regulation of affect) are an important moderator.
Affect Regulation
The personality disposition of action versus state orientation
captures individual differences in self-regulation under stress that
are expected to moderate the influence of stressful life events on
the activation dynamics of the two cognitive systems and, conse-
quently, the ability to generate and implement motive-congruent
goals. There are two major dimensions of action and state orien-
tation (Kuhl, 1994a): First, decision-related action orientation
(AOD) is the ability to self-generate positive affect in the face of
difficulties and problems, that is, when it is necessary to imple-
ment self-congruent intentions (initiative). In contrast, decision-
related state orientation (SOD, or hesitation) is associated with an
inability to self-generate positive affect, which impairs implemen-
tation of self-congruent intentions (Beckmann & Kuhl, 1984;
Brunstein, 2001; Koole & Jostmann, 2004). In this volitional
vacuum, external requirements and social expectations can take
over executive functions that are not supported by implicit self-
representations of one’s own needs (Kuhl, 2000). Second, failure-
related action orientation (AOF) is the ability to reduce (down-
regulate) negative affect once it is aroused and to maintain access
to integrated representations of one⬘s own needs and implicit
self-representations. AOF enables the individual to disengage from
uncontrollable thoughts about negative events (disengagement). In
contrast, failure-related state orientation (SOF, or preoccupation)
is the inability to volitionally control negative affect and intrusive
thoughts elicited by it. Perseverating negative affect presumably
inhibits access to extension memory and implicit needs. During
this state of self-inhibition, individuals lose access to their own
emotional preferences (Guevara, 1994) and confuse others’ goals
and expectations with their own goals (Baumann & Kuhl, 2003;
Kuhl & Kaze´n, 1994). Either component of state orientation may
be accompanied by feelings of low self-determination (Thrash &
Elliot, 2002).
The conceptualization of state orientation in terms of a low
ability to volitionally control affect is supported by many findings
showing that deficits are observed only when the corresponding
situational stressors are present (Kuhl & Beckmann, 1994b), that
is, demanding situations for hesitant participants (SOD) and threat-
ening situations for preoccupied participants (SOF). These unfa-
vorable combinations have been associated with such diverse
phenomena as rumination, procrastination, alienation, depression,
and anxiety (Kuhl, 2001; Kuhl & Beckmann, 1994b). These find-
ings demonstrate that the relationships between individual differ-
ences in affect regulation (i.e., action orientation) and subjective-
well being and symptom formation are well documented.
Experimental studies have demonstrated that the relationship be-
tween action orientation and well-being is mediated by affect-
regulation abilities, that is, self-motivation (AOD) when con-
fronted with demands and self-relaxation (AOF) when confronted
with threats (Beckmann & Kuhl, 1984; Koole & Jostmann, 2004;
Kuhl & Baumann, 2000). A new research question in the present
studies concerns the role of state and action orientation in motive
incongruence. Brunstein (2001) found that state-oriented individ-
uals are more likely to commit themselves to unrealistic and
need-incongruent goals than are action-oriented individuals. Ac-
cording to PSI theory, this personality difference is expected to
occur only under stressful conditions.
Hypotheses
The mediational model tested in the present studies can be
described as a series of separate hypotheses. First, the direct path
predicts a Personality ⫻ Stress interaction on subjective well-
being and symptoms. State-oriented participants were expected to
show reduced subjective well-being (Studies 1 and 3) and in-
creased symptoms (Study 2) as stressful life events increase. In
contrast, action-oriented participants were not expected to be sig-
nificantly influenced by stress. AOD was expected to moderate the
effects of demands (Study 1), whereas AOF was expected to
moderate the effects of threats (Studies 2 and 3).
Second, we predicted a Personality ⫻ Stress interaction on
motive incongruence. State-oriented participants were expected to
show greater incongruence between explicit achievement orienta-
tion and implicit achievement motive (n achievement) as stressful
life events increased, whereas action-oriented participants were
expected to retain motive congruence even under stress. This
hypothesis is based on the assumption mentioned above that per-
severating negative affect inhibits self-access, with the effect that
implicit motives cannot easily be translated into the explicit
format.
Third, motive incongruence can be conceived of as a hidden
stressor expected to partially mediate the direct relationship be-
tween Personality ⫻ Stress and subjective well-being (Studies 1
and 3) and symptoms (Study 2). We did not expect full mediation
because chronic need frustration is only one way in which stressful
life events may influence well-being and the concentration of the
stress hormone cortisol that has been associated with a diversity of
symptoms (Sapolsky, 1992). Other aspects of the situation (e.g.,
time pressure, goal conflicts, painful experiences) may be experi-
enced as stressful even when individuals are oriented toward
satisfying goals. However, these stress factors were expected to be
less crucial. For example, Sheldon and Kasser (1995) found that
goal conflicts do not impair well-being as long as goals are
oriented toward satisfying basic needs.
In addition, the studies were designed to compare similarities
and differences in the determinants of subjective well-being in
symptom-free individuals (Studies 1 and 3) and symptom forma-
tion in a clinical sample (Study 2). In the latter sample, the focus
was on a common determinant of symptom formation (i.e., motive
incongruence) that affects a variety of psychological symptoms.
Whereas Studies 1 and 2 are correlational, Study 3 examines the
causal role of stress in the development of motive incongruence by
experimentally manipulating the level of stress (threat vs.
acceptance).
Study 1
Confrontation with high demands and the resulting chronic
activation of intention memory for hesitant participants (who are
not able to self-generate positive affect) are conditions that are
expected to occur in healthy populations and influence subjective
well-being partially as a result of motive-incongruent achievement
orientations. Therefore, a nonpatient sample was tested in Study 1.
783
MOTIVE-INCONGRUENT ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATION

Method
Participants
Sixty-two participants (30 women and 32 men) were recruited through
flyers around the university of Osnabru¨ck offering individual counseling
on personality development. Participants were given detailed feedback on
their individual scores in return for their participation. Their mean age was
32.7 years (range ⫽ 14 to 57 years).
Materials
The Action Control Scale (ACS-90; Kuhl, 1994b) was administered. It
consists of 24 items. The following is an example item on the decision-
related dimension: “When I know I must finish something soon: (a) I have
to push myself to get started, or (b) I find it easy to get it done and over
with.” Option “a” reflects the SOD and Option “b” represents the AOD
response alternative. An example item on the failure-related dimension
follows: “When I am told that my work has been completely unsatisfac-
tory: (a) I don⬘t let it bother me for too long, or (b) I feel paralyzed.” Option
“a” reflects the AOF and Option b, the SOF response alternative. The ACS
has sufficient reliability (Cronbach’s alphas ⬎ .70) and adequate construct
validity (Kuhl & Beckmann, 1994b). The factorial structure of the ACS-90
confirms the theoretical distinction made between the AOD and AOF com-
ponents of action orientation (Dieffendorf, Hall, Lord, & Strean, 2000; Kuhl &
Beckmann, 1994b). In the present study, AOD and AOF scales had internal
consistencies (Cronbach’s alpha) of
␣
⫽ .80 and
␣
⫽ .71, respectively.
A life stress scale was administered, with the two subscales (demands
and threats) consisting of 10 items each. Example items on the Demands
scale include the following: “I experience many conflicts between incom-
patible goals in my life”; “My current life circumstances are very tough”;
and “I must cope with a lot of difficulties.” The following are example
items on the Threats scale: “I must deal with big changes in my life”; “I
have many painful experiences to cope with”; “I have felt a lot of conflict
and hostility between myself and others lately.” These two types of
stressors load on orthogonal factors and show the theoretically expected
correlations with affect (cf. Kuhl, 2001, p. 243). In a student sample, the
Demand scale was significantly correlated with the number of critical life
events during the previous 2 weeks (r ⫽ .59, p ⬍ .01) and with total stress
scores (r ⫽ .62, p ⬍ .01) in the College Undergraduate Stress Scale
(Renner & Mackin, 1998). Correlations between threats and the number of
critical life events (r ⫽ .25, p ⬍ .09) and total stress scores (r ⫽ .27, p ⬍
.07) were only marginally significant. The lower relationships for the
Threat scale may indicate (a) that the College Undergraduate Stress Scale
covers more demanding events than threatening ones and/or (b) that students
are typically confronted with demands more often than threats. Consistent with
both assumptions, participants rated their life events as significantly more
demanding (M ⫽ 1.31, SD ⫽ 0.62) than threatening (M ⫽ 1.05, SD ⫽ 0.65),
t(47) ⫽ 4.76, p ⬍ .01. The findings reported above contribute to the validity
of our self-report measures of stress. In the present sample, internal consis-
tencies were
␣
⫽ .88 for demands and
␣
⫽ .89 for threats.
Explicit achievement orientation was assessed by four items selected
from the Motive Enactment Test (Motiv-Umsetzungs-Test, MUT; Kuhl,
1999; Kuhl & Henseler, 2003): (a) “When I have solved a difficult problem
I enjoy looking for the next challenge right away”; (b) “When there is a
difficult task to do I often volunteer”; (c) “When I can work for hours on
a difficult project, I am completely happy”; (d) “I often engage spontane-
ously in activities in which I can test my abilities.” In a representative
sample of 155 participants, the achievement orientation scale had an
internal consistency of
␣
⫽ .82 (Kuhl, 1999). In the present sample,
internal consistency was lower (
␣
⫽ .64) but still sufficient.
The Operant Multimotive Test (OMT; Kuhl & Scheffer, 1999) was admin-
istered to assess the implicit achievement motive (n achievement). Using a
modified TAT technique, we presented participants with 15 pictures and asked
them to invent a story (without having to write down the story) and give their
spontaneous associations to the following questions: (a) “What is important for
the person in this situation and what is the person doing?” (b) “How does the
person feel?” (c) “Why does the person feel this way?” and (d) “How does the
story end?” The OMT differentiates four approach components for each
motive by crossing two affective sources of motivation (positive vs. negative)
with self-determined versus incentive-focused forms of motivation. For the
achievement motive, the two positive modes of approach motivation can be
described as self-determined flow (learning something, being absorbed, con-
centrated) and standard of excellence (doing something well, being proud,
focused on results), whereas the two motivational modes driven by negative
affect consist of self-determined coping with failure (perception of threat
associated with active coping) and pressure to achieve (social standards, relief
after success).
2
In addition, the OMT contains a passive avoidance component
for each motive (e.g., fear of failure). The differentiation of five forms of
motivation allowed us to test theoretically interesting differences in the type of
self-regulation involved in need–satisfaction. For the purpose of the present
studies, the sum of the four approach components of the achievement motive
was computed to assess the implicit achievement motive (n achievement). The
passive avoidance component was omitted because the explicit items also tap
approach. Extensive research on the OMT has been reported in Scheffer
(2005). The total OMT achievement score is significantly correlated with TAT
achievement scores coded according to Winter (1991), r ⫽ .64, p ⬍ .05,
supporting the convergent validity of the measure. Behavioral correlates fur-
ther support the validity of the operant motive test. For example, adolescents
high in n achievement were significantly more efficient in applying for an
apprenticeship than adolescents low in n achievement because their aspired
positions matched their level of qualification (Heckhausen & Tomasik, 2002).
New for an operant motive measure is the finding of sufficient internal
consistency, even according to indices based on classical test theory,
␣
⫽ .70,
and sufficient retest stability of r ⫽ .72 (Scheffer, Kuhl, & Eichstaedt, 2003).
Scoring was carried out by well-trained assistants who had attained sufficient
reliability across several studies.
Subjective well-being was assessed by 16 items. Example items included
the following: “Emotionally I feel just fine at the moment”; “I feel very
productive at the moment”; “During the last days I felt relaxed”; and “I
have difficulties coordinating job and private life” (reversed). In the present
sample, internal consistency was
␣
⫽ .92.
Procedure
Participants received the questionnaire packets (OMT, MUT, ACS-90,
life stress, subjective well-being) at the university of Osnabru¨ck and were
asked to return the completed questionnaires within the next few days. The
whole packet took about 60 min to complete. The personality assessment
was the basis for counseling on opportunities for personality development,
provided as compensation for participation. Counseling sessions were held
individually and lasted about 30 min.
Results
Correlations
To demonstrate discriminative validity of our measures, we
calculated correlations (see Table 1, values above the diagonal).
Achievement orientation was expected to assess something differ-
ent from a successful active coping style, as tapped in the ACS-90.
2
In case of motive congruence, the four components of the OMT might
correspond to the four goal types described in Elliot⬘s (1997) hierarchical
model: (a) Flow might correspond to mastery-approach goals, (b) standard
of excellence might correspond to performance-approach goals, (c) coping
with failure might correspond to mastery-avoidance, and (d) pressure to
achieve might correspond to performance-avoidance.
784
BAUMANN, KASCHEL, AND KUHL

Consistent with expectations, achievement orientation and AOD
showed a significant but only moderate correlation (r ⫽ .30, p ⬍ .02).
More important, only AOD showed a significant correlation with
subjective well-being (r ⫽ .53, p ⬍ .001), whereas achievement
orientation did not significantly correlate with subjective well-being
(r ⫽⫺.19, p ⬍ .15). These findings support the hypothesized rela-
tionship between AOD and affect regulation and demonstrate the
discriminative validity of achievement orientation and AOD.
Affect Regulation and Subjective Well-Being
A hierarchical regression analysis was conducted on subjective
well-being, with AOD and demands entered as the first block, and
their interaction term entered as the second. Following a recommen-
dation by Aiken and West (1991), in all analyses, predictor variables
were standardized before their interaction term was calculated. There
were significant main effects of AOD,
␤
⫽ .29, t(59) ⫽ 2.83, p ⬍ .01,
and Demands,
␤
⫽⫺.55, t(59) ⫽⫺5.46, p ⬍ .01. More important,
there was a significant AOD ⫻ Demands interaction,
␤
⫽ .20, t(58) ⫽
2.32, p ⬍ .03. Unstandardized regression weights conducted with a
range of ⫾ 1 SD for both predictor variables were used to graph this
interaction effect. The relation between demands and subjective well-
being varied as a function of state and action orientation, as predicted.
Consistent with expectations, state-oriented participants showed sub-
stantially lower subjective well-being as demands increased: for low
demands, M ⫽ 0.53 and for high demands, M ⫽⫺0.92, t(58) ⫽
⫺5.88, p ⬍ .01. Action-oriented participants showed the same ten-
dency: for low demands, M ⫽ 0.69 and for high demands, M ⫽ 0.06,
58) ⫽⫺2.23, p ⬍ .03. However, they were less influenced in their
subjective well-being by demands. Simple slope analyses (O’Connor,
1998) yielded a significant difference between state- and action-
oriented participants experiencing high demands, t(58) ⫽ 3.73, p ⬍
.01. Findings support the hypothesis that the influence of demands on
subjective well-being was moderated by decision-related state and
action orientation. An additional regression analysis was conducted
on subjective well-being, including AOF, threats, and their interaction
term. The AOF ⫻ Threats interaction was marginally significant,
␤
⫽
.17, t(58) ⫽ 1.84, p ⬍ .08. Furthermore, the cross interactions
AOD ⫻ Threats,
␤
⫽ .08, t(58) ⫽ 1.00, p ⬍ .32, and AOF ⫻
Demands,
␤
⫽ .11, t(58) ⫽ 1.08, p ⬍ .29, were not significant.
Affect Regulation and Motive-Incongruent Achievement
Orientation
The amount of motive-incongruent achievement orientation was
calculated as the absolute difference between standardized explicit
achievement orientation and standardized implicit achievement mo-
tives (n achievement), where higher scores indicate higher incongru-
ence. A hierarchical regression analysis was conducted on motive
incongruence with AOD and demands entered as the first block, and
their interaction term entered as the second block. There was a
significant AOD ⫻ Demands interaction for achievement motive
incongruence,
␤
⫽⫺.25, t(58) ⫽⫺2.10, p ⬍ .05. Unstandardized
regression weights with a range of ⫾ 1 SD for both predictor variables
were used to graph this interaction effect. Figure 1 shows that the
relationship between demands and incongruence between achieve-
ment orientation and n achievement varied as a function of state and
action orientation. Consistent with expectations, state-oriented partic-
ipants showed significantly greater incongruence between achieve-
ment orientation and n achievement as demands increased, t(58) ⫽
2.69, p ⬍ .01, whereas action-oriented participants retained congru-
ence as demands increased, t(58) ⫽⫺0.30, p ⬍ .77. No other effects
were significant. An additional regression analysis was conducted on
achievement motive congruence, including AOF, threats, and their
interaction term. The AOF ⫻ Threats interaction was not significant,
␤
⫽⫺.05, t(58) ⫽⫺0.38, p ⬍ .77. Furthermore, the cross interac-
tions AOD ⫻ Threats,
␤
⫽⫺.12, t(58) ⫽⫺0.92, p ⬍ .37, and
AOF ⫻ Demands,
␤
⫽⫺.07, t(58) ⫽⫺0.48, p ⬍ .64, were not
significant. Findings provided support for the hypothesis that the
influence of life stress on formation of motive-incongruent orienta-
tions was moderated by state and action orientation. More specifi-
cally, the influence of demands on motive-incongruent achievement
orientations was moderated by decision-related state and action
orientation.
Motive-Incongruent Achievement Orientation and
Subjective Well-Being
A hierarchical regression analysis was conducted on subjective
well-being, with achievement orientation and n achievement entered
as the first block and their interaction term entered as the second
block. There was a significant n Achievement ⫻ Achievement Ori-
Table 1
Bivariate Correlations of Variables in Study 1 and Study 2
Variable AOF AOD Threats Demands n Ach Ach Or SWB
AOF .38** ⫺.47** ⫺.48** .24 .09 .49**
AOD .60** ⫺.36** ⫺.45** .21 .30* .53**
Threats ⫺.19 ⫺.16 .88** ⫺.16 .16 ⫺.74**
Demands ⫺.39* ⫺.39* .73** ⫺.18 .01 ⫺.68**
n Ach .22 .14 .08 .09 .17 ⫺.08
Ach Or .38* .45** .11 .08 .22 ⫺.19
Symptoms at T1 ⫺.30 ⫺.22 .27* .39* .06 .08
Symptoms at T2 ⫺.45** ⫺.28 .11 .35* .06 ⫺.12 .35
a
*
Note. Correlations for study 1 (n ⫽ 42) are presented above the diagonal, and correlations for study 2 (N ⫽ 62) are presented below the diagonal. AOF ⫽
failure-related action orientation; AOD ⫽ decision-related action orientation; n Ach ⫽ implicit achievement motive; Ach Or ⫽ explicit achievement
orientation; SWB ⫽ subjective well-being in Study 1.
a
Correlation between symptoms at T1 and symptoms at T2 in Study 2.
785
MOTIVE-INCONGRUENT ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATION

entation interaction,
␤
⫽ .20, t(58) ⫽ 2.32, p ⬍ .03. Unstandardized
regression weights with a range of ⫾ 1 SD for both predictor variables
were used to graph this interaction effect. Figure 2 shows that con-
gruence between n achievement and achievement orientation was
associated with subjective well-being. In contrast, placing great im-
portance on achievement despite low n achievement scores as well as
placing low importance on achievement despite high n achievement
scores was associated with low subjective well-being. Consistent with
our hypothesis, both types of incongruence were detrimental to sub-
jective well-being. Simple slope analyses were significant for low n
achievement, t(58) ⫽⫺3.19, p ⬍ .01, and marginally significant for
high n achievement, t(58) ⫽ 1.85, p ⬍ .07. In an independent t test,
the group of 10 participants overestimating their n achievement scores
by at least 1 SD was not significantly different in their subjective
well-being from the group of 13 participants underestimating their n
achievement scores by at least 1 SD, M ⫽⫺0.69 vs. M ⫽⫺0.42,
t(21) ⫽⫺0.62, p ⬍ .54. In contrast, the congruent group had
significantly higher subjective well-being (M ⫽ 0.32) than over-
estimators, t(47) ⫽ 3.02, p ⬍ .01, as well as underestimators,
t(50) ⫽ 2.76, p ⬍ .01.
Mediational Model
The direct effect of the AOD ⫻ Demands interaction on sub-
jective well-being was expected to be partially mediated by
motive-incongruent achievement orientations. To test the media-
tional model, we conducted a series of separate path analyses
(Baron & Kenny, 1986). First, AOD ⫻ Demands directly affected
subjective well-being (see above). Second, AOD ⫻ Demands was
predictive of the amount of motive-incongruent achievement ori-
entation (see Figure 1). Third, when AOD ⫻ Demands and amount
of motive-incongruent achievement orientation were entered into
the equation simultaneously (controlling for main effects of AOD
and demands), motive-incongruent achievement orientation was
predictive of subjective well-being,
␤
⫽⫺.21, t(57) ⫽⫺2.19, p ⬍
.05. Moreover, the direct relationship between AOD ⫻ Demands
and subjective well-being was no longer significant,
␤
⫽ .15,
t(57) ⫽ 1.73, p ⬍ .09. The mediational model is illustrated in
Figure 3. Findings are consistent with the assumption that individ-
uals high in decision-related state orientation (i.e., low AOD
scores) are prone to show motive-incongruent achievement orien-
tations when experiencing high demands. These motive-
incongruent orientations are one of the reasons why state-oriented
individuals under high demands show less subjective well-being.
3
Alternative model. An alternative hypothesis is that motive
incongruence interacts with stress to predict well-being, mediated
by state orientation. In other words, individuals with motive-
incongruent achievement orientations may not be able to respond
adequately to stress and become state-oriented. The state-oriented
response may mediate the direct relationship between the direct
effect of incongruence and stress on well-being. To test this
alternative model, a series of separate path analyses was con-
ducted. First, the Motive Incongruence ⫻ Demands interaction on
subjective well-being (controlling for main effects) was not sig-
nificant,
␤
⫽⫺.25, t(58) ⫽⫺1.49, p ⬍ .15. Second, the Motive
Incongruence ⫻ Demands interaction on AOD (controlling for
main effects) was not significant,
␤
⫽⫺.18, t(58) ⫽⫺0.82, p ⬍
.42. Thus, results do not support the alternative model. Motive
incongruence seems to be a hidden stress factor itself that does not
depend on the presence of demanding life-events to exert a detri-
mental influence on subjective well-being, Furthermore, the com-
bination of motive incongruence and high demands was not asso-
ciated with a state-oriented coping style. Presumably, state versus
action orientation is a rather stable disposition that determines how
individuals cope under stress and not how much stress they
experience.
3
As an alternative operationalization of motive congruence, the product
between standardized achievement orientations and standardized n
achievement was calculated, with higher scores indicating higher congru-
ence. The mediational model yielded the same significant results: First,
AOD ⫻ Demands directly affected subjective well-being (see above).
Second, AOD ⫻ Demands was predictive of the amount of motive con-
gruence,
␤
⫽ .28, t(58) ⫽ 2.28, p ⬍ .05. Third, when AOD ⫻ Demands
and motive congruence were entered into the equation simultaneously
(controlling for main effects), motive congruence was predictive of sub-
jective well-being,
␤
⫽ .23, t(57) ⫽ 2.54, p ⬍ .02. Moreover, the direct
relationship between AOD ⫻ Demands and subjective well-being was no
longer significant,
␤
⫽ .14, t(57) ⫽ 1.60, p ⬍ .12. An advantage of the
product measure was that in the third path, this operationalization is more
informative because it does not confound discrepancy per se with the
original variables that were used to compute the discrepancy score (i.e.,
implicit and explicit motive scores). A disadvantage of the product measure
is that in the second path, the Implicit ⫻ Explicit product term is mixed
with main effects. It is not clear whether AOD ⫻ Demands is predicting
congruence, simply higher levels of the motive variables, or some mixture
of these. Because the two types of motive discrepancies (underestimators
and overestimators) did not show meaningful differences in our study (see
above), we preferred the use of absolute difference scores.
Figure 1. Incongruence (absolute difference) between implicit achieve-
ment motive and explicit achievement orientation as a function of per-
ceived life stress (i.e., demands) and decision-related state orientation
(SOD) and action orientation (AOD) in Study 1. Low and high values on
demands as well as low (SOD) and high (AOD) values on decision-related
action orientation correspond to one standard deviation below and above
the mean, respectively.
786
BAUMANN, KASCHEL, AND KUHL

Discussion
Study 1 was designed to test motive-incongruent achievement
orientations as a hidden stressor that mediates subjective well-
being in a healthy population. The results of Study 1 support the
mediational model: Motive-incongruent achievement orientations
partially mediate the direct effect of a combination of low voli-
tional control of positive affect (SOD) and excessive demands in
everyday life on subjective well-being. We discuss the several
paths in this model in more detail. It is a new finding that a
combination of SOD and demanding life events fosters a cognitive
imbalance between memory systems representing explicit inten-
tions and implicit motives so that achievement orientations are less
self-congruent. Until now, decision-related state orientation has
been confined to correlates of behavioral or volitional inhibition
such as manifest alienation, that is, an inability to act on emotional
preferences (Guevara, 1994; Kuhl & Beckmann, 1994a), procras-
tination (Beswick & Mann, 1994; Fuhrmann & Kuhl, 1998), and
informed introjection, that is, a tendency to act according to what
other persons expect one to do (Kuhl & Kaze´n, 1994). As men-
tioned in the introductory section, an explanation of the findings
related to behavioral facilitation can be directly derived from the
assumption that decision-related action orientation indicates the
ability to generate positive affect (Beckmann & Kuhl, 1984) that is
needed for behavioral facilitation (Gray, 1987). Recent findings
(Koole & Jostmann, 2004) not only demonstrate that action-
oriented individuals are characterized by the ability to generate
positive affect in difficult (demanding) situations but that the
mechanism underlying this ability operates on a subconscious
level involving self-access as postulated by PSI theory (Kuhl,
2000, 2001, chap. 14).
How can the relationship between SOD, situational demands,
and motive incongruence be explained? According to PSI theory,
a difficult or demanding situation dampens positive affect unless
this effect is counterregulated by a self-regulatory mechanism (i.e.,
self-motivation). To the extent that this mechanism is impaired in
prospectively state-oriented individuals, the inhibition of positive
affect perseverates and activates explicit representations of uncom-
pleted actions in intention memory: According to previous find-
ings, SOD is, in fact, associated with an overmaintenance of
explicit intentions (Goschke & Kuhl, 1993) that seems to impair
enactment of difficult intentions (Kuhl & Helle, 1986) because
maintenance of explicit intentions entails an inhibitory component
(Kuhl & Kaze´n, 1999). Because of the antagonism between inten-
tion and extension memory postulated in PSI theory, prolonged
activation of explicit intentions should be negatively related to
activation of implicit representations of needs and motives. Thus,
the described mechanism may contribute to both types of motive
incongruence: (a) the maintenance of orientations that are not
supported by implicit motives and (b) a failure to activate orien-
tations that are supported by implicit motives. The observed rela-
tionship between SOD, demands, and motive incongruence con-
firms this theoretical argument (see Figure 1).
The present findings support the assumption that motive-
incongruent achievement orientations are associated with less
subjective well-being (see Figure 2). This finding is quite
plausible: In the story presented at the beginning of this article,
it is not hard to imagine how unhappy the two men would be if
they had to switch roles. In addition, the finding is consistent
with previous research in which positive relationships between
motive congruence and well-being have been obtained with
traditional TAT measures (Brunstein et al., 1998; Hofer &
Chasiotis, 2003). The present study replicates these findings
with a new operant motive test (OMT). A new finding in the
present study is that motive-incongruent achievement orienta-
tions partially mediate the direct relationship between unfavor-
able conditions (SOD and demands) and reduced subjective
well-being. The mediation is only partial because unattenuated
stress may influence subjective well-being in many different
ways. The present data suggest that chronic need frustration is
one important mechanism that can explain much of the vari-
ance: Individuals with an inability to access implicit motives
under stress cannot satisfy basic needs and feel ill. An alterna-
tive model, that motive incongruence interacts with stress to
predict well-being and that this direct effect is mediated by
action orientation was not supported by the data. Outer stress
factors (demands) did not add to the detrimental influence of the
Figure 2. Subjective well-being as a function of implicit achievement
motive and explicit achievement orientation in Study 1. Low and high
values correspond to one standard deviation below and above the mean,
respectively. n Ach ⫽ implicit achievement motivation.
Figure 3. The mediational model with motive-incongruent achievement
orientation as partially mediating the direct effect of perceived life stress
(i.e., demands) and decision-related action orientation (AOD) on subjective
well-being in Study 1. Coefficients are standardized betas. * p ⬍ .05.
787
MOTIVE-INCONGRUENT ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATION

inner stress factor (motive incongruence). Furthermore, the
combination of inner and outer stress factors did not predict
self-regulatory abilities. State versus action orientation is con-
ceived of as a rather stable disposition. The prospective design
of Study 2 allowed us to further test this assumption.
To summarize, the present findings point to the importance of
assessing underlying implicit motives in order to evaluate the
self-congruence of explicit achievement orientations. Study 2 in-
tended to explore similarities and differences in the determinants
of impaired psychological well-being as exemplified by psycho-
logical symptoms of patients undergoing psychotherapy or
rehabilitation.
Study 2
Psychological symptoms such as anxiety, depression, and
obsessive– compulsive disorders are closely related to emotional
problems, which often result in psychosomatic complaints. Ac-
cording to PSI theory, coping with difficult emotions depends on
self-regulatory functions that differ from those relevant for goal
enactment. As a result, action versus state orientation after failure
(AOF vs. SOF) and the amount of threatening life experiences
should be more relevant for the relationship between motive in-
congruence and symptom formation than the relation between
decision-related action orientation and situational demands. The
implicit self and the processing system supporting it (i.e., exten-
sion memory) is conceived of as a semantic network that integrates
implicit knowledge and emotional experiences from autobiograph-
ical memory (Damasio, Tranel & Damasio, 1991; Greenwald &
Banaji, 1995; Wheeler, Stuss & Tulving, 1997). The ability to cope
with stress and negative emotionality and to prevent stress-
dependent symptoms critically depends on the degree of differen-
tiation of the self (Linville, 1987; Rothermund & Meiniger, 2004;
Showers & Kling, 1996).
According to PSI theory, the experience of threat and a dispo-
sitional deficit in self-regulation of negative affect are expected to
inhibit extension memory and self-access. State-oriented (SOF)
individuals’ perseverating preoccupation after failure or after other
stressful experiences illustrates the impaired ability to downregu-
late negative affect (Kuhl & Baumann, 2000). State-oriented indi-
viduals’ impaired self-access has been demonstrated in terms of
latent alienation (i.e., impaired perception of one’s emotional
preferences) as operationalized by inconsistent preference judg-
ments and near-zero regression coefficients of decision times as a
function of valence differences among alternatives (Guevara,
1994; Kuhl & Beckmann, 1994a). Another indication of impaired
self-access associated with failure-related state-orientation is mis-
informed introjection, or self-infiltration, which is operationalized
by a tendency to misperceive others’ expectations as one’s own
goals (Baumann & Kuhl, 2003; Kuhl & Kaze´n, 1994).
In clinical patients, self-inhibition is expected to be a more
critical antecedent of incongruence between explicit orientations
and implicit motives than activation of intention memory because
of the crucial role self-access plays in coping with negative affect,
stress, and stress-dependent symptoms. In contrast to an impaired
ability to implement emotional preferences or cognitive intentions,
impaired self-access amounts to a difficulty in perceiving one’s
emotional preferences and controlling one’s emotional responses,
especially painful and threatening emotions. In the story presented
at the beginning of this article, imagine the two men starting to
believe that they truly want to switch roles: On a conscious level,
they would assume self-congruence of their new role although
their implicit motive structure would not have changed. This more
severe type of imbalance between cognitive systems was expected
to occur with patients and to predict motive-incongruent achieve-
ment orientations. Furthermore, motive-incongruent achievement
orientations were expected to mediate the course of emotional and
somatic problems among patients over a period of 3 months.
Method
Participants
Forty-two patients (18 women and 24 men) were recruited from two
psychosomatic and rehabilitation clinics and two private psychiatric prac-
tices. Their mean age was 44.4 years (range ⫽ 25 to 71 years). Thirteen
patients were in treatment for skin diseases (neurodermatitis, psoriasis,
urticaria), 6 patients for chronic alcohol abuse, and 1 patient for chronic
lower back pain. The following diagnoses (including multiple classifica-
tions for comorbidity) identified in the 10th revision of the International
Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) were obtained for the remaining 22
patients (World Health Organization, 1992): 10 classifications of affective
disorders, 14 neurotic, stress, and somatoform disorders; 11 personality and
behavioral disorders; 1 organic amnestic syndrome; 1 bulimia nervosa, and
1 hyperactive disorder. This heterogeneous patient sample was considered
appropriate for Study 2 because the central hypothesis relates to a nonspe-
cific determinant of mental illness.
A subsample of 23 patients (11 women and 12 men) completed addi-
tional questionnaires at a 3-month follow-up (see Procedure section). Their
mean age was 43.8 years (range ⫽ 29 to 71 years). In this subsample, the
distribution of disorders was similar to the one described above for the total
sample. There was no symptom- or gender-specific dropout.
Materials
As in Study 1, the OMT, the MUT, the ACS-90, and life stress scales
were assessed. In the present sample, internal consistencies (Cronbach’s
alpha) were
␣
⫽ .81 for AOF,
␣
⫽ .85 for AOD,
␣
⫽ .79 for threats,
␣
⫽
.65 for demands, and
␣
⫽ .69 for explicit achievement orientations. Instead
of subjective well-being, emotional and somatic complaints were assessed
at the beginning of the study (T1) and at a 3-month follow-up (T2). The
scale consists of 16 items. Example items include the following: “During
the last days I suffered from my emotional problems and symptoms”; “. . .
I suffered from somatic complaints (e.g., head-ache, stomach-ache, back-
pain etc.)”; “. . .I had problems sleeping”; “. . . I had intrusive, uncontrol-
lable thoughts”; “. . . I felt anxious”; and “. . . I felt helpless.” In the present
sample, the scale for emotional and somatic complaints had an internal
consistency of
␣
⫽ .92.
Procedure
Questionnaire packets were filled out as part of a standard anamnesis
(pretreatment assessment). All participants filled out the OMT, the MUT,
the ACS-90, life stress scales, and a symptom checklist at the beginning of
their treatment (T1). The 3-month follow-up was part of a standard cat-
amnesis (posttreatment assessment). All participants filled out the symp-
tom checklist at the end of their treatment (T2). A subsample of 23
participants was willing to also complete the OMT, MUT, ACS-90, and life
stress scales at T2.
Results
Correlations
To demonstrate discriminative validity of our measures, we
calculated correlations (see values below the diagonal in Table 1).
788
BAUMANN, KASCHEL, AND KUHL

Despite a moderate correlation between achievement orientation
and AOF (r ⫽ .38, p ⬍ .05), only AOF showed a significant
negative correlation with symptoms at T2 (r ⫽⫺.45, p ⬍ .01),
whereas achievement orientation did not significantly correlate
with symptoms at T2 (r ⫽ .12, p ⬍ .44). Findings supported the
hypothesized relationship between AOF and symptom formation
and demonstrated the discriminative validity of achievement ori-
entation and AOF.
Affect Regulation and Changes in Symptom Formation
Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted on changes in
symptoms over a period of 3 months. Somatic complaints at T2
were regressed on somatic complaints at T1 and entered as the first
block, AOF and threats were entered as the second block, and the
interaction term was entered as the third block. There was a
significant AOF ⫻ Threats interaction,
␤
⫽⫺.31, t(37) ⫽⫺2.47,
p ⬍ .02. Unstandardized regression weights with a range of ⫾ 1
SD for both predictor variables were used to graph this interaction
effect. The relation between threats and symptom formation after
3 months varied as a function of state and action orientation.
Consistent with expectations, state-oriented participants showed
significantly higher somatic complaints as threats increased: for
low threats, M ⫽⫺0.10 and for high threats, M ⫽ 0.56; t(38) ⫽
2.60, p ⬍ .02. In contrast, action-oriented participants had a
nonsignificant tendency toward lower somatic complaints as
threats increased: for low threats, M ⫽⫺.05 and for high threats:
M ⫽⫺0.57, t(38) ⫽⫺0.75, ns. Simple slope analyses yielded a
significant difference between state- and action-oriented partici-
pants experiencing high threats, t(38) ⫽⫺3.44, p ⬍ .01. Findings
provided support for the hypothesis that the influence of threats on
symptom formation after 3 months was moderated by failure-
related state and action orientation. An analogous regression anal-
ysis was conducted on somatic complaints at T2 (controlling for
T1), including AOD, demands, and their interaction term. The
AOD ⫻ Demands interaction was not significant,
␤
⫽⫺.10,
t(37) ⫽⫺0.69, p ⬍ .50. Furthermore, the cross-interactions
AOF ⫻ Demands,
␤
⫽⫺.26, t(37) ⫽⫺1.13, p ⬍ .28, and AOD ⫻
Threats,
␤
⫽⫺.02, t(37) ⫽⫺0.11, p ⬍ .92, were not significant.
Affect Regulation and Motive-Incongruent Achievement
Orientation
A hierarchical regression analysis was conducted on motive
incongruence (i.e., absolute difference between standardized n
achievement and standardized achievement orientation), with AOF
and threats entered as the first block and their interaction term
entered as the second block. There was a significant AOF ⫻
Threats interaction for achievement motive incongruence,
␤
⫽
⫺.32, t(38) ⫽⫺2.22, p ⬍ .05. Unstandardized regression weights
with a range of ⫾ 1 SD for both predictor variables were used to
graph this interaction effect. As illustrated in Figure 4, the relation
between threats and motive incongruence varied as a function of
state and action orientation, as predicted. State-oriented partici-
pants showed significantly higher incongruence between n
achievement and achievement orientation as threats increased,
t(38) ⫽ 2.53, p ⬍ .02, whereas action-oriented participants were
not significantly influenced by threats, t(38) ⫽⫺0.28, p ⬍ .79. No
other effects were significant. An additional regression analysis
was conducted on achievement motive incongruence, including
AOD, demands, and their interaction term. The AOD ⫻ Demands
interaction was not significant,
␤
⫽ .02, t(38) ⫽ 0.16, p ⬍ .88.
Furthermore, the cross interactions AOF ⫻ Demands,
␤
⫽⫺.27,
t(38) ⫽⫺1.68, p ⬍ .11, and AOD ⫻ Threats,
␤
⫽ .07, t(38) ⫽
0.50, p ⬍ .62, were not significant. Regression analyses provided
support for the hypothesis that the influence of life stress on
formation of motive-incongruent orientations was moderated by
state and action orientation. More specifically, the influence of
threats on motive-incongruent achievement orientation was mod-
erated by failure-related state and action orientation.
Motive-Incongruent Achievement Orientation and
Changes in Symptom Formation
A hierarchical regression analysis was conducted on symptoms
at T2 (controlling for T1), with achievement orientation and n
achievement entered as the first block and their interaction term
entered as the second block. There was a significant n Achieve-
ment ⫻ Achievement Orientation interaction,
␤
⫽ .20, t(58) ⫽
2.32, p ⬍ .03. Unstandardized regression weights with a range
of ⫾ 1 SD for both predictor variables were used to graph this
interaction effect. Figure 5 shows that congruence between n
achievement and achievement orientation was associated with low
symptoms at T2. In contrast, placing great importance on achieve-
ment despite low n achievement scores as well as placing low
importance on achievement despite high n achievement scores was
associated with high symptoms after a period of 3 months. Con-
sistent with our hypothesis, both types of incongruence were
detrimental to treatment success. Simple slope analyses were mar-
ginally significant for low levels of n achievement, t(38) ⫽ 1.94,
p ⬍ .06, and were also significant for high n achievement, t(38) ⫽
Figure 4. Incongruence (absolute difference) between implicit achieve-
ment motive and explicit achievement orientation as a function of per-
ceived life stress (i.e., threats) and failure-related state orientation (SOF)
and action orientation (AOF) in Study 2. Low and high values on threats
as well as low (SOF) and high (AOF) values on failure-related action
orientation correspond to one standard deviation below and above the
mean, respectively.
789
MOTIVE-INCONGRUENT ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATION

⫺3.25, p ⬍ .01. In an independent t test, the group of 9 participants
overestimating their n achievement scores by at least 1 SD was not
significantly different in symptom severity from the group of 9
participants underestimating their n achievement scores by at least
1 SD, M ⫽ 0.50 vs. M ⫽ 0.37, t(16) ⫽ 0.32, p ⬍ .76. In contrast,
the congruent group had lower symptoms (M ⫽⫺0.33) than
overestimators, t(31) ⫽⫺2.21, p ⬍ .05, and underestimators,
t(31) ⫽⫺1.83, p ⬍ .08.
Mediational Model
The direct effect of the AOF ⫻ Threats interaction on changes
in symptom formation over a period of 3 months was expected to
be partially mediated by motive-incongruent achievement orienta-
tions. To test the mediational model, a series of separate path
analyses was completed. First, AOF ⫻ Threats directly affected
changes in symptoms over a period of 3 months (see above).
Second, AOF ⫻ Threats was predictive of the amount of motive-
incongruent achievement orientation (see Figure 4). Third, when
AOF ⫻ Threats (controlling for main effects of AOF and threats)
and amount of motive-incongruent achievement orientation were
entered into the equation simultaneously, motive-incongruent
achievement orientations were predictive of somatic complaints at
T2 (controlling for somatic complaints at T1),
␤
⫽ .27, t(36) ⫽
2.04, p ⬍ .05. Moreover, the direct relationship between AOF ⫻
Threats and somatic complaints was no longer significant,
␤
⫽
⫺.23, t(36) ⫽⫺1.77, p ⬍ .09. The mediational model is illustrated
in Figure 6. Findings are consistent with the assumption that
individuals high in failure-related state orientation (i.e., low AOF)
are prone to show motive-incongruent achievement orientations
when experiencing high threats. These motive-incongruent orien-
tations are one of the reasons why state-oriented individuals under
high threat develop more somatic complaints after a period of 3
months.
4
Alternative model. To test an alternative model, that motive
incongruence interacts with stress to predict the course of symp-
toms over a period of 3 months and that state orientation mediates
this direct effect, we conducted a series of separate path analyses.
First, the Motive Incongruence (T1) ⫻ Threats (T1) interaction
(controlling for main effects) on symptoms at T2 (controlling for
T1) was not significant,
␤
⫽ .30, t(37) ⫽ 1.38, p ⬍ .18. Second,
the Motive Incongruence ⫻ Threats interaction (controlling for
main effects) on AOF was not significant,
␤
⫽⫺.40, t(38) ⫽
⫺1.60, p ⬍ .12. Thus, the results do not support the alternative
model.
Additional evidence. To ascertain temporal priority of state
and action orientation in the formation of motive-incongruent
achievement orientations, we conducted additional analyses in the
subsample of patients who completed all follow-up measures.
First, the AOF (T1) ⫻ Threats (T1) interaction directly affected the
course of symptoms (T2, controlling for T1),
␤
⫽⫺.46, t(18) ⫽
⫺2.50, p ⬍ .03. Second, AOF (T1) ⫻ Threats (T1) was predictive
of the course of motive incongruence (T2, controlling for T1),
␤
⫽
⫺.45, t(18) ⫽⫺2.78, p ⬍ .02. Third, when all predictor terms,
were entered into the equation simultaneously, changes in motive
incongruence (T2, controlling for T1) were predictive of the course
of somatic complaints (T2, controlling for T1),
␤
⫽ .52, t(16) ⫽
2.20, p ⬍ .05. Moreover, the direct relationship between AOF
(T1) ⫻ Threats (T1) and the course of somatic complaints was no
longer significant,
␤
⫽⫺.20, t(16) ⫽⫺0.96, p ⬍ .35. Thus, the
mediational model obtained for motive incongruence at T1 (see
Figure 6) was also valid for changes in motive incongruence over
the period of 3 months. A lack of action-oriented coping with
threats (i.e., SOF) was associated with increments in motive in-
congruence over the course of 3 months. These increments in
motive incongruence mediated symptom aggravation observed in
state-oriented participants under high threat. Despite the limita-
tions due to the small sample size, the additional analyses yielded
the expected pattern of results.
The alternative model, in which AOF was included as a medi-
ator, was not supported in the subsample. Failure-related action
orientation had a high stability (r ⫽ .72, p ⬍ .01) over a period of
3 months. Threats, explicit achievement orientation, and/or the
amount of motive-incongruent achievement orientation were not
able to predict changes in action orientation.
4
Using the product measure (standardized achievement orientation ⫻
standardized n achievement) as an operationalization of motive congruence
yielded the same significant results in the mediational model: First, AOF ⫻
Threats directly affected changes in symptoms over a period of 3 months
(see above). Second, AOF ⫻ Threats was predictive of the amount of
motive congruence,
␤
⫽ .35, t(38) ⫽ 2.44, p ⬍ .02. Third, when AOF ⫻
Threats and motive congruence were entered into the equation simulta-
neously (controlling for main effects) motive congruence was predictive of
somatic complaints at T2 (controlling for somatic complaints at T1),
␤
⫽
⫺.35, t(36) ⫽⫺2.42, p ⬍ .03. Moreover, the direct relationship between
AOF ⫻ Threats and somatic complaints was no longer significant,
␤
⫽
⫺.20, t(36) ⫽⫺1.47, p ⬍ .15.
Figure 5. Symptoms after three months (Time 2), controlling for symp-
toms at Time 1, as a function of implicit achievement motive and explicit
achievement orientation in Study 2. Low and high values on threats as well
as low and high failure-related state orientation values on failure-related
action orientation correspond to one standard deviation below and above
the mean, respectively. n Achievement ⫽ implicit achievement motivation.
790
BAUMANN, KASCHEL, AND KUHL

Discussion
Study 2 was designed to test motive-incongruent achievement
orientations as a hidden stressor that mediates the course of symp-
toms in a clinical population undergoing treatment. The results of
Study 2 support the mediational model: Motive-incongruent
achievement orientations partially mediate the direct effect of a
combination of low volitional control of negative affect (SOF) and
excessive threats in everyday life on changes in symptoms. Study
2 findings extend Study 1 findings by demonstrating the practica-
bility and relevance of an operant motive measure in a clinical
context: Incongruence between explicit orientations and implicit
motive measures not only reduces subjective well-being (Study 1)
but also predicts the course of emotional and somatic complaints
over a time period of 3 months (Study 2).
The mechanism by which motive incongruence may contribute
to symptom formation can be explained by the effects of the stress
hormone cortisol. According to this view, a strong orientation
toward achievement despite an underlying emotional disinclina-
tion, as well as a failure to seek opportunities for meeting standards
of excellence despite a strong achievement motive, leads to accu-
mulation of conflict, frustrates basic needs, and increases cortisol
concentration. To the extent that individuals are not aware of the
motive-incongruent nature of their orientations, stress and in-
creased cortisol concentration are likely to become chronic. Ex-
cessive exposure to cortisol has been associated with a variety of
psychosomatic symptoms (Sapolsky, 1992).
The validity of motive incongruence as a mediator in the direct
relationship between unfavorable conditions (state orientation and
stress) and ill-being is further supported by the replication of the
cross-sectional findings (Study 1) in a prospective design (Study
2). The prospective results of Study 2 lend further support to
theory and evidence, suggesting that the construct of action versus
state orientation relates to the temporal course of affective re-
sponses rather than to emotional sensitivity per se. Self-regulation
is especially important when the focus is on changes in emotional
well-being and somatic complaints. In contrast, personality dimen-
sions such as neuroticism, extraversion, and anxiety describe the
sensitivity or threshold for the arousal of positive and negative
affect (Eysenck, 1990; Gray, 1987), that is, how quickly a person
enters an emotional state. State orientation concerns the self-
regulation of negative affect, that is, how quickly a person is able
to leave an emotional state once it is aroused (Baumann & Kuhl,
2002; Brunstein, 2001; Kuhl & Beckmann, 1994b; Koole & Jost-
mann, 2004). When stressful life events and symptoms are already
present, self-regulatory abilities such as self-relaxation (AOF) and
self-motivation (AOD) are crucial for personal health and the
course of therapy.
The present findings support the assumption that the inability to
downregulate negative affect (SOF) inhibits extension memory
and the self so that explicit orientations become disconnected from
implicit motives and the needs they represent. According to PSI
theory, the functional locus of affect regulation is the implicit self
system (Koole & Jostmann, 2004; Linville, 1987; Showers &
Kling, 1996). Interventions that increase implicit self-access
should help the individual to break the unhealthy cycle of negative
affect, self-inhibition, and chronicity of symptoms. Consistent with
this assumption, Thrash and Elliot (2002) found a concordance
between implicit and self-attributed achievement motives for par-
ticipants high in self-determination (presumably indicating high
self-access). Conditions that foster self-determination facilitate
integrative processes (Deci & Ryan, 1991; Ryan, 1995) and are
expected to support motive congruence. This hypothesis was tested
in Study 3.
Study 3
The findings from the first two studies demonstrating that stress
reduces motive congruence when self-regulatory abilities are low
were correlational. Although the cross-sectional findings of Study
1 have been replicated in a prospective design in Study 2, one must
trust that individuals can accurately report on their stress level. In
addition, state-oriented individuals might be subjected to more
intense stress than action-oriented individuals so that the intensity
of stress rather than the self-regulatory ability might explain the
results. In order to test the causal role of stress, we conducted an
experiment in which stress level was manipulated: In two imagery
exercises participants were asked to think of a situation with an
accepting versus a threatening person and to revitalize their feel-
ings in that situation. Imagery of an accepting person was expected
to foster self-determination and the generation of motive-
congruent orientations whereas imagery of a threatening person
was expected to decrease motive congruence for participants with
low abilities to downregulate negative affect (SOF). Because little
is known about the mechanisms underlying motive incongruence,
we decided to assess the implicit motive measure before the
imagery exercise and the explicit measure after the exercise. The
idea is that explicit reports become invalid when access to an
implicit knowledge base (extension memory) is reduced by stress.
In order to have a reference for the actual implicit motive, it is
necessary to assess it prior to the stress manipulation (see Schul-
theiss & Brunstein, 1999, for a similar approach). This approach
represents just one possible conception of motive incongruence.
Method
Participants
Thirty-two participants (15 women and 17 men) were recruited through
flyers at the university of Osnabru¨ck. They participated voluntarily and
were given 6.50 Euros (about 7 dollars) in return for their participation.
The participants’ mean age was 24.4 years (range ⫽ 20 to 33 years).
Figure 6. The mediational model with motive-incongruent achievement
orientation as partially mediating the direct effect of perceived life stress
(i.e., threats) and failure-related action orientation (AOF) on symptoms
after 3 months (Time 2), controlling for symptoms at Time 1, in Study 2.
Coefficients are standardized betas. *p ⬍ .05.
791
MOTIVE-INCONGRUENT ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATION

Materials
As in Study 1, the OMT, the MUT, and the ACS-90 were assessed. In
the present sample, internal consistencies (Cronbach’s alpha) were
␣
⫽ .82
for AOF,
␣
⫽ .77 for AOD, and
␣
⫽ .83 for explicit achievement
orientation. Imagery exercises were taken from Quirin (2005) As a manip-
ulation check, six positive items (joyful, elated, merry, happy, cheerful,
good-humored) and six negative items (worried, distressed, nervous, jit-
tery, upset, anxious) were used. Internal consistencies were
␣
⫽ .95 for the
positive mood scale and
␣
⫽ .98 for the negative mood scale.
Subjective well-being was assessed by four items of the five-item
well-being index proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO,
1998). The WHO-5 is a widely used and valid measure of subjective
well-being (Bonsignore, Barkow, Jessen, & Heun, 2001; Heun, Burkart,
Maier, & Bech, 1999). Participants were asked to indicate how each of the
statements applied to them “right now” (instead of “during the last two
weeks”). Example items are the following: “I feel cheerful and in good
spirits”; “I feel calm and relaxed.” (The item “I woke up feeling fresh and
rested” was not appropriate for our focus on momentary well-being.)
Internal consistency was
␣
⫽ .80.
A postexperimental questionnaire assessed participants’ imagery expe-
rience (“The person was . . .”) with four acceptance items (security con-
veying, accepting, protecting, calming) and four threat items (threatening,
anxiety arousing, frightening, upsetting). Internal consistencies were
␣
⫽
.92 for the acceptance scale and
␣
⫽ .66 for the threat scale.
Procedure
Participants were tested individually. The OMT, the ACS-90, and a
mood rating were given at the beginning of the experiment. Next, partic-
ipants were randomly assigned to one of two imagination conditions. In the
acceptance condition, they were asked to imagine a person who fully
accepted them and conveyed feelings of security and support. In the threat
condition, they were asked to imagine a threatening person, who made
them feel insecure and anxious. Subsequently, participants were asked to
listen via headphones to a 4-min prerecorded imagery exercise while sitting
in a reclining chair.
5
A male speaker invited listeners to close their eyes and
to revitalize a concrete experience with the accepting (threatening) person.
Participants were asked to imagine the person’s facial expression, tone of
voice, and words and to revitalize their own feelings in that situation.
Subsequently, participants were asked to rate their momentary mood and to
write down 10 personal goals. Participants were asked to rate their degree
of commitment to each goal on a 10-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not
at all)to9(very much) and to indicate whether each goal was more related
to achievement, affiliation, or power. Next, participants filled out the
explicit achievement orientation scale (MUT) and a postexperimental
questionnaire. Finally, participants were debriefed and paid for their par-
ticipation. The experimental session lasted about 1 hr.
Results
Manipulation Check
Mood ratings. Hierarchical regression analyses were con-
ducted on mood scales at T2, with mood scales at T1 entered as the
first block, AOF and experimental condition entered as the second
block, and their interaction term entered as the third block. There
were significant main effects of experimental condition for the
positive mood scale,
␤
⫽⫺.46, t(28) ⫽⫺4.75, p ⬍ .01, and the
negative mood scale,
␤
⫽ .36, t(28) ⫽ 2.14, p ⬍ .05. Dependent
t tests (T1 vs. T2) were calculated for each experimental condition.
Participants in the acceptance condition reported significantly re-
duced anxiety immediately after the imagery exercise, 0.97 for T1
vs. 0.69 for T2; t(15) ⫽ 2.35, p ⬍ .05, and, on a descriptive level,
increased happiness, 1.56 for T1 vs. 1.75 for T2; t(15) ⫽⫺1.56,
p ⬍ .14. In contrast, participants in the threat condition reported
significantly reduced happiness immediately after the imagery
exercise, 1.22 for T1 vs. 0.85 for T2, t(15) ⫽ 3.65, p ⬍ .01 and,
on a descriptive level, increased anxiety, 0.66 for T1 vs. 1.05 for
T2, t(15) ⫽⫺1.68, p ⬍ .12. In both analyses, there were no
significant (or marginally significant) main or interaction effects
for AOF (all ps ⬎ .45). Thus, the experimental manipulation was
effective for state- and action-oriented participants.
Imagery exercise. Hierarchical regression analyses were con-
ducted on participants’ ratings of the “to-be-imagined person” as
accepting and threatening, with AOF and experimental condition
entered as the first block and their interaction term entered as the
second block. There were significant main effects of experimental
condition for the acceptance scale,
␤
⫽⫺.81, t(29) ⫽⫺7.43, p ⬍
.01, and for the threat scale,
␤
⫽ .57, t(29) ⫽ 3.50, p ⬍ .01. In the
threat condition, the person was experienced as less accepting
(0.53 for the threat condition vs. 2.34 for the acceptance condition)
and more threatening (1.72 for the threat condition vs. 0.55 for the
acceptance condition) than in the acceptance condition. In both
analyses, there were no significant effects, including AOF (all
ps ⬎ .28). Thus, the intensity of the imagery exercise did not differ
for state- and action-oriented participants.
Affect Regulation and Subjective Well-Being
A hierarchical regression analysis was conducted on subjective
well-being, with AOF and experimental condition entered as the
first block and their interaction term entered as the second block.
There was a significant main effect of experimental condition,
␤
⫽
⫺.37, t(29) ⫽⫺2.19, p ⬍ .05. Participants in the threat condition
reported less subjective well-being at the end of the experiment
than participants in the acceptance condition. More important,
there was a significant AOF ⫻ Experimental Condition interac-
tion,
␤
⫽ .37, t(28) ⫽ 2.40, p ⬍ .03. Unstandardized regression
weights with a range of ⫾ 1 SD for both predictor variables were
used to graph this interaction effect. Consistent with expectations,
state-oriented participants showed substantially lower subjective
well-being at the end of the experiment after imagining a threat-
ening person as compared with an accepting person: acceptance
M ⫽ 0.41 vs. threat M ⫽⫺1.10, t(28) ⫽⫺3.37, p ⬍ .01.
Action-oriented participants were not significantly influenced in
their subjective well-being at the end of the experiment by imagery
conditions: acceptance M ⫽ 0.19 vs. threat M ⫽ 0.22, t(28) ⫽
0.08, p ⬍ .94. The AOD ⫻ Experimental Condition interaction
was not significant,
␤
⫽⫺.06, t(28) ⫽⫺0.33, p ⬍ .75. Findings
support the hypothesis that failure-related state and action orien-
tation moderated the influence of threatening conditions on sub-
jective well-being at the end of the experiment.
Affect Regulation and Motive Incongruence
Achievement orientation. A hierarchical regression analysis
was conducted on motive-incongruent achievement orientation
(i.e., absolute difference between standardized n achievement and
5
We thank Markus Quirin for providing us with the materials for the
imagery exercises.
792
BAUMANN, KASCHEL, AND KUHL

standardized achievement orientation) with AOF and experimental
condition entered as the first block and their interaction term
entered as the second block. There was a significant AOF ⫻
Experimental Condition interaction for motive-incongruent
achievement orientation,
␤
⫽⫺.36, t(28) ⫽⫺2.12, p ⬍ .05.
Unstandardized regression weights with a range of ⫾ 1 SD for
AOF were used to graph this interaction effect. As illustrated in
Figure 7, the effect of the experimental manipulation on motive-
incongruent achievement orientation varied as a function of state
and action orientation, as predicted. State-oriented participants
showed significantly higher incongruence between n achievement
and achievement orientation after imagining a threatening person
as compared with an accepting person, t(28) ⫽ 2.52, p ⬍ .02. In
contrast, action-oriented participants did not differ in motive-
incongruent achievement orientation between conditions, t(28) ⫽
⫺0.53, p ⬍ .60. No other effects were significant. An additional
regression analysis was conducted on achievement motive congru-
ence, including AOD, experimental condition, and their interaction
term. The AOD ⫻ Experimental Condition interaction was not
significant,
␤
⫽ .05, t(28) ⫽ 0.25, p ⬍ .81. Regression analyses
provided support for the hypothesis that stress is a causal factor in
the formation of motive incongruence. More specifically, threat-
ening conditions foster motive-incongruent achievement orienta-
tions for participants high in failure-related state orientation.
Number of achievement goals. As an alternative measure of
achievement orientation, the number of achievement goals that
participants generated after the imagery exercise was used. A
hierarchical regression analysis was conducted on motive-
incongruent achievement goals (i.e., absolute difference between
standardized n achievement and the standardized number of
achievement goals). There was a significant AOF ⫻ Experimental
Condition interaction for motive-incongruent goals,
␤
⫽⫺.43,
t(28) ⫽⫺2.69, p ⬍ .02. Unstandardized regression weights with
a range of ⫾ 1 SD for AOF were used to graph this interaction
effect. Consistent with expectations, state-oriented participants
showed higher incongruence between n achievement and number
of achievement goals after imagining a threatening person as
compared with imagining an accepting person: acceptance M ⫽
0.78 vs. threat M ⫽ 2.05, t(28) ⫽ 2.87, p ⬍ .01. In contrast,
action-oriented participants did not show a significant difference in
motive-incongruent goals between imaging conditions: acceptance
M ⫽ 1.20 vs. threat M ⫽ .76, t(28) ⫽⫺0.98, p ⬍ .34. No other
effects were significant. The AOD ⫻ Experimental Condition
interaction on motive-incongruent goals was not significant,
␤
⫽
.05, t(28) ⫽ 0.27, p ⬍ .80.
Commitment to achievement goals. As a third measure of
achievement orientation, participants’ degree of commitment to-
ward their achievement goals was used. A hierarchical regression
analysis was conducted on motive-incongruent commitment to
achievement goals (i.e., absolute difference between standardized
n achievement and standardized commitment to achievement
goals). There was a significant main effect of AOF,
␤
⫽⫺.39,
t(29) ⫽⫺2.69, p ⬍ .05. More important, there was a significant
AOF ⫻ Experimental Condition interaction for motive-
incongruent commitment,
␤
⫽⫺.40, t(28) ⫽⫺2.64, p ⬍ .02.
Unstandardized regression weights with a range of ⫾ 1 SD for
AOF were used to graph this interaction effect. Consistent with
expectations, state-oriented participants showed higher incongru-
ence between n achievement and commitment to achievement
goals after imagining a threatening compared with an accepting
person: acceptance M ⫽ 0.74 vs. threat M ⫽ 2.05, t(28) ⫽ 3.14,
p ⬍ .01. In contrast, action-oriented participants were not signif-
icantly influenced by experimental conditions: acceptance M ⫽
0.85 vs. threat M ⫽ 0.58, t(28) ⫽⫺0.64, p ⬍ .53. The AOD ⫻
Experimental Condition interaction on motive-incongruent com-
mitment was not significant,
␤
⫽⫺.16, t(28) ⫽⫺0.87, p ⬍ .39.
Motive Incongruence and Subjective Well-Being
Achievement orientation. A hierarchical regression analysis
was conducted on subjective well-being, with achievement orien-
tation and n achievement entered as the first block and their
interaction term entered as the second block. There was a signif-
icant n Achievement ⫻ Achievement Orientation interaction,
␤
⫽
.46, t(28) ⫽ 2.70, p ⬍ .02. Unstandardized regression weights with
a range of ⫾ 1 SD for both predictor variables were used to graph
this interaction effect. As depicted in Figure 8, congruence be-
tween n achievement and achievement orientation was associated
with subjective well-being. In contrast, placing great importance
on achievement despite low n achievement scores as well as
placing low importance on achievement despite high n achieve-
ment scores was associated with low subjective well-being. Con-
sistent with our hypothesis, both types of incongruence were
detrimental to subjective well-being. Simple slope analyses were
marginally significant for low n achievement, t(28) ⫽⫺1.96, p ⬍
.06, and high n achievement, t(28) ⫽ 1.86, p ⬍ .08. In an
independent t test, the group of 8 participants overestimating their
n achievement scores by at least 1 SD was not significantly
different in their subjective well-being from the group of 8 partic-
Figure 7. Incongruence (absolute difference) between implicit achieve-
ment motive and explicit achievement orientation as a function of exper-
imental condition (i.e., imagery of an accepting vs. a threatening person)
and failure-related state orientation (SOF) and action orientation (AOF) in
Study 3. Low (SOF) and high (AOF) values on failure-related action
orientation correspond to one standard deviation below and above the
mean, respectively.
793
MOTIVE-INCONGRUENT ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATION

ipants underestimating their n achievement scores by at least 1 SD
(M ⫽⫺0.26 vs. M ⫽⫺0.89), t(14) ⫽⫺1.28, p ⬍ .25. In contrast,
the congruent group had significantly higher subjective well-being
(M ⫽ .58) than overestimators, t(22) ⫽ 2.47, p ⬍ .03, as well as
underestimators, t(22) ⫽ 4.89, p ⬍ .01.
Number of achievement goals. A hierarchical regression anal-
ysis was conducted on subjective well-being with number of
achievement goals and n achievement entered as the first block and
their interaction term entered as the second block. There was a
significant n Achievement ⫻ Goals interaction,
␤
⫽ .41, t(28) ⫽
2.60, p ⬍ .02. Unstandardized regression weights with a range
of ⫾ 1 SD for both predictor variables were used to graph this
interaction effect. Congruence between n achievement and number
of achievement goals was associated with subjective well-being:
low–low M ⫽ 0.95 and high– high M ⫽ 0.01. In contrast, striving
for many achievement goals despite low n achievement scores
(M ⫽⫺0.22) as well as striving for few achievement goals despite
high n achievement scores (M ⫽⫺0.54) was associated with low
subjective well-being. In an independent t test, the group of six
overestimators was not significantly different in their subjective
well-being from the group of eight underestimators, M ⫽⫺0.22
vs. M ⫽⫺0.46, t(12) ⫽⫺0.40, p ⬍ .70. On a descriptive level, the
congruent group reported higher subjective well-being (M ⫽ 0.34)
than overestimators, t(22) ⫽ 1.74, p ⬍ .10, and underestimators,
t(24) ⫽ 2.01, p ⬍ .06. The difference in subjective well-being
between congruent and incongruent individuals was significant,
t(30) ⫽ 2.33, p ⬍ .03.
Commitment to achievement goals. A hierarchical regression
analysis was conducted on subjective well-being, with commit-
ment to achievement goals and n achievement entered as the first
block and their interaction term entered as the second block. There
was a significant n Achievement ⫻ Commitment interaction,
␤
⫽
.41, t(28) ⫽ 2.15, p ⬍ .05. Unstandardized regression weights with
a range of ⫾ 1 SD for both predictor variables were used to graph
this interaction effect. Congruence between n achievement and
commitment to achievement goals was associated with subjective
well-being (low–low M ⫽ 0.64 vs. high– high M ⫽ 0.14). In
contrast, high commitment to achievement goals despite low n
achievement scores (M ⫽⫺0.33) as well as striving for few
achievement goals despite high n achievement scores (M ⫽
⫺0.53) was associated with low subjective well-being. In an
independent t test, the group of seven overestimators was not
significantly different in their subjective well-being from the group
of six underestimators, M ⫽⫺0.31 vs. M ⫽⫺0.57, t(11) ⫽
⫺0.39, p ⬍ .71. The congruent group reported (marginally) sig-
nificantly higher subjective well-being (M ⫽ .35) than overesti-
mators, t(24) ⫽ 1.68, p ⬍ .10, and significantly higher well-being
than underestimators, t(23) ⫽ 2.75, p ⬍ .02. The difference in
subjective well-being between congruent and incongruent individ-
uals was significant, t(30) ⫽ 2.57, p ⬍ .02.
Mediational Model
Achievement orientation. The direct effect of the AOF ⫻
Experimental Condition interaction on subjective well-being was
expected to be partially mediated by motive incongruence. To test
the mediational model, we completed a series of separate path
analyses. First, AOF ⫻ Experimental Condition directly affected
subjective well-being (see above). Second, AOF ⫻ Experimental
Condition was predictive of the amount of motive-incongruent
achievement orientation (see Figure 7). Third, when AOF ⫻
Experimental Condition (controlling for main effects) and motive-
incongruent achievement orientation were entered into the equa-
tion simultaneously, motive-incongruent achievement orientations
were predictive of subjective well-being,
␤
⫽⫺0.48, t(27) ⫽
⫺3.21, p ⬍ .01. Moreover, the direct relationship between AOF ⫻
Experimental Condition and subjective well-being was no longer
significant,
␤
⫽ 0.20, t(27) ⫽ 1.38, p ⬍ .18. The mediational
model is illustrated in Figure 9. Findings are consistent with the
assumption that threatening conditions play a causal role in the
formation of motive-incongruent achievement orientations for in-
dividuals with affect regulation deficits. These hidden stress fac-
tors are one of the reasons why state-oriented individuals under
high threats experience less subjective well-being.
Number of achievement goals. The mediational model was
significant for motive-incongruent goals: When AOF ⫻ Experi-
Figure 9. The mediational model with motive-incongruent achievement
orientation as partially mediating the direct effect of experimental condi-
tion (exp. cond.; i.e., imagery of an accepting vs. a threatening person) and
failure-related action orientation (AOF) on subjective well-being in Study
3. Coefficients are standardized betas. * p ⬍ .05. ** p ⬍ .01.
Figure 8. Subjective well-being as a function of implicit achievement
motive and explicit achievement orientation in Study 3. Low and high
values correspond to one standard deviation below and above the mean,
respectively. n Ach ⫽ implicit achievement motivation.
794
BAUMANN, KASCHEL, AND KUHL

mental Condition (controlling for main effects) and motive-
incongruent goals were entered into the equation simultaneously,
motive-incongruent goals were predictive of subjective well-being,
␤
⫽⫺0.38, t(27) ⫽⫺2.19, p ⬍ .05. Moreover, the direct rela-
tionship between AOF ⫻ Experimental Condition and subjective
well-being was no longer significant,
␤
⫽ .21, t(27) ⫽ 1.29, p ⬍
.21.
Commitment to achievement goals. The mediational model
was marginally significant for motive-incongruent commitment:
When AOF ⫻ Experimental Condition (controlling for main ef-
fects) and motive-incongruent commitment were entered into the
equation simultaneously, motive-incongruent commitment was
predictive of subjective well-being,
␤
⫽⫺0.32, t(27) ⫽⫺1.75,
p ⬍ .10. Moreover, the direct relationship between AOF ⫻ Ex-
perimental Condition and subjective well-being was no longer
significant,
␤
⫽ .24, t(27) ⫽ 1.45, p ⬍ .16.
Discussion
Study 3 was designed to test the mediating role of motive
incongruence on subjective well-being when stress is experimen-
tally induced in a healthy population. The results of Study 3
support the mediational model: Motive-incongruent achievement
orientations partially mediate the direct effect of the combination
of SOF and threat on subjective well-being. Findings support the
assumption that stress plays a causal role in the formation of
motive-incongruent orientations. When self-regulatory abilities to
cope with threatening experiences are low (SOF), participants lose
access to their implicit self and are not able to generate motive-
congruent orientations. In contrast, high self-regulatory abilities
(AOF) can protect against the detrimental effects of stress. The
manipulation check shows that intensity of the imagery exercise
did not differ for state- and action-oriented participants. Thus,
findings discount an alternative interpretation that stress intensity,
and not self-regulatory ability, explains the results. Furthermore,
findings suggest that accepting conditions presumably associated
with self-determination and integrative processes (Deci & Ryan,
1991; Ryan, 1995) may bridge the gap between implicit and
explicit motives. However, on the basis of the present data, it is not
possible to distinguish whether the effects are more driven by
threat or acceptance. Future studies should include a neutral con-
dition in order to test whether threat reduces congruence, accep-
tance promotes congruence, or both effects are significant.
The present study focused on the experimental induction of
threat. Consistent with our hypothesis, failure-related action ori-
entation (AOF) was more important in coping with threatening
experiences than decision-related action orientation (AOD). Future
studies may look at the causal role of demands in the formation of
motive-incongruent orientations. To the extent that demanding
manipulations are successful in reducing positive affect more
strongly than increasing negative affect, we expect AOD to be a
relevant moderator because it is associated with the ability to
overcome a lack of positive affect (Koole & Jostmann, 2004). The
present results further support the assumption that action orienta-
tion is more related to affect regulation than affect sensitivity.
Action-oriented participants showed the same affective response
as state-oriented participants immediately after the imagery ma-
nipulation. However, action-oriented participants had overcome
their negative affect by the end of the experiment. In a similar vein,
Brunstein (2001) found no difference in negative affect between
SOF and AOF at the beginning of a semester, but at the end AOF
was related to successful self-relaxation over the course of the
semester.
Notably, the mediating role of implicit–explicit motive discrep-
ancies was replicated for goal-motive discrepancies in the present
study. Setting too many or not enough achievement goals and
building too much or too little commitment to personal achieve-
ment goals is as detrimental for subjective well-being as showing
too much or too little achievement orientation in self-report. The
goal measures are less reactive than the explicit motive measure
and further support the validity of our findings.
General Discussion
In the present research, we examined a psychological mecha-
nism by which stressful life events may exert an influence on
subjective well-being and symptom formation. Stressful life events
were expected to reduce access to extended implicit networks
among individuals with low abilities to volitionally control affect
(i.e., state-oriented individuals) so that explicit achievement ori-
entations are less congruent with implicit motive dispositions. By
contrast, individuals with high self-regulatory abilities (i.e., action-
oriented individuals) were expected to retain motive-congruent
orientations even when exposed to stress. Our mediational model
tested the hypothesis that motive-incongruent achievement orien-
tations are a hidden source of stress that partially mediates the
negative relationship between unattenuated stress and well-being.
In the cross-sectional Study 1, demanding life events were
associated with increased achievement motive incongruence and
reduced subjective well-being among state-oriented participants
(SOD) in a healthy sample. Action-oriented participants (AOD)
were not influenced by demands. In the longitudinal Study 2,
threatening life events were associated with increased achievement
motive incongruence and increased symptom formation over the
course of 3 months among state-oriented participants (SOF) in a
clinical sample. Action-oriented participants (AOF) were not in-
fluenced by threats. In the experimental Study 3, imagery of a
threatening compared with an accepting person was found to play
a causal role in increased achievement motive incongruence and
reduced subjective well-being observed in state-oriented partici-
pants (SOF). In all three studies, motive incongruence in the
achievement domain partially mediated the direct relationship be-
tween unfavorable conditions (state orientation by stress) and
health outcomes. There were no meaningful differences between
overestimators (implicit low and explicit high) and underestima-
tors (implicit high and explicit low) in our studies. Presumably,
both types of motive incongruence function as hidden stress
factors.
It is noteworthy that the present research obtained converging
results with two different operationalizations of stress (self-report
and imagery exercise), three different measures of explicit
achievement orientation (questionnaire, number of self-generated
achievement goals, and goal commitment), three different health
outcome measures, three different study designs (cross-sectional,
longitudinal and experimental), and two different types of samples
(healthy and clinical). This methodological convergence increases
confidence in the robustness of our findings. Furthermore, findings
point to the influence of this hidden stressor across a variety of
795
MOTIVE-INCONGRUENT ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATION

settings that can be subdivided into demanding and threatening life
events. Presumably, demanding events require self-motivation
(AOD), whereas threatening events require self-relaxation (AOF)
in order to retain motive congruence and well-being.
Motive-incongruent achievement orientations seem to play an
important role in the causal chain from stressful life events to
subjective ill-being and symptom formation (Kuhl, 2001; Kuhl &
Kaschel, 2004). This causal chain may be described as follows: (a)
Demanding life events and difficulties in goal attainment reduce
positive affect (Study 1). Trauma or threatening life events in-
crease negative affect (Studies 2 and 3). (b) When there are no
external sources of stress reduction (e.g., encouragement or con-
solation from others, respectively), the affective states perseverate
unless the individual has developed sufficient self-regulatory com-
petence for restoring positive affect (AOD) or reducing negative
affect (AOF), respectively. (c) When this self-regulatory compe-
tence is impaired, that is, when deficits exist in the ability to
self-generate positive affect (SOD) or the ability to downregulate
negative affect (SOF), reduced positive affect or increased nega-
tive affect, respectively, may further perseverate (Kuhl & Beck-
mann, 1994b). (d) According to the modulation assumptions of
PSI theory, fixations on these affective states result in an asym-
metric activation of intention memory and an inhibition of exten-
sion memory that disturb exchange between explicit and implicit
modalities (Kuhl, 2001). Explicit orientations are more and more
decoupled from extended experiential networks so that goals can-
not be pursued in a flexible, context-sensitive manner and may not
satisfy implicit needs (Rotenberg & Arshavsky, 1988). (e) Chronic
need frustration and chronic negative affect reiterate the self-
inhibition cycle and may ultimately lead to symptom formation
(Kuhl & Kaschel, 2004).
The above model describes a common pathway to a variety of
symptoms because chronic need frustration and unattenuated neg-
ative affect presumably increase cortisol concentration. Chroni-
cally elevated levels of this stress hormone have been associated
with a variety of psychosomatic symptoms, such as eating disor-
der, anxiety, depression, headache, reduced immune function, and
so forth (Sapolsky, 1992). Therefore, in addition to any symptom-
specific causes, motive incongruence is conceived of as a general
mechanism that contributes to the chronicity of frustration, nega-
tive affect, and symptoms. Mediation of this hidden stressor is
expected to be only partial because life events have not only a
subjective dimension but also an objective dimension that may
directly influence the personality– disease relationship (cf. Van
Heck, 1997). For example, a deadline for an important project may
be objectively too short even when high personal investments to
meet the deadline are completely congruent with an individual’s
implicit motive structure. Nevertheless, it would be interesting to
see whether creative problem solving (Rotenberg, 1993; Rotenberg
& Arshavsky, 1988) or disengagement from unrealistic goals
(Klinger, 1975) is easier in the case of motive congruence.
In conclusion, the findings reported in this article revealed a
hidden source of stress that can be at least as relevant for the
impairment of subjective well-being and for the formation of
psychological symptoms as external stressors, namely, the discrep-
ancy between explicit achievement concerns and implicit achieve-
ment motives. This hidden stressor reduces positive emotional
states (i.e., subjective well-being) and facilitates symptom forma-
tion unless the maladaptive mood presumably associated with
explicit–implicit motive discrepancies can be alleviated by self-
regulatory mechanisms that improve mood without external sup-
port (i.e., by the self-motivation or self-relaxing aspects of action
orientation, respectively).
Limitations and Future Perspectives
The present studies have a number of limitations. First, Studies
1 and 2 included only self-report measures as opposed to more
objective measures of stress, achievement orientation, well-being,
and symptom formation. Study 3 improved experimental control
by manipulating stress and included achievement orientation mea-
sures that were less reactive. However, all studies relied on
participant-generated outcome measures. Second, the causal role
of stress was examined for threats but not for demands. Third, the
effects of an experimental manipulation of threat needed to be
replicated in comparison with a neutral control condition. Fourth,
our experimental study investigated only one possible conception
of motive incongruence, that is, that stress reduces the validity of
explicit reports about enduring implicit motive dispositions (cf.
Schultheiss & Brunstein, 1999). Alternatively, one may assume
that stress changes the content of both explicit and implicit mo-
tives. Our correlational Studies 1 and 2 do not allow us to distin-
guish between these different conceptions. In order to test the
alternative conception of motive incongruence experimentally,
both (implicit and explicit) motive measures must be assessed after
a stress manipulation. Finally, our model was only tested in the
achievement domain. Motive congruence also seems to play an
important role for subjective well-being and life satisfaction in the
affiliation–intimacy domain (Hofer & Chasiotis, 2003) as well as
in communion and agency (Brunstein et al., 1998). It is an inter-
esting question for future research whether motive incongruence
related to affiliation and power also contributes to the formation of
psychosomatic symptoms. Need frustration may work as a “hidden
stressor” irrespective of the content of frustration. However, the
present data do not allow us to prematurely generalize our medi-
ational model to other motive domains.
6
The present findings show that self-regulatory abilities are an
important moderator variable that can buffer against detrimental
effects of stress on motive congruence: Action-oriented partici-
pants were able to adjust their explicit orientations to match
implicit motives even when one is experiencing high levels of
stress. Similar adaptation effects can be observed in the reduction
of cognitive dissonance. For example, induction of an action-
oriented mindset causes individuals who made a difficult decision
6
From a theoretical perspective, the crucial role of affect regulation for
motive incongruence may not generalize to other motives: Change of affect
is especially relevant for the achievement motive because an achievement-
related episode typically starts with a phase of reduced positive affect
(when a person is confronted with some difficulty or frustration), which
changes to positive affect when the person anticipates or obtains success
(McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953). In contrast, power and
affiliation needs can also be satisfied when positive affect prevails from the
outset of a motivational episode. This hypothesis can be tested in future
research because it predicts that, for power and affiliation needs, emotional
sensitivity (e.g., neuroticism) may be more important than affect regula-
tion (e.g., action orientation) as a predictor of motive incongruence and
well-being.
796
BAUMANN, KASCHEL, AND KUHL

to spread apart the decision alternatives more strongly, viewing the
chosen more positively and the rejected more negatively, than
individuals without an action-oriented mindset (Harmon-Jones &
Harmon-Jones, 2002). Presumably, this “spreading of alternatives”
is motivated by affect regulation: It helps to remove negative affect
associated with dissonant cognitive contents (e.g., having rejected
attractive alternatives) and enables efficient implementation of the
decision. Attempts to find goals that satisfy implicit needs may
also be motivated by a desire to feel good and act efficiently.
However, the present findings imply that successful affect regula-
tion is a necessary prerequisite in order to be able to generate
motive-congruent goals when stress is high. Participants with low
abilities to downregulate negative affect (SOF) were not able to
adjust their goals and attitudes. It would be interesting to see
whether state-oriented participants have similar difficulties in re-
ducing cognitive dissonance when being stressed.
Motive incongruence is conceived of as an imbalance between
two cognitive systems representing implicit and explicit motives
so that the communication process between systems is disturbed.
In the present article, we tested the hypothesis that activation of
intention memory and extension memory can be modulated by
affect. Future research could also attempt to cognitively stimulate
or reduce the activation of these memory systems. For example,
inducing an uncompleted intention should stimulate intention
memory (Goschke & Kuhl, 1993) and inducing an analytical
processing style should reduce the participation of extension mem-
ory, whereas inducing a holistic processing style should activate
extension memory (Guevara, 1994). Intention and extension mem-
ory have been associated with the processing characteristics of the
left and the right hemispheres, respectively (Beeman et al., 1994;
Kuhl, 2001). To the extent that the lateralization hypothesis is
correct, unilateral muscle contractions (e.g., squeezing a ball in
one hand) could be used to stimulate the contralateral hemisphere
and the associated cognitive systems (Baumann, Kuhl, & Kaze´n, in
press; Schiff, Guirguis, Kenwood, & Herman, 1998). It would be
interesting to see whether or not such affect-free manipulations are
able to produce or reduce the hidden source of stress examined in
this article, that is, motive incongruence.
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Received July 14, 2003
Revision received May 11, 2005
Accepted May 23, 2005 䡲
New Editor Appointed, 2007–2012
The Publications and Communications (P&C) Board of the American Psychological Association
announces the appointment of a new editor for a 6-year term beginning in 2007. As of January 1,
2006, manuscripts should be directed as follows:
• Emotion (www.apa.org/journals/emo.html), Elizabeth A. Phelps, PhD, Department of Psy-
chology, New York University, 6 Washington Place, Room 863, New York, NY 10003.
Electronic manuscript submission. As of January 1, 2006, manuscripts should be submitted
electronically via the journal’s Manuscript Submission Portal (see the Web site listed above).
Authors who are unable to do so should correspond with the editor’s office about alternatives.
Manuscript submission patterns make the precise date of completion of the 2006 volumes uncertain.
The current editors, Richard J. Davidson, PhD, and Klaus R. Scherer, PhD, will receive and consider
manuscripts through December 31, 2005. Should 2006 volumes be completed before that date,
manuscripts will be redirected to the new editor for consideration in 2007 volume.
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