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Mothers' and Fathers' Racial Socialization in African American Families: Implications for Youth
Abstract
Mothers' and fathers' cultural socialization and bias preparation with older (M=13.9 years) and younger (M=10.31 years) siblings were studied in 162 two-parent, African American families. Analyses examined whether parental warmth and offspring age and gender were linked to parental practices and whether parents' warmth, spouses' racial socialization, or youth age or gender moderated links between racial socialization and youth outcomes. Parental warmth was linked to parents' socialization. Mothers engaged in more socialization with older offspring, and fathers more with sons. Mothers' cultural socialization was positively related to youth ethnic identity and fathers' was negatively related to youth depression symptoms. Youth exhibited a lower locus of control when mothers were high but fathers were low in racial socialization.
... For example, Black girls reported higher overall levels of parental racial socialization, more cultural socialization in particular (Thomas & Blackmon, 2015). In contrast, boys received more preparation for bias and promotion of mistrust messages (McHale et al., 2006;Thomas & Blackmon, 2015). Further, some studies show that fathers engage in more racial socialization with sons compared to daughters (Brown et al., 2010;McHale et al., 2006). ...
... In contrast, boys received more preparation for bias and promotion of mistrust messages (McHale et al., 2006;Thomas & Blackmon, 2015). Further, some studies show that fathers engage in more racial socialization with sons compared to daughters (Brown et al., 2010;McHale et al., 2006). In this study, we examined gender-specific This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
... Some studies suggest that parents differ in their racial socialization of sons versus daughters. For example, boys receive more preparation for bias messages (McHale et al., 2006;Thomas & Blackmon, 2015). In contrast, Black girls report higher overall levels of parental racial socialization, more cultural socialization in particular, perhaps because of concerns for girls' self-esteem (Hughes et al., 2009;McHale et al., 2006). ...
This study expanded on research examining families’ roles in youth gender development that has investigated boys’ versus girls’ family experiences by using a within-family design to study the gender socialization of brothers versus sisters from the same families. We drew from archival data collected in 2001–2002 from an ethnic homogeneous sample of Black American mother–father families (N = 128) who were raising at least one son and one daughter; the majority of youth were adolescents (range 2–31 years). In separate home interviews, mothers and fathers described whether and how they socialized their sons versus daughters about education, their futures, and racism and discrimination. Across these three domains, most parents reported that they did not socialize their sons and daughters differently. Nonetheless, several themes emerged that illuminated race and race–gender intersectionality in parents’ socialization, both resistance and accommodation to traditional gender norms, and the role of children’s personal characteristics in parents’ socialization, with similar themes evident among parents who did and who did not report socializing sons and daughters differently. This study advances understanding of parents’ gender socialization and has implications for family-focused interventions aimed at promoting the well-being and achievement of Black American boys and girls.
... Some studies have found differences in mothers' and fathers' racial socialization practices. For example, studies suggest that mothers and fathers differ in their balance of messages, with Black mothers communicating more cultural socialization than preparation for bias messages and Black fathers communicating more preparation for bias than cultural socialization messages (Hughes et al., 2006;McHale et al., 2006). Relative to each other, research shows that Black mothers may communicate significantly more cultural socialization, preparation for bias, and general racial socialization messages than Black fathers (McHale et al., 2006;Thornton et al., 1990). ...
... For example, studies suggest that mothers and fathers differ in their balance of messages, with Black mothers communicating more cultural socialization than preparation for bias messages and Black fathers communicating more preparation for bias than cultural socialization messages (Hughes et al., 2006;McHale et al., 2006). Relative to each other, research shows that Black mothers may communicate significantly more cultural socialization, preparation for bias, and general racial socialization messages than Black fathers (McHale et al., 2006;Thornton et al., 1990). ...
... To test whether gender moderated the associations between racial discrimination and racial socialization messages, we set parentadolescent gender dyads as individual grouping variables. For each model, parent and adolescent age, parent educational attainment, and number of older and younger siblings were used as covariates, as each are associated with parents' racial socialization messages (Bleich et al., 2019;McHale et al., 2006;. Except for the multiple-group analyses, parent and child gender were covariates. ...
Objectives: This study investigated the moderating roles of contextual racial composition (neighborhood, school, and job) and parent–adolescent gender dyads on the relation between familial racial discrimination experiences and parental racial socialization messages. Method: The analytic sample included 565 Black parents (Mage = 44.7; 56% mothers, 44% fathers) who reported on their personal and adolescents’ racial discrimination experiences and their communication of cultural socialization and preparation for bias messages. Results: Regression analyses in a structural equation modeling framework (path analyses) revealed that parents who personally experienced more racial discrimination or were in workplaces with more Black people communicated higher cultural socialization messages. They communicated high preparation for bias messages when reporting personal and adolescent racial discrimination. Racial discrimination experiences were positively related to preparation for bias messages among parents who worked in jobs with fewer Black people but were unrelated among parents working with more Black people. Multiple-group analyses indicated no gender differences in these associations. Conclusions: The findings demonstrate that Black parents vary in their racial socialization messages based on their family’s contexts and experiences. The findings highlight the importance of parents’ work contexts for adolescent development and family processes.
... Specifically, RS is the primary informant of a holistic process of Black youth development, that is, coming to know and accepting what it means to be Black through racial identity development (Lesane-Brown, 2006;Phinney, 1989;Spencer et al., 1997). Towards this end, RS implicates a myriad of psychosocial and academic outcomes for Black youth (Hughes et al., 2006;McHale et al., 2006;Reynolds et al., 2017;Varner et al., 2017). ...
... Black parents are considered the most salient transmitters of RS to their Black children (Demo & Hughes, 1990;Stevenson, 1994;White-Johnson et al., 2010). Thus, a large body of RS literature has been attentive to understanding characteristics among parents that contribute to the RS process, including parents' own experiences with racism (Anderson et al., 2015;Hughes & Chen, 1997) as well as their socioeconomic status (Hughes et al., 2006;Thornton et al., 1990), gender (Thornton et al., 1990;McHale et al., 2006), educational achievement (Caughy et al., 2002;Hughes & Chen, 1997;White et al., 2010) and family structure (Causey et al., 2015;Thornton, 1990). Collectively, these findings suggest that parental factors may impact the RS messages youth receive as well as the frequency with which they receive these messages towards healthy development (Lesane-Brown, 2006). ...
... Ample research suggests that RS is gendered in terms of the messages transmitted to and endorsed by Black youth (Brown et al., 2017;Thomas & Speight, 1999;Tribble et al., 2019). Mothers are more likely to communicate RS messages to their daughters, and fathers are more likely to communicate RS messages to their sons (McHale et al., 2006). Boys are more likely to receive preparation for bias messages that pertain to racial barriers (e.g., negative stereotypes; Cooper et al., 2015;Smith-Bynum et al., 2016;Thomas & Speight, 1999) and girls mostly receive cultural socialization messages that concentrate on racial pride (McHale et al., 2006;Smith-Bynum et al., 2016). ...
Historically, racial socialization (RS) literature has focused on the content and frequency of RS messages communicated between Black parents and youth. In an effort to examine the potential added benefit of receiving RS messages from non-parental agents, three hierarchical linear regressions were tested among a sample of Black youth (ages 14–21). Black youths’ acquisition of protection and bicultural coping messages from parents were associated with their belief in racial protection messages along with select relevant covariates. Black youths’ acquisition of protection and racial stereotyping messages from parental agents and racial stereotyping messages from non-parental agents were associated with their belief in racial stereotyping messages. Finally, Black youths’ belief in bicultural coping messages were association with their acquisition of protection, racial stereotyping, and bicultural coping messages from parental agents and racial stereotyping and bicultural coping messages from non-parental agents. Findings underscore the enduring role parental and non-parental figures serve in Black youths’ racial socialization experiences across ecological contexts. As such, future interventions and community-based programs should be oriented towards equipping parents and supports for Black youth (e.g., including multiracial families) with the competency to communicate racial pride and skillfully support Black children’s management of racialized experiences.
... Some studies suggest that the extent to which certain ERS messages are associated with psychosocial adjustment may depend on the family climate (e.g., conflict vs. cohesion vs. trust; Lambert et al., 2015;McHale et al., 2006). Supportive family environment dynamics may enhance youth adjustment in response to ERS, while an unsupportive family climate may heighten youth's susceptibility to internal negative emotions, such as anxiety. ...
... While ERS messages are meant to be beneficial in preparing children for racism and promoting psychological adjustment, there are some mixed findings in their link to internalizing symptoms and development (Hughes et al., 2006;Wang et al., 2020). Most consistently, cultural socialization is associated with beneficial outcomes, such as lower anxiety symptoms (Bannon et al., 2009) and fewer depressive symptoms (McHale et al., 2006), among children and adolescents. In a study on college students, Bynum et al. (2007) found cultural pride messages were associated with less psychological distress (e.g., depression, anxiety, and interpersonal sensitivity). ...
... However, in other studies with young adults, these messages are associated with more internalizing outcomes (e.g., Liu & Lau, 2013;Nelson et al., 2018). Yet, other studies with children and adolescents found no association between preparation for bias and internalizing outcomes (Davis & Stevenson, 2006;McHale et al., 2006). There are fewer studies examining mistrust messages compared to preparation for bias and cultural socialization. ...
Ethnic–racial socialization (ERS) is an essential strategy that families of color utilize to discuss race, racism, and promote ethnic–racial pride. These strategies are necessary to help youth navigate a racialized world, particularly in emerging adulthood as youth transition away from home. There are mixed findings about the psychological benefits of messages focused on racial barriers, which raise questions about whether certain ERS messages may elicit anxiety symptoms and if there are conditions (e.g., family climate) under which ERS messages are most beneficial. Further, the interplay between ERS and family climate may vary across ethnic–racial groups. Thus, the present study examined the associations between ERS (i.e., cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust) and anxiety symptoms, and whether the moderating effects of family climate (i.e., cohesion, conflict) varied for 142 African American (AA; 83% women) and 275 Latinx (LX; 70.5% women) college students (M = 18.89, SD = 1.06). Cultural socialization and family cohesion were negatively associated with anxiety symptoms, while promotion of mistrust and family conflict were positively associated with anxiety symptoms. Preparation for bias was not associated with anxiety symptoms. For both AA and LX youth who reported high family cohesion, cultural socialization was associated with lower anxiety symptoms. Additionally, among AA youth who reported high levels of family conflict, cultural socialization was associated with lower levels of anxiety symptoms. The findings have important implications for understanding the unique and interactive effects of ERS and family climate on anxiety symptoms for AA and LX emerging adults.
... Ethnicracial socialization is understood to play a vital role in the development of children of color, but greater nuance in measurement is needed to understand the full spectrum of this practice across developmental transitions, discriminatory contexts, racial, and ethnic groups. For example, evidence suggests socializing practices vary by caregivers' age, gender, education status, and language dominance; the age, gender, and regulatory needs of children; and the country of origin, generation of immigration, and income status of household members (Ayón et al., 2019;McHale et al., 2006;Osborne et al., 2022). ...
... For example, both Black and Latinx males consistently report more frequent discrimination than their female counterparts (Chávez & French, 2007;Seaton et al., 2008). As a result, caregivers report more fear of their sons being targeted and provide more discrimination warning messages to sons, while reported concerns for daughters focus more on self-esteem McHale et al., 2006). In a study of Latinx adolescents, perceived discrimination was linked to lower academic success through decreased academic motivation for boys but not girls (Alfaro et al., 2009). ...
... Given that the statement made by the counselor in the scenario, "Kids like you don't belong in advanced classes," was designed to be an explicit example of raceor ethnicity-based stereotyping, it was surprising that few caregivers outside of the 11 in the High-engaged profile identified and denounced the stereotype. Prior research suggests that facets of the neighborhood environment, the caregivers' own experiences with racism, child sex, and the child's physical appearance may play a role in caregivers' decisions to identify stereotypes (Cooper et al., 2015;McHale et al., 2006). Alternatively, caregivers who had already labeled the counselor's statement as racist may not have believed it necessary to elaborate on the point by naming and denouncing the stereotype. ...
Guided by the Theory of Racial Socialization in Action (TRSA; Smith‐Bynum in press), this study examined observed caregiver‐provided ethnic‐racial socialization in response to a school‐based discriminatory dilemma. Forty‐five Black and 36 Latinx caregivers (88% mothers) with low‐income and their children (Mage = 11.09, SD = 0.29; 46.3% female) participated in Dallas, Texas from 2018 to 2019. Dyads responded to a hypothetical scenario in which a school counselor makes a discriminatory comment to the child. Results of a factor mixture analysis suggested that caregivers engaged in the dialogue using one of four approaches: Low‐engaged, Legacy, Racial Literacy, or High‐engaged. Profiles were found to differ significantly by the race/ethnicity and language of caregivers and were associated with youth’s concurrent behavioral engagement (R2 = .04).
... At the exosystem level, we predicted a magnifying effect of adolescents' vicarious online discrimination, as defined by vicarious perceptions of discriminative content online that were not directly targeting adolescents personally (Tynes et al., 2010). At the microsystem level, we expected a mitigating effect of parental technological attitudes, or parents' positive attitudes toward their adolescent children's use of technology, as a moderating factor given important socialization messages parents would provide for adolescents' development (McHale et al., 2006). At the individual level, we examined if adolescents' racial identity centrality, defined as how important racial identity is to adolescents' self-image, played an identical mitigating role for online racial discrimination (e.g., Umaña-Taylor et al., 2015;Moses et al., 2019). ...
... Moderating effects of parental technological attitudes on internalized computing stereotypes At the microsystem level (Bronfenbrenner and Morris, 1998), parents can provide important socialization messages to adolescents' development (McHale et al., 2006), shaping how adolescents develop a healthy self-identity, and view and respond to the realities of experiencing intersecting oppression, such as offline and online encounters of discrimination (i.e., racism and sexism; Edmondson et al., 1998;Richardson et al., 2015). This may occur through the process of gendered racial socialization for African American adolescents, through which parents provide messages to male and female adolescents based on their perceptions of the varied racial climate and landscape. ...
... Adolescents whose parents view technology as more positive in general may view technology as more positive for adolescents' development so that adolescents may have more opportunities to use technology and become competent, which may minimize the likelihood of them internalizing computing stereotypes. Parents who think positively about technology may also be more inclined to provide support as well as racial and gender socialization to assist adolescents to cope with potential vicarious and direct experiences of online discrimination, which in turn, are associated with greater academic confidence, performance, and self-esteem among African American adolescents (McHale et al., 2006;Murry et al., 2009;Alliman-Brissett and Turner, 2010). ...
African American adolescents have become more active users of digital media, which may increasingly expose them to direct online discrimination based on their racial and gender identities. Despite well-documented impacts of offline discrimination, our understanding of if and how direct online discrimination affects African American adolescents similarly remains limited. Guided by intersectional and ecological frameworks, we examined the association between direct online discrimination and internalized computing stereotypes in African American adolescents. Further, we explored the moderating effects of systemic and individual factors – vicarious online discrimination, parental technological attitudes, and racial identity centrality – on this association by adolescent gender. Utilizing data from 1041 African American parent-adolescent dyads, we found a positive association between adolescents’ direct online discrimination and internalized computing stereotypes. Surprisingly, greater vicarious online discrimination mitigated this association for both male and female adolescents. Further, parental technological attitudes and racial identity centrality mitigated this association only for female but not male adolescents. Our findings highlight the importance of understanding the impact of media on adolescents’ online experiences from intersectional and systemic perspectives. We discuss the implications for prospective research and educational programs focused on African American adolescents’ digital media use and online experiences.
... For Black youth, a positive ethnic identity buffers against the effects of perceived discrimination and racism on their mental health (Wong et al., 2003). Moreover, the study of ERS is important in advancing proactive, strengths-based research, to counter a long history of focus on dysfunction and pathology (McHale et al., 2006). Finally, the fact that children of color are expected to comprise half of all U.S. children by 2035 necessitates understanding of family processes that negotiate highly diverse contexts, including the normal family process of ERS uniquely experienced by Black and other people of color (Hughes et al., 2006). ...
... While the burgeoning literature on ERS reveals that it is necessary and largely beneficial, a major gap in the literature is the tendency to consider ERS from the perspective of mothers or references to "parents" in a non-specific manner (Cooper et al., 2014;Hughes et al., 2006). Over time, investigations have taken into account the perspectives of Black fathers in isolation (see Cooper et al., 2014) and Black mothers and fathers (e.g., Brown et al., 2009Crouter et al., 2008;McHale et al., 2006). While acknowledging ERS from the perspective of both parents is laudable, most of these studies have simply cataloged the messages separately, in a manner that is divorced from attention to dyadic dynamics. ...
... While acknowledging ERS from the perspective of both parents is laudable, most of these studies have simply cataloged the messages separately, in a manner that is divorced from attention to dyadic dynamics. Indeed, McHale et al. (2006) asserted "although parents' individual characteristics and experiences have been studied as correlates of racial socialization, we know almost nothing about the relationship contexts of parents' practices" (p. 1387), calling for the importance of examining ERS through a dyadic frame. ...
In light of the continued racism and oppression experienced by Black Americans in the United States, ethnic-racial socialization—explicit and implicit messages about the meaning and significance of race—remains a critical process among Black families. However, one aspect of the ethnic-racial socialization process about which there is limited research concerns the ways in which Black parenting couples navigate this process together. Building on our prior work exploring Black coparenting related to ethnic-racial socialization (Jones & Neblett, 2019), the purpose of this study was to explore whether distinct dyadic profiles of ethnic-racial socialization exist among Black couples. Using latent profile analysis of dyadic data from 59 Black mixed gender couples (42 married, 17 cohabiting), three patterns of Black couple socialization emerged. Balanced and Higher (N = 40) couples tended to have similar message delivered between mothers and fathers, with overall higher frequency. Among Low Mother Egalitarian (N = 15) couples, mothers were significantly less likely to deliver messages centering on equality among racial groups. Lastly, High Mother Socialization (N = 4) was characterized by mothers who reported greater racial pride and egalitarian messages relative to their male counterparts. In addition, sociodemographic and race-related correlates that distinguished these dyadic patterns were identified. Implications and future directions for supporting Black families in the ethnic-racial socialization process.
... Several factors can shape the content of PFB messages and the frequency in which these messages are transmitted by caregivers to their children, such as the child's developmental age/stage and gender (Gonzalez et al., 2022;Umaña-Taylor & Hill, 2020). As an example, McHale et al. (2006) found that Black mothers were more likely to provide PFB messages to their older children when compared to younger children. Further, relative to Black girls, Black boys often receive more PFB messages given the prevalence of negative stereotypes that portray them as less innocent, dangerous, and predatory (Goff et al., 2014;Howard et al., 2013). ...
... First, ERS practices were only examined among Black mothers, which limits our understanding as to how other central socializing agents may engage in racial dialogues with their children in preparation for or in the aftermath of anti-Black violence. As scholarship demonstrates that fathers and mothers may differ in how they approach ERS with their children (McHale et al., 2006), more work is needed in this area. Second, although we consider our sample to be a strength of the study given unique perspectives from mothers in a southern state of the United States, we acknowledge that results may not be representative of all Black families. ...
Preparation for bias messages (PFB), represent a specific form of racial socialization, used to inform youth about racism and how to cope with racism-related adversity. Although research commonly examines how frequently PFB are delivered to children, few studies have qualitatively explored the heterogeneity in the content of such messages, making it difficult to ascertain how caregivers prepare and coach their children to negotiate incidents of racism-related violence. To address this gap in the literature, the present study qualitatively examined the content of PFB given to Black children from their mothers following high-profile incidents of anti-Black violence. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 12 mothers (Mage = 41.91) of Black children to explore how parental concerns regarding their children’s safety inform the content of their PFB. Using thematic analysis, two primary themes emerged. The first theme related to psychosocial factors among caregivers that precipitated PFB (i.e., awareness of anti-Black violence, worry about the child being a victim). The second theme pertained to the different types of PFB that caregivers provided to their children (i.e., awareness of racial biases, strategies to navigate discriminatory encounters). Overall findings support and extend extant racial socialization research and have important implications for how Black youth come to understand the significance of race and racism in the aftermath of racism-related violence.
... For example, preparation for bias and racial and cultural socialization (Burt et al., 2017) promote coping skills for discrimination. Preparation for bias refers to parents' and community leaders' efforts to educate youth about the history, nature, and frequency of racial and ethnic discrimination (McHale et al., 2006). Similarly, racial socialization occurs through the exchange of information and experiences, and instills pride and cultural knowledge among youth in the face of discrimination (Bennett, 2006). ...
... The effects of discrimination therefore transcend community types and socioeconomic backgrounds, suggesting that the key to coping with discrimination may lie in the preparation of bias, cultural socialization, and education. Teaching youth about the history, nature, and prevalence of discrimination (McHale et al., 2006), along with instilling a sense of cultural pride and belonging (Bennett, 2006), play key roles in coping and resilience among youth (Brown, 2008a(Brown, , 2008bScott, 2003). ...
A growing body of research links interpersonal racial and ethnic discrimination to adverse youth outcomes. Yet, studies examining the relevance of neighborhood context for discrimination are sparse. This study examines neighborhood-level variation in the incidence and impact of perceived racial and ethnic discrimination on depressive symptoms, suicidal behavior, violent behavior, and substance use. Hierarchical regression models on a sample of 1333 African American and Hispanic youth (52.44% female; x̄ = 13.03 years, SD = 3.25 at wave 1) residing in 238 Chicago neighborhoods from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods indicated little to no neighborhood-level variation in the incidence and impact of discrimination. Findings suggest that the experience of discrimination among youth of color is ubiquitous.
... Differences in mother and father socialization have rarely, if ever, been studied in Asian American families. One study with Black families reported that mothers engaged in more racial-ethnic socialization (cultural socialization and preparation for bias) with older offspring, while fathers engaged in more socialization with sons (McHale et al., 2006). Other studies with Black families reported that mothers engage in higher levels of racial socialization compared to fathers (Crouter et al., 2008;Thornton et al., 1990). ...
... However, no differences emerged for the other types of socialization messages, contrary to a previous study with a diverse sample of adolescents (including Chinese Americans) finding that boys reported receiving more preparation for bias messages from mothers than girls . Other studies with African American families have also suggested that silent socialization is more common among parents of boys while cultural socialization is more common among parents of girls (Caughy et al., 2011), and that boys are more likely to receive messages about coping with discrimination (McHale et al., 2006). Thus, future research is needed to understand which socialization messages are transmitted differently by Asian American parents based on their child's gender. ...
Racial equality requires coalitions and solidarity across racial groups, but there continues to be racially colorblind and anti-Black attitudes within the Asian American community, a diverse community consisting of individuals with ancestral origins in East, Southeast, and South Asia. However, there is limited research on the factors that contribute to the development of these attitudes among Asian Americans. Parents could potentially play an important role in perpetuating or challenging the colorblind and anti-Black messages that pervade U.S. society. Thus, the current study investigates how 309 Asian American adolescents’ (M age = 16.8; SD = 1.15; 50.5% female) perceptions of parents’ racial socialization messages about race and racism relate to the youth’s racial attitudes. Latent profiles of youth’s perceptions of mothers’ and fathers’ racial socialization messages and their associations with colorblind racial attitudes and anti-Black attitudes were examined. For mothers, three socialization profiles were identified: Race Avoidant, Race Hesitant, and Race Embracing; for fathers, two socialization profiles were identified: Race Avoidant and Race Embracing. Adolescents with Race Embracing mothers reported less anti-Black attitudes compared to those who had Race Hesitant mothers. For fathers, there were no differences among the profiles and anti-Black attitudes. However, surprisingly, adolescents with Race Embracing fathers were more likely to have colorblind racial attitudes compared to those with Race Avoidant fathers. The findings highlight the importance of racial socialization in the development of Asian American adolescents’ racial attitudes to continue fighting for interracial solidarity.
... 79,80 In general, studies suggest that parents tend to engage in more frequent racial socialization during adolescence. 81 The content of messages may vary as a function of the developmental stage. Research indicates that parents report conveying more cultural socialization messages to younger children and more preparation for bias messages to older youth. ...
... Research indicates that parents report conveying more cultural socialization messages to younger children and more preparation for bias messages to older youth. 81 Specific types of ethnic-racial socialization messages vary in how they relate to youth outcomes, particularly in the context of discriminatory experiences. Studies indicate that cultural socialization messages that emphasize instilling racial pride mitigate the harmful effects of racial discrimination on psychological wellbeing, including anxiety, anger, and delinquency. ...
Black, Indigenous, and other Youth of Color (BIPOC youth) experience racism from a young age. These experiences have both immediate and long-term impacts on their health and wellbeing. Systemic racism contributes to the inequitable distribution of health resources and other social determinants of health, creating barriers to accessing care. Substance use disorders and sexual/nonsexual risk behaviors have been linked to experiences of racism in BIPOC youth. The legacy of generational racial trauma can frame behaviors and attitudes in the present, undermining health and survival in this group. BIPOC youth also face difficulties navigating spheres characterized as white spaces. Ethnic-racial socialization may promote resilience and help with coping in the context of racial stress. While many professional health organizations have embraced dismantling racism, a shift in the narrative on racial values will be critical for preventing adversity and achieving health equity for BIPOC youth.
... Both the age and gender of the child can impact the messages parents give. Mothers may give promotion of mistrust messages to their older boys as opposed to younger children and girls (Saleem et al., 2020), or simply convey preparation for bias messages to older children (McHale et al., 2006). Similarly, Davis Tribble and colleagues (2019) found that in response to familial messages endorsing colorism and texturism, some Black women felt self-criticism and others opposed these messages by embracing their (phenotypically African) attributes. ...
The politics of respectability continues to inform the messages that Black women receive from family members across a range of experiences, from comments on their hair and body to expectations around dating and marriage. In the current study, we explored Black college women’s perspectives on the types of respectability messages they received in familial contexts from girlhood through emerging adulthood. We used Black feminist theory and consensual qualitative research methods to analyze semi-structured interview data from 48 Black college women (18–24 years old) attending predominantly White institutions. We identified four themes of respectability socialization: (a) perpetuating gendered racialized scripts, (b) policing appropriate appearance, (c) protecting virtue in a patriarchal society, and (d) promoting a “lifting as we climb’’ mentality. Our findings indicate that family members try to prepare Black women for gendered racial stereotypes and oppression by tasking them with behavior modification starting in girlhood. We consider gendered racial socialization practices in Black families that can simultaneously disrupt the pressure to reinforce respectability politics and support Black girls’ identity development, even amidst the anti-Black and misogynoiristic realities of the United States.
... Another study found a negative relationship between depressive symptoms and maternal warmth in a sample of African American middle school students (Bean, Barber, & Crane, 2006). After controlling for demographic characteristics, African American mother and father reports of parental warmth have been positively associated with the use of cultural socialization and preparation for bias messages among parents of early adolescents (McHale et al., 2006). However, in another study, moderate levels of mothers' racial socialization messages, as compared to low or high levels, were related to higher levels of maternal warmth, communication, and involvement and low levels of negative mother-child interaction (Frabutt, Walker, & MacKinnon-Lewis, 2002). ...
African American parents’ use of racial socialization messages has been associated with other parenting practices and behaviors as well as adolescent functioning. This study explored the relationships among racial socialization, general parenting practices ( e.g ., parental monitoring knowledge, harsh parental discipline, and parent-child relationship) and three psychological outcomes ( e.g. , scholastic competence, self-esteem, and externalizing behaviors) among 103 African American adolescents. Based on linear regressions, adolescents’ scholastic competence was positively associated with cultural socialization and negatively associated with promotion of mistrust, but self-esteem and externalizing behaviors were not linked to any racial socialization dimension. Further, cultural socialization was found to be related to each of the general parenting practices. Implications for research on African American parenting behaviors and adolescents’ functioning are discussed.
... Racial socialisation strategies generally correlate with positive offspring outcomes (e.g. fewer problem behaviours, stronger sense of identity and lower depression symptoms; Caughy, O'Campo, Randolph, & Nickerson, 2002;McHale et al., 2006), although some studies show the reverse (e.g. a sense of cultural misfit; Benner & Kim, 2009). Racial socialisation strategies may also moderate associations between parents' experiences of racism and offspring outcomes (Anderson et al., 2021). ...
Background
Experiences of racism are linked to negative physical and mental health outcomes among those exposed. According to quantitative research derived mainly from the United States, these negative outcomes can have cascading effects in families, when parents' experiences of racism indirectly impact offspring. New research is warranted for families in the United Kingdom, informed by a qualitative approach to canvassing community knowledge and perspectives, exploring how existing findings relate to lived experiences.
Method
We conducted four online focus groups with 14 parents of school‐aged children and 14 adolescents who had experienced racism in the United Kingdom. Participants were asked what children know of parents' experiences of racism, and how these experiences can impact parent–child interactions, mental health and well‐being. Focus group recordings were transcribed, data coded and analysed through iterative categorisation.
Results
Analyses drew four themes from participants' insights. Together, themes illuminated the pervasive nature of racism experienced by some families in the United Kingdom. Parent and child experiences of racism were connected and co‐occurring, with indirect effects impacting mental health and well‐being in both generations. These experiences were linked to both positive and negative changes in parenting behaviour and parent–child relationships, which could be moderated by intersecting identities such as the parent's generational status for immigration to the United Kingdom. Social cohesion, safe spaces and education programmes were highlighted for future intervention.
Conclusions
Findings corroborate existing literature, while further emphasising a broader bidirectional picture, requiring a family system and intersectional approach to understanding the mental health impact of racism in families. Avenues for future research are discussed to support development of equitable intervention and support strategies to prevent racism and support those affected.
... Unfortunately, although not surprisingly, empirical studies of character development of youth of color are rare and many perspectives fail to account for the processes of racial socialization that occur within the family, including preparation for racial bias (Coard et al., 2004;Hughes et al., 2006;McHale et al., 2006;Murry et al., 2009), strategies for coping behaviors to counter and reject the negative and harmful effects of devaluing messages about African American families (Davis & Stevenson, 2006), and instilling a sense of racial pride and positive sense of self (Murry et al., 2009), similar to that referenced by Love (2019). ...
Universal assumptions of character development largely omit cultural and contextual factors and processes as critical influencers of character development, thereby ignoring that the ascribed and prescribed social positions of some children impact opportunities to develop “good character.” This chapter critically questions the premises of character development and ways of learning to develop “good character” and offers guidance on how to reimagine frameworks that encompass culturally relevant factors and processes that align with the developmental context of minoritized youth. Via a synthesis of theories and extant studies of character development, the authors showcase how macrolevel, historical, and structural inequalities greatly affect the lives of an increasingly diverse US population and have implications for what it means to be “moral,” “good,” and “ethical.” They conclude with a challenge to (1) move beyond Westernized perceptions of “good character” and (2) adapt and reconfigure existing character development frameworks that are inclusive of all youth realities.
... Approximately 90% (n = 786) of the parental figures in the study were mothers with 10% (n = 93) identified as fathers, grandparents, or other relatives. In the current study, we examined parental involvement processes reported exclusively by mother-adolescent dyads, given the imbalanced representation of parental figures in the data and prior studies finding differential relations between parental socialization and adolescent academic outcomes across father and mother reports (e.g., McHale et al., 2006;Simpkins et al., 2015). ...
The current study used survey data from 786 African American mother-adolescent (M = 12.29 years; 48% female) dyads to examine profiles of 7th-grade parental educational involvement and their associations with adolescents’ 11th-grade academic performance, academic self-concept, and educational aspirations. Using latent profile analyses, four patterns emerged: (a) Low Involvers; (b) Helpers, Low Providers; (c) Providers, Low Helpers; and (d) More Involved Helpers & Providers. The More Involved Helpers & Providers had adolescents with higher grades than the Helpers, Low Providers and the Low Involvers. The Providers, Low Helpers also had adolescents with higher educational aspirations than other profiles except for the More Involved Helpers & Providers. Findings suggest multiple pathways through which African American parents can enhance adolescents’ academic outcomes.
... Although studies on racial-ethnic socialization with Asian Americans are emerging (e.g., Atkin et al., 2019;Juang et al., 2016), there is limited research on whether there are differences between parents with how often they send messages and the impact of these messages on their children. Whereas research among African American families has shown that mothers are more likely to transmit racial socialization messages compared to fathers (Crouter et al., 2008;McHale et al., 2006), most of the studies on racial-ethnic socialization among Asian American families do not disaggregate messages based on parental gender. This is concerning given that Asian mothers and fathers often hold different roles in the family, with fathers being the financial provider and strict, whereas mothers are more involved in their children's lives and exhibit more warmth (Chao & Tseng, 2002;Kim & Wong, 2002;Pyke & Johnson, 2003). ...
Introduction
Although research on racial‐ethnic socialization with Asian American families examines academic and psychological outcomes, less is known about whether messages from mothers and fathers are related to their adolescent's Asian American sociopolitical values and family cohesion.
Methods
Cross‐sectional survey data were collected from 308 Asian American adolescents, ages 14−18, in the United States in 2021 (Mage = 16.83; standard deviation = 1.15).
Results
Using latent profile analysis, we found that there were three socialization profiles for mothers (integration socialization, moderate separation socialization, and high separation socialization) and two for fathers (integration socialization and high separation socialization). The integration socialization reported more maintenance of heritage culture and becoming American messages, with the lowest reports of awareness of discrimination and avoidance of outgroups. The high separation profile had the highest amount of maintenance of heritage culture messages, awareness of discrimination, and avoidance of outgroups but lowest amount of becoming American messages. Looking at profiles for youths' perceptions of mothers, the moderate separation profile had slightly lower scores on maintenance of heritage culture messages, moderate scores on avoidance of outgroups, and higher reports of becoming American and awareness of discrimination compared to the high separation profile. Adolescents with mothers in the integration profile had the greatest mother‐child cohesion and highest level of sociopolitical values. With fathers, Asian American adolescents reported greater father−child cohesion in the integration profile, but there were no differences between socialization profiles and youth's Asian American sociopolitical values.
Conclusions
Findings highlight the importance of parental messages on both identity outcomes (i.e., sociopolitical values) and family processes (i.e., family cohesion).
... In vernacular terms it is called "The Talk" (Public Broadcast Service, 2020;Reynolds, 2016;Vaughans, 2021;). The talk is a communication between parents, usually mothers and Black sons (McHale et al., 2006), designed to teach children about the present racist dangers in their society (Bowman & Howard, 1985;Greene, 1990;Sapountzis, 2021;Spencer, 1983;Stevenson, 1995;Stout, 2019). It is the implicit, explicit, purposeful, and unintended ways that parents' beliefs and behaviors convey views about race to children (Hughes, 2003). ...
This paper explores unconscious maternal messages of endangerment for Black men living in US urban environments. Using qualitative methodology, the author intensively interviewed five Black men and their mothers to explore “the talk” from the men’s and their mother’s perspectives. Findings from the data revealed that mothers communicated endangerment messages to their sons that (1) taught them how to safely master a threatening and racist environment by using a double consciousness, (2) served as communications between mothers and sons about intergenerational trauma and strength, and (3) finally, created physically and emotionally safe connections between mothers and sons. Men also heard their mothers encourage a false self as a way to manage threats in their environment, and while this protected them, they also had to learn to suppress important parts of themselves. Clinicians treating Black men must be mindful of the psychological benefits and costs of these messages on their clients.
... How do Black mothers mourn the preventable losses of Black children in a white supremacist society, as they welcome, raise, and love on their own? As some of the earliest racial socialization agents for their children, Black mothers have a foundational influence on how Black youth understand, process, and navigate racial bias and discrimination (Jones & Neblett, 2017;Neblett et al, 2008;Varner & Mandara, 2013;Varner et al., 2020), and scholars have documented Black mothers' critical role in preparing youth to cope with racial discrimination in ways that support a strong sense of self (Brown et al., 2010;McHale et al., 2006) and protect their psychological wellbeing (McNeil Smith et al., 2016;Saleem et al., 2020;Smith-Bynum et al., 2016). Yet, less of this work considers the influence of vicarious racial trauma (Leath et al., 2021;Threlfall, 2018), or the ways that Black mothers may use racial grief as a resource for sociopolitical change (Joe et al., 2019). ...
Scholars have begun to address how exposure to vicarious racial violence influences stress and coping processes among Black families in the U.S. Yet, fewer scholars have considered the importance of racial grief as a component of the coping process. The current study drew upon semi-structured interview data from 31 Black mothers in the U.S. (25–52 years; Mage = 35 years) to explore how mothers processed and responded to vicarious anti-Black racial violence. We used consensual qualitative research methods and identified the following themes: (a) recognizing the endemic nature of racial violence, (b) feeling frozen in fear after a new case of racial violence, and (c) transforming grief into grievance as a route to racial justice. The findings contextualize Black mothers’ concerns about the racial violence that they and their children might experience during their lifetime, and how they channel this grief into actionable change against racial injustice. Authors discuss strengths-based ways to frame the role of grief and loss in the context of racism.
... However, when low levels of ERS messages were reported, peer discrimination was associated with less favorable outcomes (Banerjee et al., 2018). It is important to note that additional studies have found no significant relationship or, in some cases, a negative relationship, between ERS messages and both psychosocial and academic outcomes depending on the ERS dimension (McHale et al., 2006;Neblett et al., 2006;Smalls, 2009;Umaña-Taylor and Hill, 2020). The equivocal nature of this literature has pointed to the importance of considering the frequency and intensity of ERS messages as well as the broader relational context between a parent and child (Coard et al., 2004;Cooper and McLoyd, 2011;Umaña-Taylor and Hill, 2020). ...
While educational settings may be envisioned as safe spaces that facilitate learning, foster creativity, and promote healthy development for youth, research has found that this is not always true for Black girls. Their negative experiences within educational settings are both gendered and racialized, often communicating broader societal perceptions of Black girls that ultimately shape their identity development. Utilizing semi-structured interviews with adolescent Black girls (n = 12), the current investigation explored Black girls' educational experiences, their meaning making of Black girlhood, and the role of parents in their positive development. By centering Black girls' voices, this study illuminated how Black girls negotiate their multiple marginalized identities and how their identities are shaped by their home and school environments. Findings revealed that Black girls are aware of the difficulties in navigating educational settings for Black girls, but this awareness was coupled with parental support that promoted positive gendered racial identities for Black girls in middle school and high school. This investigation advanced current knowledge of Black girls' identity development and highlighted the protective role of parental socialization. Future research directions and implications are also discussed.
... In this review, we have addressed programs with populations impacted by health disparities, including mothers, and some intentionally focused on fathers. Given the roles of mothers and fathers in families and the potentially distinctive contributions they offer in parenting and socialization (Caughy et al., 2019;McHale et al., 2006), more programming should engage fathers who can influence their children's growth and development. More research is also needed to identify additional dimensions of culture and ethnic socialization that families might adopt. ...
Children and families of color in the United States (U.S.) have long had to battle to develop a positive identity in the face of discrimination based upon race, ethnicity, immigration status, and gender. Historically, racial-ethnic minorities have experienced various types of trauma exposures in the U.S., including enslavement, family separation, deportation, colonization, discrimination, ridicule, and stereotyping that permeate U.S. society. Yet, they still have managed within their families to advance some sense of shared within-group identities, values, beliefs, and practices that have fostered child and family development. This paper focuses on the experiences of African American and Latinx families who, though distinct in historical and cultural experiences, have some similarities in social disparities that should inform parenting programs. Prevention and intervention that seeks to engage families of color should be sensitive to centuries of racism and structural inequalities that have contributed to their unique socio-cultural contexts (Bernal et al., 2009; Spencer et al., 1997).
We first explore the historical context of racial-ethnic trauma among children of color in the U.S. Second, we build upon the work in traumatic stress as a rationale for examining culturally relevant and responsive adaptations that address linguistics, worldviews, and contexts, describing the ways in which these concepts are evidenced in programming and effects upon family processes, and youth socio-emotional development. We discuss the implications for multi-group intervention, homogenous and heterogeneous group composition, underscoring the value of critical frameworks attuned to psychological trauma that draw upon a strengths-based perspective of culture for African American and Latinx children and families.
As a subset of men, school-aged boys face a unique set of issues. There exists competing socialization pressures to adhere to feminist norms as well as adopting traditional gender roles to appease different groups. This, along with the ordinary challenges of growing up, can be very confusing for young men. The present chapter will focus on two topics: One, the social context for boys and young men. As they progress through different phases of gender identity development, they receive socialization from three main sources: parents, peers, and the media. In addition, this chapter outlines concrete counseling suggestions for boys in each level of grade school (elementary, middle, and high school). Intersectionality is also discussed.
Past research has linked peer and teacher discrimination to risk factors for school discipline, but few studies have examined whether peer and teacher discrimination have a direct impact on school discipline. This study examines the effects of general peer and teacher discrimination at the individual‐ and school‐level on school suspension using nationally representative, secondary data on almost 12,000 youth across 131 schools. Hierarchical logistic regression models indicated that general teacher discrimination at the individual‐ and school‐level—but not general peer discrimination—increased the odds of receiving school suspension. Findings suggest that general discrimination by direct learning instructors and teachers representing the broader school culture can shape student conduct. Reducing school discipline thus falls on teachers, staff, principals, and learners.
Historically, prevention in psychology has never been outright objectionable for mental health professionals. However, despite its acceptance, not enough practitioners engage in prevention and wellness promotion in their daily activities. The Oxford Handbook of Prevention in Counseling Psychology offers the foundational knowledge necessary to engage in successful prevention and wellness promotion with clients across the lifespan. Written from a counseling psychology perspective, this book presents an approach to prevention that emphasizes strengths of individuals and communities, integrates multicultural and social justice perspectives, and includes best practices in the prevention of a variety of psychological problems in particular populations. Assembling articles into four comprehensive sections, this book provides expert coverage on the following: fundamental aspects of prevention research and practice (i.e. the history of prevention, best practice guidelines, ethics, and evaluation); relevant topics such as bullying, substance abuse, suicide, school dropout, disordered eating, and intimate partner violence; the promotion of wellness and adaptation in specific populations and environments, providing findings on increasing college retention rates, fostering healthy identity development, promoting wellness in returning veterans, and eliminating heterosexism and racism; and the future of prevention, training, the intersection of critical psychology and prevention, and the importance of advocacy.
Although research on ethnic–racial socialization is well established, limited studies have examined the influence of specific, highly publicized anti‐Black murders. We assessed Black mothers' ( N = 12, mean age = 37.45) concerns and ethnic–racial socialization with adolescents aged 11–18 years old approximately 1 year following the murders of George Floyd and other unarmed Black people. Researchers generated the following themes using reflexive thematic analysis: protecting adolescents from physical harm; protecting adolescents from psychological harm; parents' emotional distress; and parents' lack of confidence in their ethnic–racial socialization practices. Black mothers exhibit exceptional amounts of strength and courage as they navigate pervasive physical and psychological threats to their adolescents while experiencing worry and low confidence in their ability to socialize their adolescents about anti‐Black racism.
Objective
The study explored the mediating role of Chinese American parents' ethnic–racial identity (ERI) in linking their discrimination experiences, ethnic–racial socialization (ERS), and their children's mental health, testing whether neighborhood racial diversity and perceived Chinese density moderated these mediation paths.
Background
During COVID‐19, Chinese American families faced increased discrimination, impacting their mental well‐being. However, few studies have examined how parents' discrimination experiences influence their ERI, ERS practice, and ultimately their children's mental health difficulties.
Method
Data from 294 Chinese immigrant parents ( M age = 44.28, 79% female) were collected in two waves, 2020 and 2021. Path analysis tested if parental discrimination affects their ERI and ERS, and children's mental health. Multigroup analysis assessed if mediation models varied for families living in communities with low versus high racial diversity or Chinese density.
Results
Parental racism‐related stress at T1 had significant indirect effects on parental ERS practices (higher use of maintenance of heritage culture and lower use of avoidance of outgroups practice) at T2 via parental ERI (greater private regard) at T2. Parental racial discrimination (perceived sinophobia in the media and racism‐related stress) at T1 had significant indirect effects on children's mental health difficulties at T2 via parental ERS practices (use of maintenance of heritage culture and avoidance of outgroups practices) at T2. The neighborhood racial diversity moderated the mediation model.
Conclusion
These findings advance the understanding of both individual (i.e., parental ERI) and contextual factors (i.e., neighborhood racial diversity) in the complex associations between parents' discrimination experiences and children's mental health difficulties.
Multiple adjustment difficulties have been associated with children’s exposure to recent parental wartime military deployments, but long-term consequences have not yet been systematically studied. This investigation will assess direct and indirect relationships between exposures to parental deployments early in life and later youth adjustment. Parents’ psychological health and family processes will be examined as mediators, and parents’ and children’s vulnerability and support will be examined as moderators. Archival data will be combined with new data gathered from two children and up to two parents in families where children will be aged 11 to 16 at the first data collection and will have experienced at least one parental deployment, for at least one child prior to age 6. Data are being gathered via telephone interviews and web-based surveys conducted twice one year apart. Outcomes are indicators of children’s social-emotional development, behavior, and academic performance. Notable features of this study include oversampling of female service members, inclusion of siblings, and inclusion of families of both veterans and currently serving members. This study has potentially important implications for schools, community organizations and health care providers serving current and future cohorts of military and veteran families.
Increases in conversations about race and racial discrimination experiences during adolescence make this a critical developmental period to investigate adolescents' awareness of racism. We examined bidirectional associations between race‐based experiences and awareness of systemic racism—operationalized as understanding systemic causes of racial disparities in education. Adolescents who self‐identified as African American/Black were surveyed in Grade 6 ( n = 317; M age = 11.12; 48% girls) and Grade 8 ( n = 247; M age = 13.15; 56% girls). Cross‐lagged panel analyses revealed that racial barrier messages, but not racial discrimination experiences, in Grade 6 positively predicted awareness of systemic racism in Grade 8. Adolescents' awareness of systemic racism in Grade 6 did not predict racial socialization or racial discrimination experiences in Grade 8.
The purpose of this study was to examine time-varying and gender differences in the: (a) frequency of maternal religious socialization and (b) the associations between maternal religious socialization and Muslim American adolescents’ religious identity. Cross-sectional data were collected from 220 Muslim American adolescents (13–18 years, Mage = 16.8, 59.5% female) who were primarily from second-generation Asian and Arab/Middle Eastern backgrounds. Time-varying effect modeling (TVEM, Lanza et al., 2014) was employed using SAS. Whereas Muslim American girls perceived a linear declining trend in their mothers’ religious socialization across adolescence, boys’ reports suggested a quadratically increasing pattern with a peak around midadolescence. In addition, Muslim American adolescents’ perceptions of maternal religious socialization were linked to a stronger religious identity but only between 17–18 years for girls and 15.5–18.4 years for boys. Muslim American adolescents’ age and gender are important in shaping their maternal religious socialization experiences and the relations with their religious identity across adolescence. Theories and empirical research on religious socialization and religious identity should consider that the frequency and implications of socialization experiences may vary across time and gender.
The existing literature on the importance of maternal responsiveness and the growing body of literature supporting early ethnic-racial cultural socialization highlight the need for an observational measure of how they co-occur during mother–child interactions. This study presents the development and initial validation of the Culturally Affirming and Responsive Experiences (CARE) measure, an observational measure of the presence and quality of responsiveness and ethnic-racial cultural socialization within early mother–child interactions. Pilot study results with 103 racially and ethnically diverse mother–child dyads demonstrated initial reliability and validity of the CARE measure. Implications of applying the CARE measure to early mother–child interactions to assess quality of responsiveness and ethnic-racial cultural socializations are discussed.
The National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study (NLLFS) started in 1986 when donor insemination became available for lesbian women in the U.S. Wave 7 of the NLLFS was the first time that adults conceived via donor insemination were asked if they had or planned to have children, and what they anticipated telling children about their own nontraditional conception. Of 75 NLLFS adult offspring (mean age 30.93; 49.33% female, 48.00% male, and 2.66% gender nonbinary; 90.67% White, 9.33% people of color), 8 (10.67%) had children and 42 of the rest (62.67%) hoped to have children. Most anticipated no parenting challenges, though some mentioned societal reactions or not having had a father. They expected to rear children in an open-minded and child-focused way, and to discuss their own nontraditional conception in a casual and straightforward manner. They viewed their own mothers as role models. Wave 7 was also the first time that NLLFS parents were asked about grandchildren; of 124 parents, 7 (5.64%) were grandparents. They expressed joy in spending time with their grandchildren and pride in their offspring’s parenting skills. The results are discussed in relation to research about how parents who are members of minority groups educate children about minority status.
The present study explores the ways Black/African American emerging adult college students (ages 18–20) and their caregivers engage in racial-ethnic socialization via mobile communication technologies, within the context of a minority-serving 4 year university in the Southeastern US. Qualitative integrative analysis of focus groups ( N = 12 Black/African American emerging adults, 67% female, 33% male) and text message content analysis ( N = 11 emerging adults and their 12 caregivers; 82% female, 9% male; 9% undisclosed gender identity) enabled us to understand emerging adults’ subjective experiences of digital RES alongside objective observation of digital RES within the content of all caregiver-emerging adult text messages exchanged over the course of 3 months. Findings suggest that digital racial-ethnic socialization messages are infrequent and largely implicit, that caregivers and emerging adults flexibly cross between social networks and digital platforms to communicate, and that one unique affordance of digital communication is the ability for caregivers and emerging adults to engage in support seeking and provision in real-time. The present study informs future research on how cultural transmission can continue across distance and development with the use of modern communication technologies.
Racial socialization is a multidimensional process that is critical to the social development of African American boys and men. Examining messages that may promote Black male racial socialization can provide insight into how race and gender identity development occur. This study explored how racial socialization is illustrated through recollected hair stories of African American men. A qualitative thematic analysis was utilized to examine the narrative data from 29 self-identified Black men. Three themes of racial socialization emerged: cultural socialization, negative messages, and self-worth messages, which were associated with experiences of barbershop traditions, “good hair” comments, and stories of hair autonomies, respectively. The findings support existing literature on gendered racial socialization and aim to identify hair messages as necessary variables in examining race and gender identity development in African American boys and men.
Scholars have spent the last four decades expanding the theoretical understanding of parental racial socialization-or parent-child communication about race. What is largely absent from existing conceptualizations, however, is a consideration for how the practice manifests in Multiracial families. The interracial structure of Multiracial families complicates racial socialization in ways that are not being captured in empirical research due to the overreliance on universal frameworks. It is imperative that we close this theoretical gap as the proportion of Multiracial families in the United States is expanding at record rates. Accordingly, we present the Multiracial-Black Socialization Model (MRB-SM) in this paper. The MRB-SM is designed explicitly for Multiracial-Black families, one of the fastest-growing sub-groups of Multiracial families. The model builds upon the strengths of universal socialization theories by outlining the content, process, and context components of racial socialization in Multiracial-Black families. The implications for research are discussed.
Racism constitutes a significant risk to the mental health of African American children, adolescents, and emerging adults. This review evaluates recent literature examining ethnic and racial identity, ethnic-racial socialization, religiosity and spirituality, and family and parenting as racial, ethnic, and cultural resilience factors that shape the impact of racism on youth mental health. Representative studies, purported mechanisms, and critiques of prior research are presented for each factor. Recent studies of racism and resilience revisit foundational resilience factors from prior research while reflecting new and important advances (e.g., consideration of gender, cultural context, structural racism), providing important insights for the development of prevention and intervention efforts and policy that can alleviate mental health suffering and promote health and mental health equity for African American youth.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, Volume 19 is May 2023. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
Racial discrimination-related stress is assumed to be inherent in the frequency of the experience; consequently, few studies have examined individual differences in its appraisal. The current study addresses this gap by investigating racial discrimination distress, measured as reported appraisal and frequency, to improve the assessment of race-related risk. The interaction effect of racial discrimination distress and ethnic-racial socialization (ERS) on dimensions of psychological well-being for African American emerging adults was examined. Using a sample of 442 African American emerging adults ( Mage = 18.66, SD = 1.05, 80% women), path analyses revealed that racial discrimination distress predicted lower self-esteem and higher depressive symptoms. Racial pride and egalitarian messages were protective against the adverse relationship between racial discrimination distress and psychological well-being. The findings support the importance of race-related risk measurement and the role of ERS in models of normative development for African American emerging adults.
After-school programs are potential contexts that may promote positive youth development (PYD) and reduce problem behaviors among African American children. One way after-school programs may be associated with reduced problem behaviors is by fostering an affirming sense of identity. Prior research on racial–ethnic identity among African American children and adolescents has shown that a positive and affirming sense of identity is related to less maladaptive coping, yet little is known about how after-school programs may foster an affirming sense of identity and lead to reduced problem behaviors. The current study adds to this discourse by investigating how children’s connection to staff and peers in after-school settings is associated with racial–ethnic identity (as measured by racial–ethnic affirmation) and reduced problem behaviors. Participants were 186 African American children ages 7–11 (M = 8.44; SD = 1.10) who completed surveys in the LEGACY Together Afterschool research project. Data were collected at 55 community-based after-school programs. Results indicated that positive racial–ethnic affirmation mediated the association between after-school connectedness and problem behaviors, such that child-report of connectedness—that is feeling safe and happy in the after-school programs—was directly related to positive racial–ethnic identity and indirectly to reduced problem behaviors. These findings underscore the importance of supportive after-school programs that encourage meaningful interactions among staff and children that are nurturing and affirming to children’s identities.
The purpose of this study was to understand the role that racial socialization plays in African American fathers' abilities to balance the responsibilities of being productive scholars and active parents and understand how racial socialization affects the perceived social support in the home and work environments. Though there is research on the microaggressions and implicit bias that African American faculty face, there is little research that specifically details the experiences of those balancing both the father and faculty member roles. Data were collected using semistructured interviews with 20 African American fathers who were employed as faculty members at various institutions in the United States. Additionally, I explored how the murders related to the #SayTheirName movement influenced conversations fathers had with their children related to racial socialization and anti‐Black racism in the United States. Participants noted that they experienced microaggressions in their academic environments. They were perceived as intimidating or characterized as the Angry Black Man. These perceptions were sources of mundane extreme environmental stress for participants. An emergent finding related to social support and work–life balance was that most study participants were members of Black Greek Letter Organizations (BGLOs) and found instrumental, informational, and emotional social support from these relationships. Racial socialization received in their upbringing was a source of self‐efficacy for some participants. Additionally, perceived social support from the home and work environment was important for the participants' individual development, yet it was not the primary factor that influenced their work–life balance.
While a large body of literature examines Black parents’ racial socialization, few studies have employed a sociological lens to explore parents’ own racial learning and how it relates to the implicit and explicit messages they send their children. Based on an ethnographic study of Black parents’ experiences and educational engagement in a predominantly white Midwestern suburb, this article uses a racial learning framework to examine how Black parents’ own racialized, place-based experiences relate to the lessons they attempt to teach their children about race and racism. The research reveals that parents’ racial socialization practices were influenced by their own racial learning and experiences in the predominantly white suburban context, their children’s experiences in the local schools, and for some parents, the things they learned with and from other Black families in school and community organizational spaces. The research findings illustrate the importance of understanding Black parents’ own place-based racial learning and how it shapes and informs their efforts to support their children’s wellbeing and academic success, particularly in predominantly white school districts and communities.
This study focused on the cultural differences faced by African American students transitioning to a predominantly White institution and the protective factors that aided them with these transitions. In-depth individual interviews were conducted and used as the primary method of data collection for this study. In addition, a focus group session provided member checking opportunity and served to strengthen the trustworthiness of the study. The focus group was also used as a secondary data source to corroborate the key findings from the individual interviews. Analysis revealed participants were exposed to several risk factors in the university context. Students developed coping strategies to combat these risk factors and promote successful transitions from the home to the university.
Toward illuminating the family ecology of gender development, we focus on the parent-child, interparental, and sibling subsystems, examining their influences on youth gender development across childhood and adolescence. We discuss structural factors, such as sibling and couple sex constellation, but focus primarily on family members’ roles as interaction partners, models of gendered behaviors, and providers of information and opportunities pertaining to gender, all of which may influence the many domains of youth gender development. We ground our discussion in family systems and cultural ecological frameworks, which led us to interpret existing evidence in terms of the adaptive, self-organizing nature of families, and the embeddedness of youth gender development and family gender socialization in gender norms beyond the family including sociocultural factors and economic conditions.KeywordsGenderGender socializationFamily processesGender development
Objective
This study explores White middle‐class adoptive parents' experiences with parenting Black children ( M age = 12.3), attending to how intersections of children's race, gender, and developmental stage informed and nuanced parents' approach to racial socialization.
Background
Scholarly debate regarding the adoption of Black children by White parents centers on parents' ability to facilitate positive racial identity development. Limited work has explored how White parents' approach to racial socialization is shaped by Black children's gender and developmental stage, particularly as children grow older and encounter intensified racialized stereotypes.
Method
Twenty‐five White parents (11 lesbian mothers, seven gay fathers, seven heterosexual mothers) were selected from a larger sample of 128 adoptive families because they adopted Black (including biracial/multiracial) children, and were interviewed as their children entered adolescence. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the qualitative data.
Results
A typology emerged that captured parents' racial awareness and racial socialization approach: Minimizing and Reluctant, Worried and Fumbling, Aware but Cautious, and Reflexive and Purposeful. Additional cross‐cutting themes centered on the role of the sociopolitical climate, gender, and developmental stage in racial socialization.
Conclusion
Contemporary adoptive parents of Black children are often constrained by their own White racial frame, but some parents, especially those who are younger or have monoracial children, are able to translate awareness of the complexities involved in raising adopted Black children into meaningful action and understanding.
Education is associated with improved health outcomes. However, fewer non-Hispanic Black Americans earn high school diplomas, baccalaureate, or advanced degrees than White Americans, placing them at higher risk for poor health outcomes. Racial disparities in education have been linked to social injustice and structural racism. Through the Framework for the 21st Century School Nursing Practice TM , school nurses can impact academic success and college readiness for Black youth. An integrative review of the literature was conducted to describe programs to promote college readiness for Black high school students and evaluate school nurse involvement. Findings of the eighteen unique studies included in this review were: programs included mostly female participants, and most yielded improvements in students' non-cognitive skills (i.e. sense of belonging/confidence) and college knowledge. None of the programs included school nurse involvement. School nurses can advocate for anti-racist college readiness programs with intentional, asset-based approaches to position youth for success in college.
The racial socialization (RS) strategies used by White parents have received limited empirical attention. Thus, the current study examined the frequency and content of White parents’ RS messages to their White children during an observed parent–child discussion task on discrimination when youth were 14 years old. Participants were 243 White caregivers and their adolescent children (47.7% female). Overall, parents provided few RS messages, but when they did, they often relayed egalitarian messages or messages minimizing racism. Other types of RS strategies that emerged included acknowledging racism targeting people of color, discriminatory attitudes, and false beliefs in reverse racism.
Using a sample of 108 African American undergraduates at a minority serving institution, this quantitative study investigated the relationships among aspects of parental racial socialization messages, on-campus racial microaggressions, and academic outcomes. The analysis indicated a negative relationship between academic inferiority microaggressions and school belonging. Results showed a positive intercorrelation between the academic outcomes (academic engagement and school belonging). Findings from multiple linear regressions, using Hayes PROCESS model, revealed the frequency of receiving preparation for bias messages (PBM) moderated the relationship between academic engagement and academic inferiority microaggressions. For undergraduates who reported receiving a low amount of PBM from their parents, experiencing high amounts of academic inferiority microaggressions predicted lower academic engagement. In contrast, among students who reported receiving a high amount of PBM, experiencing more academic inferiority microaggressions predicted higher academic engagement. These results indicated PBM can serve as a protective factor for the extent to which African American undergraduates’ academic engagement is harmed by experiences of academic-related racial microaggressions.
This research responded to researchers' calls for investigation of potential moderators of the link between perceptions of racist discrimination and mental health. In a sample of 119 African American young adults, the authors investigated the extent to which 4 theoretically relevant variables moderated the perceived racism–mental health relation. Consistent with predictions, results revealed that greater experience with racial socialization messages attenuated the link between reports of racist events and poorer mental health. Self-esteem also moderated the relation, but in a direction opposite that predicted. Neither racial socialization beliefs nor African American social networks moderated the relation. Overall, results indicated that individual differences shape the extent to which African Americans' mental health is related to perceptions of racist discrimination.
This study purposed to explore whether the strategies used by African American adolescents to cope with perceived discriminatory experiences were related to their racial identity and racial socialization. Results indicated that the degree to which race was central to participant's self-conceptions and identities was unrelated to both approach and avoidance coping strategies. In contrast, the frequency to which participants received socialization messages concerning racism from their parents and/or guardians was related to the use of approach coping strategies but unrelated to avoidance coping strategies. The importance of a more systematic focus on African American adolescent stress and coping is discussed.
Racial socialization messages were examined within a particular ecological niche: two-parent, African American families with a child in early adolescence. The linkage between mothers’provision of racial socialization messages and family process components (e.g., communication, warmth, negativity, child monitoring, and involvement) of the mother/child relationship was examined. Sixty-six African American mothers and their early adolescent sons and daughters participated in videotaped mother/child interactions and completed questionnaires regarding family demographics and parenting. Based on the frequency of their provision of proactive responses to discrimination items, mothers were categorized into three groups (high, moderate, and low). Results indicated that mothers in the moderate socialization group exhibited the most positivity, were the most involved, and monitored their child’s activities the most. Mothers in that group also displayed the lowest levels of dyadic negativity. Mothers in the moderate socialization group had children who exhibited the most positivity and displayed the lowest levels of negativity.
The authors examine the relationships between dimensions of collective self-esteem and Africultural coping styles in a sample of African American adolescents. They found that African American adolescents with higher public collective self-esteem (i.e., the belief that others feel positively about their cultural group) reported greater use of spiritual-centered Africultural coping styles to deal with stressful situations. Results also revealed that higher importance to identity collective self-esteem (i.e., the belief that their cultural group is an important part of their self-concept) was related to greater use of collective coping strategies among African American adolescents.
This study investigated 3 broad classes of individual-differences variables (job-search motives, competencies, and constraints) as predictors of job-search intensity among 292 unemployed job seekers. Also assessed was the relationship between job-search intensity and reemployment success in a longitudinal context. Results show significant relationships between the predictors employment commitment, financial hardship, job-search self-efficacy, and motivation control and the outcome job-search intensity. Support was not found for a relationship between perceived job-search constraints and job-search intensity. Motivation control was highlighted as the only lagged predictor of job-search intensity over time for those who were continuously unemployed. Job-search intensity predicted Time 2 reemployment status for the sample as a whole, but not reemployment quality for those who found jobs over the study's duration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents reliability and validity evidence concerning a new measure of a generalized locus of control for children. Construction procedures (with an initial sample of 152 3rd through 9th grade children and a validating sample of 1,017 3rd through 12th grade Ss) leading to the final 40-item scale are described. Preliminary work showed that scores were not related to social desirability or intelligence test scores but to achievement. Continued research with the instrument conducted over a wide range of S populations has provided additional construct validation across variables such as popularity, ability to delay gratification, and prejudice. (22 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Despite broad consensus about the effects of parenting practices on child development, many questions about the construct parenting style remain unanswered. Particularly pressing issues are the variability in the effects of parenting style as a function of the child's cultural background, the processes through which parenting style influences the child's development, and the operationalization of parenting style. Drawing on historical review, the authors present a model that integrates 2 traditions in socialization research, the study of specific parenting practices and the study of global parent characteristics. They propose that parenting style is best conceptualized as a context that moderates the influence of specific parenting practices on the child. It is argued that only by maintaining the distinction between parenting style and parenting practice can researchers address questions concerning socialization processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Focusing on the formation of ethnic self-identities during adolescence, this paper examines the psychosocial adaptation of children of immigrants from Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean. The data are drawn from the CILS survey carried out in the San Diego and Miami metropolitan areas of over 5,000 children of immigrants attending the 8th and 9th grades in local schools. The sample is evenly split by gender and nativity (half are U.S.-born, half foreign-born). The results show major differences in their patterns of ethnic self-identification, both between and within groups from diverse national origins. Instead of a uniform assimilative path, we found segmented paths to identity formation. Detailed social portraits are sketched for each ethnic identity type. Multivariate analyses then explore the determinants of assimilative and dissimilative ethnic self-identities, and of other aspects of psychosocial adaptation such as self-esteem, depressive affect, and parent-child conflict, controlling for gender, socioeconomic status, and national origin. The theoretical and practical implications of these results – especially the effects of acculturation, discrimination, location and ethnic density of schools, parental socialization and family context, upon the psychosocial adaptation of children of recent immigrants to the United States – are discussed.
Research on coparenting has grown over the past decade, supporting a view of coparenting as a central element of family life that influences parental adjustment, parenting, and child outcomes. This article introduces a multi-domain conception of coparenting that organizes existing research and paves the way for future research and intervention. This article advances a conceptualization of how coparenting domains influence parental adjustment, parenting, and child adjustment. An ecological model that outlines influences on coparenting relationships, as well as mediating and moderating pathways, is described. Areas of future research in the developmental course of coparenting relationships are noted.
This study focuses on race-related socialization in order to extend past research, which demonstrated that a sense of personal control over the environment is critical to effective performance of black youth in educational settings. In contrast to underclass views, both a sense of personal efficacy and academic performance were enhanced by proactive orientations toward racial barriers transmitted by parents to children. Sixty-eight percent of black youth in a national three-generation family sample reported that their parents transmitted some message to them about theri racial status. With only slight gender differences, parents emphasized either the importance of ethnic pride, self-development, racial barrier awareness, or egalitarianism. The intergenerational transmission of self-development orientations was associated with a greater sense of personal efficacy. In contrast, those whose parents emphasized racial barrier awareness received higher school grades, even when the effect of persoanal efficacy was controlled. The overall pattern of results suggests that the manner in which black parents orient their children toward blocked opportunities is a significant element in their motivation, achievement, and prospects for upward mobility.
Recently, there has been an emergence of literature on the mechanisms through which parents transmit information, values, and perspectives about ethnicity and race to their children, commonly referred to as racial or ethnic socialization. This literature has sought to document the nature of such socialization, its antecedents in parents' and children's characteristics and experiences, and its consequences for children's well-being and development. In this article, the authors integrate and synthesize what is known about racial and ethnic socialization on the basis of current empirical research, examining studies concerning its nature and frequency; its child, parent, and ecological predictors; and its consequences for children's development, including ethnic identity, self-esteem, coping with discrimination, academic achievement, and psychosocial well-being. The authors also discuss conceptual and methodological limitations of the literature and suggest directions for future research.
This study explored the relationship between parental racial socialization messages and area-specific self-esteem (i.e., home, school, and peer self-esteem) among Black American adolescents. The authors found that parental racial socialization messages reflecting pride and knowledge about African American culture were positively associated with Black youths' peer self-estecin. Moreover, racial socialization messages about the relative importance of majority culture (i.e., White) institutions and the values and benefits associated with being involved with these institutions were negatively associated with school self-esteem in Black adolescents. Future research directions are offered.
This study explored the relationship between parental racial socialization messages and area-specific self-esteem (i.e., home, school, and peer self-esteem) among Black American adolescents. The authors found that parental racial socialization messages reflecting pride and knowledge about African American culture were positively associated with Black youths' peer self-esteem. Moreover, racial socialization messages about the relative importance of majority culture (i.e., White) institutions and the values and benefits associated with being involved with these institutions were negatively associated with school self-esteem in Black adolescents. Future research directions are offered.
The psychological effects of living in a racially hostile context are multiple. African American adolescents who respond to racial intolerance with anger and depression are silenced and vulnerable to misinterpretation and misdiagnosis. Adolescents who believe the African American family has the responsibility of raising children to be aware of societal hostilities and cultural strengths are the focus of this article. Gender differences were found, and results suggest that beliefs in various types of racial socialization differentially contribute to positive psychological outcomes for adolescents. A cultural ecological framework is used to discuss the resilience and risk of anger expression.
The reklaonship between racial sociadization attitudes and racial identity stages is the subject of this article, with racial socialization hypothesized as one key variable to link the literatures in childhood racial awareness ad young adult racial identity. A teenage sample was selected to compare measures of racial socialization and racial identity processes. The Scale of Racial Socilizationfor Adolescents and the 50-item Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS) based on Nigrescence theory were administered to 287 African American adolescents between the ages of 14 and 15 years. A principal components analysis was conducted on the RIAS to assess its appropriateness with a younger adolescent population. The factor analytic procedure yielded a three-factor solution with moderately reliablefactors. Thefactors corresponded to the Nigrescence stages of preencounter, immersion, and internalization. Results indicate that specific factors of racial socialization differentially predict all of the racial identiy stages for females and the preencounter and internalization identity stages for males. Findings also suggest that racial socialization is multidimensional, and implications for integrating it with revised multidimensional conceptualizations of racial identity are raised.
This study focuses on the relationship between socialization to race and the level of racial identification among African Americans. In a survey of 225 African Americans (140 females and 85 males, 18 years of age or older) participants were asked to report on the extent and content of discussions related to race in their family and the impact of these discussions on their beliefs and attitudes related to race. Racial identification was assessed using a 30-item questionnaire that assessed racial identity on four parameters: cultural, physical, sociopolitical, and psychological. The relationship offamily socialization to race and racial identification was examined. The results indicated that 79% of African American adults reported having discussed race and race relations with their parents and 85% had discussed the issue with anotherfamily member There was an association between racial socialization and racial identification on each of the four parameters. Discussions of race with family members other than parents, as well as the impact of racial socialization, were strongly associated with the level of racial identification.
Ethnic identity is an important component of the self-concept and, like other aspects of identity, can be particularly salient during adolescence. Most research on ethnic identity has focused on the unique elements that distinguish particular ethnic groups. However, it is important as well to study and compare ethnic identity and its correlates across groups. This article presents a questionnaire measure of ethnic identity based on the elements of ethnic identity that are common across groups, so that it can be used with all ethnic groups. The questionnaire was administered to 417 high school students and 136 college students from ethnically diverse schools. Reliability, assessed by Cronbach 's alpha, was .81 for the high school sample and .9Ofor the college sample. The relationship of ethnic identity to various demographic variables and to self-esteem was examined. The measure can be used to examine similarities and differences in ethnlic identity and its correlates among youths from different ethnic groups.
Abstract We review research on the family's role in gender development during childhood and adolescence. Our discussion highlights children's dyadic family relationship experiences with their parents and siblings; additionally, we describe ways in which the larger system of family relationships, including gendered dynamics in the marriage and the differential family experiences of sisters versus brothers may have implications for gender development. We also emphasize the significance of contextual factors—ranging from situational demands and affordances to forces emanating from the larger social ecology—in family gender socialization. We conclude that family experiences may have a more important impact on gender development than has previously been believed, and we highlight directions for future study. These include: (1) applying more complex models of parent socialization and family dynamics to the study of the family's role in gender development; (2) expanding on research directed at the socialization of sex differences to study how family dynamics are linked to individual differences in girls’ and boys’ gendered qualities and behaviors; and (3) further exploring how contextual factors exert an impact on gender socialization in the family.
An adolescent's perspective of family race-related socialization is a novel way to understand racial identity and socialization experiences. This article reports on the development of the Teenager Experience of Racial Socialization (TERS), which asks students how often they receive socialization about managing racism, cultural pride, and spirituality. A factor analysis was conducted with 260 African American youth. The results revealed five meaningful and reliable factors, including Cultural Coping With Antagonism, Cultural Pride Reinforcement, Cultural Legacy Appreciation, Cultural Alertness to Discrimination (CAD), and Cultural Endorsement of the Mainstream (CEM), and one composite factor (combines the first four TERS factors) called Cultural Socialization Experience (CULTRS). Findings reveal that boys experience more CAD communications than do girls, a moderate degree of family conversations about race is associated with greater frequency of racial socialization, family member experiences with racism are associated with higher frequency of CULTRS, and personal experience with racism is associated with lower CEM in girls but not boys. The presence of a small correlation between racial socialization experiences and racial socialization beliefs supports the discriminant validity of the scale. Implications for adolescent and family research are discussed.
This study explores racial socialization messages used by African American parents, specific messages according to the gender of children, and the relationship between racial socialization and racial identity attitudes as measured by the Racial Identity Attitude Scale. One hundred four African American parents participated in the study. Racial socialization was seen as important to the vast majority of parents and they reported a wide variety of socialization messages. Chi-square analysis suggests that messages differ according to gender. Multiple regression analysis suggests that internalization attitudes contribute to 19% of the variance of racial socialization attitudes, indicating that parents with internalization attitudes are more likely to view racial socialization as important. Implications and limitations of the investigation are discussed, and suggestions for future research are presented.
This study investigated ethnic socialization by parents of minority group adolescents, the adolescents' ethnic identity and strategies for coping with stereotypes and discrimination, and the interrelationships among these and demographic variables. In-depth interviews were carried out with 60 American-born Japanese-American, African-American, and Mexican-American high-school students, aged 16 to 18 years, and one parent of each adolescent. There were significant ethnic group differences in parental ethnic socialization, with African-American parents more frequently reporting discussing prejudice with their child and Japanese-American and African-American parents emphasizing adaptation to society more than Mexican-American parents. Adolescent use of a proactive style of coping with stereotypes and discrimination was associated with higher self-esteem, and use of verbal retorts was related to lower self-esteem. Parental socialization did not have a strong relationship to adolescent outcomes.
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Despite widespread acceptance of the belief that exposure to interparental conflict is a serious stressor for children, much remains unknown about exactly why and how this stressor translates into different outcomes across children. The assumption that marital conflict is a stressor for children stems from several explanatory frameworks—family systems theory, social learning theory, the transmission of affect, consistencies in cognitive style, genetic transmission theories, and trauma theory. This chapter reviews these frameworks and illustrates how a developmental psychopathology perspective can inform research in this area. Specifically, the authors analyze the status of marital conflict as a risk factor, consider how research on vulnerability and protective factors can delineate processes that intensify or interrupt the trajectory from marital conflict to negative child outcomes, and recommend greater attention to the resilience of many children living in highly conflictual homes. This perspective underscores the complexity of the relationship between marital conflict and child outcomes and suggests why conflict does not affect children in predictable or consistent ways. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This chapter reviews advances in our understanding of socialization of children in the family context. Both historical and contemporary perspectives on socialization are outlined. The chapter is guided by a family systems approach to socialization which recognizes the parent-child subsystem, the co-parental, marital and sibling subsystems as well as the family unit as contributors to children's socialization. The effects of each of these subsystems on children's socialization are explored. Next, a variety of determinants of family socialization strategies are discussed, including child characteristics, parental personal resources, community-based social capital and socioeconomic status. In another section, the impact of social change on family socialization practices is considered. Changes in women's and men's employment patterns and job characteristics as well as job loss and unemployment are used as illustrations of how social changes alter socialization strategies. The importance of considering how multiple social changes act together in achieving their effects on socialization is stressed. Another major determinant of socialization patterns is the ethnicity and cultural background of the family. The chapter discusses variations in socialization practices among Latinos, African-American, American Indians, and Asian-American families and the importance of immigration and acculturation in determining socialization patterns. In a final section, a variety of issues that require more attention, including variations in family forms, monitoring of secular changes, the influence of social and physical contexts on socialization, and the importance of locating families in a network of socializations influenced are considered.
This study examined racial socialization processes among 94 African American parents of third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade children as they were predicted by children's ethnic identity exploration and unfair treatment as well as by parents' ethnic identity and discrimination experiences. Findings indicated that children's ethnic identity exploration and parents' perceptions that their children had been treated unfairly by an adult because of their race were both significantly associated with the frequency of messages to children regarding discrimination (Preparation for Bias). Parents' perceptions of children's unfair treatment from an adult and children's perceptions that they had been treated unfairly by peers were significantly associated with parents' cautions and warnings to children about intergroup relations (Promotion of Mistrust). Moreover, the influence of parents' perceptions on Promotion of Mistrust were especially pronounced when children also reported unfair treatment from adults. Children's identity exploration and unfair treatment were not associated with parents' emphasis on ethnic pride, heritage, and diversity (Cultural Socialization/Pluralism). Thus, findings suggest that parental factors are most central in the racial socialization messages that children receive. However, children's perceptions of discrimination and information seeking regarding their own history appear to have some influence on parental messages about race.
This research explores ethnic socialization among middle-income African American parents and their children who attend predominantly white schools. Descriptive data regarding parents' and children's reports of ethnic socialization practices were obtained. Additionally, the relationship between ethnic socialization, ethnic identity, and academic achievement was assessed through correlational and predictive statistics. Correlation analyses indicated that children's reports of ethnic socialization were significantly related to the encounter stage of ethnic identity. Surprisingly, the child's report of ethnic socialization was predictive of lower classroom grades. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for ethnic socialization and identity development among African American children.
Modern systems theories about families are derived from General System Theory (GST), which is both a transdisciplinary field
of study and a theoretical framework in which various microlevel approaches are known as “systems theories.” Systems theorists
seek to explain the behavior of complex, organized systems of all sorts—from thermostats to missile guidance computers, from
amoebas to families. Commonly referred to as “systems theory,” GST is also a program of theory construction aimed at building
concepts, postulates, principles, and derived theorems that apply universally across all domains of application. Hence, GST
is a theory of systems in general. Although numerous bodies of special knowledge have been labeled as systems models or theories,
the body of theory that may be thought of as embracing them all is that of GST. Indeed, some scholars consider GST to be broader
than a theory, but rather an alternative Weltanschauung—a unique worldview (Ruben & Kim, 1975) that requires adopting “systems thinking.” In other words, systems thinking is a way
of looking at the world in which objects are interrelated with one another.
Researchers during the past 40 years have infrequently disentangled the relationship between young black children's personal identity and group identity, generally treating them in an undifferentiated manner. Investigators suggest that impersonal agents determine young black children's white-biased cultural values, usually ignoring the influence of parental child-rearing strategies. Findings from three studies in the Midwest, North, and South document that preschool children show consistently Eurocentric (white-biased) choice behavior; the trend for most attitudes and preferences changes to an Afrocentric orientation during middle childhood. Parental interviews obtained from a subsample of Southern parents offer alternative interpretations of these choice patterns; values transmitted (e.g., teaching children about civil rights and racial discrimination) predict children's Afrocentric racial attitudes and preferences.
Research on children's development of ethnic cognition from preschool through adolescence was reviewed. This review was based on research conducted on (a) children's ethnic cognition, (b) children's social-cognitive development, (c) children's understanding of a variety of social status, and (d) Quintana's model of children's understanding of ethnicity. Four developmental levels were described: Integration of affective and perceptual understanding of ethnicity (level 0), literal understanding of ethnicity (level 1), social and nonliteral perspective of ethnicity (level 2), and ethnic-group consciousness and ethnic identity (level 3). For each developmental level, applied implications were discussed.
The present study focused on the content and practice of racial socialization by black parents. Sociodemographic correlates of patterns of racial socialization were examined using data from a national probability sample of 2,107 respondents (National Study of Black Americans). Multivariate analysis revealed that gender, age, marital status, region, and racial composition of neighborhood predicted whether or not black parents imparted racial socialization messages to their children. Black parents envision racial socialization as involving several components, including messages regarding their experience as minority group members, themes emphasizing individual character and goals, and information related to black cultural heritage. The findings highlighted the critical importance of sociodemographic and environmental influences on the socialization process. Implications for future research on racial socialization are discussed.
This study of the reliability and validity of scales from the Child's Report of Parental Behavior (CRPBI) presents data on the utility of aggregating the ratings of multiple observers. Subjects were 680 individuals from 170 families. The participants in each family were a college freshman student, the mother, the father, and 1 sibling. The results revealed moderate internal consistency (M = .71) for all rater types on the 18 subscales of the CRPBI, but low interrater agreement (M = .30). The same factor structure was observed across the 4 rater types; however, aggregation within raters across salient scales to form estimated factor scores did not improve rater convergence appreciably (M = .36). Aggregation of factor scores across 2 raters yields much higher convergence (M = .51), and the 4-rater aggregates yielded impressive generalizability coefficients (M = .69). These and other analyses suggested that the responses of each family member contained a small proportion of true variance and a substantial proportion of factor-specific systematic error. The latter can be greatly reduced by aggregating scores across multiple raters.
Mixed parentage adolescents form an increasing proportion of ethnic minority adolescents in Britain. Few studies have investigated their views and perceptions of their racial identity in terms of their Black heritage. This exploratory study investigated their attitudes towards Blackness, and examined the relationship that this might have with their reported experiences of racial socialization as well as with their self-esteem. Older adolescents were more likely to have positive racial identity attitudes, and a positive relationship was found between racial identity attitudes and self-esteem. Reported frequency of certain types of racial socialization messages increased with age. This was especially pronounced with messages relating to the development of racial pride and messages relating to issues around racism. Those adolescents who lived with both parents reported receiving more proactive racial socialization messages. Tentative conclusions include the possibility that dual identification and multicultural environments are associated with a positive sense of racial identity. These issues need to be investigated further.
The author clarified the African American racial-group identification process by addressing the issue of salience and its relationship to racial-group attitudes. A sample of 409 African American adults responded to surveys pertaining to their racial-group salience, racial-group attitudes, racial socialization, racial-group interaction, political activism, experiences of discrimination, and demographic data (e.g., sex, age, and income). The author tested 3 hypotheses: (a) Racial socialization and interaction with other African Americans are predictive of African American racial-identity salience; (b) discriminatory experiences are predictive of African American racial-identity salience; and (c) racial-identity salience is a stronger predictor of African American racial-group identification than are previously identified predictive variables (D. H. Demo & H. Hughes, 1990; V. L. Thompson Sanders, 1991, 1995). The results supported the 1st and 3rd hypotheses.
Although there is a rich body of research on resiliency, much of the literature fails to include minority youths or does not take into consideration their distinctive racial and environmental circumstances. Additionally, limited attention has been given to protective factors that are unique to nonmajority populations. This article posits that racial socialization and racial identity protect urban African American adolescents against some of the harmful effects of a discriminatory environment. These factors are hypothesized to influence academic achievement-an indicator of resiliency that has been used in many studies. A theoretical framework is provided that combines character development in a hostile environment, bicultural identity, and urban stress models. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.
This study extended previous research on changes in children's self-beliefs by documenting domain-specific growth trajectories for 761 children across grades 1 through 12 in a longitudinal study of perceptions of self-competence and task values. Hierarchical Linear Modeling was used to (1) describe changes in beliefs across childhood and adolescence within the domains of mathematics, language arts, and sports; (2) examine the impact of changes in competence beliefs on changes in values over time in the same domains; and (3) describe gender differences in mean levels and trajectories of change in competence beliefs and values. The most striking finding across all domains was that self-perceptions of competence and subjective task values declined as children got older, although the extent and rate of decline varied across domains. For example, in language arts, competence beliefs declined rapidly during the elementary school years, but then leveled off or increased to some extent; whereas the decline in self-competence beliefs in sports accelerated during the high school years. Significant gender differences in beliefs were found in most domains; however, the gender differences in developmental trajectories appeared to be domain specific rather than global. Importantly, the gender differences between boys and girls did not systematically increase with age, as predicted by some socialization perspectives. Adding competence beliefs as an explanatory variable to the model for task values revealed that changes in competence beliefs accounted for much of the age-related decline in task values. In addition, competence beliefs accounted for most of the gender differences in task values for language arts and sports.
The association between parent racial socialization and child competence was examined in a socioeconomically diverse sample of African American preschoolers living in an urban setting. Interviews were conducted in the homes of 200 families. Racial socialization was assessed by parent report as well as by observation of the sociocultural context of the home, and child outcomes were assessed using the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children and the Child Behavior Checklist. Results indicated that African American parents who provided homes that were rich in African American culture had preschool children who had greater amounts of factual knowledge and better developed problem-solving skills. African American parents who socialized their preschool children to be proud of their heritage reported fewer problem behaviors.
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