No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Pesticide Measurements from the First National Environmental Health Survey of Child Care Centers Using a Multi-Residue GC/MS Analysis Method
Abstract
The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, in collaboration with the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, characterized the environments of young children (<6 years) by measuring lead, allergens, and pesticides in a randomly selected nationally representative sample of licensed institutional child care centers. Multi-stage sampling with clustering was used to select 168 child care centers in 30 primary sampling units in the United States. Centers were recruited into the study by telephone interviewers. Samples for pesticides, lead, and allergens were collected at multiple locations in each center by field technicians. Field sampling was conducted from July through October 2001. Wipe samples from indoor surfaces (floors, tabletops, desks) and soil samples were collected at the centers and analyzed using a multi-residue GC/MS analysis method. Based on the questionnaire responses, pyrethroids were the most commonly used pesticides among centers applying pesticides. Among the 63% of centers reporting pesticide applications, the number of pesticides used in each center ranged from 1 to 10 and the frequency of use ranged from 1 to 107 times annually. Numerous organophosphate and pyrethroid pesticides were detected in the indoor floor wipe samples. Chlorpyrifos (0.004-28 ng/cm2), diazinon (0.002-18 ng/cm2), cis-permethrin (0.004-3 ng/cm2), and
... Completed in 2001, the First National Environmental Health Survey of Child Care Centers is the only probability-based, nationally representative study of childcare centers in the United States [4][5][6][7][8][9]. A collaborative effort of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, this study reported on concentrations of Pb, pesticides, and allergens. ...
... Other research groups have reported on selected chemical and biological agents such as pesticides and other persistent organic pollutants [8,[10][11][12][13][14], PCBs [15,16], brominated flame retardants [17], perfluorinated compounds [17][18][19], metals [14,17,[20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30], and allergens (including dust mite, cockroach, cat, dog, endotoxins, horse, fungi) in both the indoor and outdoor childcare center environment in limited studies in the United States and globally. Collectively, this body of research shows that children may be exposed to numerous chemical and biological agents while in center-based care, yet we don't understand how exposure to myriad chemical and biological agents may affect children's health and well-being. ...
... Table 2 shows the summary statistics for the pesticides with >5% detection in the wipe samples. We also included diazinon for direct comparison to Tulve et al. [8]. Piperonyl butoxide was detected in 90% of the floor wipe samples. ...
Background
Children’s potential exposures to chemical and biological agents in tribal childcare centers are not well characterized.
Objectives
(1) The environmental health of childcare centers in Portland Area Indian Country was characterized by measuring selected pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), allergens, and lead (Pb) in outdoor soil and indoor dust. (2) We compared our results to other studies of childcare centers in both the United States and globally.
Methods
At 31 tribal childcare centers in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, we collected indoor dust and outdoor soil samples from at least one classroom, multipurpose room, and outdoor play area. Number of rooms sampled depended on facility size. Surface wipes were collected from the floor, play/work surface, and windowsill and analyzed for selected pesticides and PCBs. Vacuum samples were collected from the floor and analyzed for selected allergens. Lead was measured in surface wipes and outdoor soil collected at 11 centers. A questionnaire collected information on demographics, cleaning habits, and pesticide usage.
Results
At least one pesticide was measured at all childcare centers. cis-Permethrin (surface wipes: 0.003–180 ng/cm²), trans-permethrin (surface wipes: 0.002–200 ng/cm²) and piperonyl butoxide (surface wipes: 0.001–120 ng/cm²) were measured in all centers. Lead was measured in most surface wipes (<0.25–14 ng/cm²) and all outdoor soil samples (8.4–50 mg/kg). Aroclors 1242 and 1254 were detected on indoor surfaces in three centers at very low loadings. Allergen residues were measured at very low concentrations in vacuum dust samples (Der p 1: <0.012–0.12 µg/g; Der f 1: <0.012–0.09 µg/g; Mus m 1: <0.002–10.055 µg/g). In general, we observed lower levels of chemical and biological agents than what has been reported previously.
Significance
By understanding the environmental health of childcare centers, we can better understand the role of child-specific environments in promoting children’s health and well-being.
Impact statement
To our knowledge, this is the first study to characterize the environmental health of tribal childcare centers in the Pacific Northwest. Combined with the information we have on childcare centers from around the world, this study expands our knowledge on young children’s potential exposures to chemical and biological agents in locations where they spend significant amounts of time.
... Because of their smaller size, immature metabolic systems, exploratory behavior, extended periods spent on the floor and ground, and rapid physical and neurologic development and growth, children are not only more likely to experience disproportionate chemical exposures but also are more vulnerable to associated health effects [34]. Studies indicate that ECE environments contain a wide array of household chemicals and other environmental toxins [35][36][37][38][39][40]. Evidence of, and growing concerns about, the negative health impacts of environmental exposures, including increased risks of asthma and respiratory disease, endocrine disruption, childhood cancers, and behavioral and neurodevelopmental disorders, has led health professionals and children's health advocates to highlight ECE environments as critical settings for reducing exposures and protecting children's health [40][41][42]. ...
... Studies indicate that ECE environments contain a wide array of household chemicals and other environmental toxins [35][36][37][38][39][40]. Evidence of, and growing concerns about, the negative health impacts of environmental exposures, including increased risks of asthma and respiratory disease, endocrine disruption, childhood cancers, and behavioral and neurodevelopmental disorders, has led health professionals and children's health advocates to highlight ECE environments as critical settings for reducing exposures and protecting children's health [40][41][42]. While there are few policies and interventions to reduce potentially hazardous environmental exposures to children in FCCHs, the interventions conducted to date with ECE centers [43][44][45] and FCCHs [46,47] have been promising. ...
... While there have been few studies in FCCHs, previous studies in schools and ECE environments have found levels of chemical residues on surfaces, chemical dusts, allergens, and other contaminants, including known carcinogens and endocrine disruptors, that pose a risk to the health of children in ECE environments [39,82]. A national environmental health survey of child care centers in the United States found that 75% of child care centers reported at least one pesticide application in the previous year [40]. ...
Background:
Early childhood is a critical period of development. Caregivers, including providers of early care and education (ECE), have a substantial influence on the health of young children. Family child care homes (FCCHs), which are small, licensed ECE businesses operated out of the residences of providers, are important settings for promoting child health. However, to date, few interventions to promote the health of children have been developed for FCCHs. The purpose of this article is to describe the protocol for Happy Healthy Homes, a pilot interdisciplinary, community-based study to improve FCCH environments and the health of children in Oklahoma. We describe the development and evaluation of two interventions to be tested in a matched attention randomized controlled trial: 1) a nutrition intervention aimed at enhancing the nutritional quality of meals served to young children, incorporating the Child and Adult Care Food Program best practices, and improving nutritional self-efficacy of providers; and 2) an environmental intervention aimed at increasing providers' environmental health literacy, self-efficacy for integrated pest management (IPM), and awareness of less toxic cleaning practices and FCCH provider cleaning behaviors.
Methods:
Both interventions are informed by common theoretical principles and are matched in attention (i.e., 6 h), format (i.e., two individual 90-min educational home visits and a 3-h small group class) and materials (i.e., tool kit of educational materials and supplies tailored to the allocated intervention). A randomized trial of both interventions is currently underway with 52 FCCH providers in the Oklahoma City metropolitan area who participate in the Child and Adult Care Food Program. Observed and self-reported measures will be collected at baseline, and 3 months and 12 months after baseline measurements. Randomization to one of the two interventions will occur after baseline data collection.
Discussion:
This study aims to support FCCH providers in creating healthier FCCH environments for nutrition and environmental health. Successful completion will provide critical information about the nutritional quality and the environmental health of children in FCCHs, as well as much needed evidence about the efficacy of two community-based interventions to improve the nutrition and environmental health of children in home-based ECE settings.
Trial registration:
Clinicaltrials.gov, NCT03560050 . Retrospectively registered on 23 May 2018.
... Most households had detectable levels of insecticides, but pesticide prevalence in house dust varied substantially (0.4-89%). By sampling 163 child care centers using dust wipes, Tulve et al. reported similar prevalence (0-93%) for 39 pesticides (Tulve et al. 2006). In these studies, the most frequently detected pesticides were chlorpyrifos, permethrin, chlordane, and diazinon. ...
... Consistent with previous studies (Mercier et al. 2011;Deziel et al. 2015;Quiros-Alcala et al. 2011;Stout et al. 2009;Tulve et al. 2006;Blanchard et al. 2014;Deziel et al. 2013;Colt et al. 2004;Boyle et al. 2015), we found frequent contamination of indoor dust by domestic and agricultural pesticides, both currently and historically used in France. O-phenylphenol, a domestic fungicide used as conservative and disinfectant, was the most prevalent pesticide in RDS in our study (70% of homes). ...
... These findings are consistent with two previous studies: Stout et al. (2009) reported detection of fipronil in 40% of dust samples collected from 478 randomly selected US households, and Boyle et al. (2015) detected fipronil in 22% of floor wipes of 272 US homes. Tulve et al. (2006) detected fipronil in only 8% of floor wipe samples from 168 US child care centers, but domestic pesticides may be used differently in homes and in child care centers, explaining their lower prevalence. Similar to our study, permethrin was the most frequently detected pyrethroid insecticide in four US studies (Quiros-Alcala et al. 2011;Tulve et al. 2006;Colt et al. 2004;Boyle et al. 2015), and in a study of vacuum cleaner samples from 30 French homes (Blanchard et al. 2014). ...
Pesticides have been associated with various pathologies, and there is growing evidence of pesticide presence in domestic environments. However, most available studies focused on a limited number of pesticides or households, and few have been conducted in Europe. We aimed to assess indoor pesticide contamination by screening the prevalence of 276 pesticides and ten pesticide metabolites, in French households from different agricultural and urban areas. We sampled indoor dust from 239 households in 2012, proximate to orchards (n = 69), cereals (n = 66) and vineyard (n = 68) crops, or from urban area (n = 36). we used cellulose wipes moistened with isopropanol and polypropylene dust traps to collect recent (7 and 30 days, respectively) and settled dust (> 6 months). Overall, 125 pesticides and piperonyl butoxide were detected at least once in households, mostly at low prevalence: 97 in recent dust, and 111 in settled dust. In recent dust, the most prevalent compounds were o-phenylphenol (168 households, 70%), pentachlorophenol (86, 36%), and piperonyl butoxide (82, 34%). In addition to agricultural pesticides, we found a high proportion of domestic and banned compounds in recent and settled house dust. Several pesticides were identified in house dust, from different pesticide groups and sources. Our results suggest that domestic usage and persistence of banned pesticides may contribute substantially to indoor pesticide contamination.
Graphical abstract97 pesticides detected in households’ recent indoor dust.
... PYRs may certainly have different actions and threshold levels in rats depending on the exposure conditions and the neurobehavioral endpoint (Wolansky and Harrill, 2008;Wolansky and Tornero-Velez, 2013). In humans, PYRs enter the body mostly via the oral route (pesticide residues in food; hand-to-mouth behavior in young children), and through the inhalation of environmental residues after the household pest control application of products containing PYRs as active ingredients (ATSDR, 2003;Julien et al., 2008;Li et al., 2014;Morgan, 2012;Tulve et al., 2006). Moreover, it is worth mentioning that environmental and human studies indicate that different patterns of combined exposure to PYRs may occur in general population (Haines et al., 2017;Morgan, 2012;Soderlund, 2012;Tornero-Velez et al., 2012b). ...
... First, we selected four of the most toxic PYRs based on oral LD50 in adult rats (Wolansky and Harrill, 2008;WHO, 2010). Second, we considered the results of the First National Environmental Health Survey of Child Care Centers (CCC Survey; Tulve et al., 2006). This survey designated 334 child care buildings, from which 168 completed the survey. ...
... These authors found two, three and four PYR compounds simultaneously occurring at 30, 15 and 10% of the CCC sites, respectively; co-occurrence of ≥5 PYRs at detectable levels was ≤ 2.5% of the total CCC sites sampled. Third, the detection frequency and maximum residue loading of DTM and CPM ranked top-ten among the PYRs analyzed in several environmental studies and food residue surveys (Jardim and Caldas, 2012;Morgan, 2012;Tulve et al., 2011Tulve et al., , 2006. Last, we combined cyano and noncyano PYRs to blend the most common type-specific neurobehavioral syndromes that these insecticides may cause in rats (Wolansky and Harrill, 2008). ...
Pyrethroids (PYRs) are synthetic insecticides increasingly used in agricultural and household pest control. Little is known on how the toxicity of highly effective bolus doses of single compounds compares to more realistic scenarios of low-level exposure to PYR mixtures. In this study, we examined a quaternary mixture of two noncyano (tefluthrin, TEF; bifenthrin, BIF) and two cyano (α-cypermethrin, α-CPM; deltamethrin, DTM) PYRs in young adult rats. These compounds are mostly composed of PYR isomers ranking top ten in acute lethality in rats. Concurrently, we administered near-threshold levels of the four PYRs dissolved in corn oil by oral route. Six hours later blood was collected and the liver and cerebellum were dissected out to determine PYR concentrations in these tissues using Gas Chromatography with Electron Capture Detector (GC-ECD). The mixture caused mild-to-moderate changes in non-locomotor behaviors and subcutaneous body temperature (up to +1.2-1.5 °C increase at 2-4 hours after dosing, respectively, compared to pre-dosing records). The most toxic PYRs BIF and TEF reached higher concentrations in the cerebellum than the cyano-compounds α-CPM and DTM. In addition, PYR concentrations in the cerebellum were correlated to single compound proportions in the dosing solution and changes in body temperature. Our results suggest that aggregate exposures resulting in a target tissue burden of ~10-1 nmoles PYR/g may be toxicologically relevant, expanding the evidence on exposure-dose-effect relationships for PYRs, and serving to design convenient pharmacokinetic models for environmentally relevant exposures to PYR mixtures.
... The many uses of pyrethroids including agricultural, commercial and residential pest control, and veterinary and medical practices (Amweg et al., 2005;Bradberry et al., 2005) may lead to human exposure. Residues of multiple pyrethroids are detected in surface wipe samples collected from child care centers (Tulve et al., 2006) and residential homes (Stout et al., 2009), indoor air and dust samples (Rudel et al., 2003), and on fruits and vegetables (USDA, 2014). A biological monitoring study in Canada of a metropolitan populace exposed to pyrethroids in the diet found that the study population was mainly exposed to permethrin and cypermethrin (Fortin et al., 2008). ...
... A biological monitoring study in Canada of a metropolitan populace exposed to pyrethroids in the diet found that the study population was mainly exposed to permethrin and cypermethrin (Fortin et al., 2008). From their use in agriculture and pest management, humans can be exposed to multiple pyrethroids (Fortin et al., 2008;Heudorf and Angerer, 2001;Stout et al., 2009;Tulve et al., 2006;Tornero-Velez et al., 2012). ...
... o.) (Scollon et al., 2011), respectively, are correlated with brain concentrations of these pyrethroids. As humans are exposed to multiple pyrethroids (Fortin et al., 2008;Heudorf and Angerer, 2001;Stout et al., 2009;Tulve et al., 2006;Tornero-Velez et al., 2012), it is important to understand the disposition of these pesticides, particularly to target organs such as the brain. In the present work we examined the distribution to blood and brain of an environmentally-relevant mixture of five pyrethroid compounds after an acute oral gavage in adult rats (Table 1). ...
Human exposure to multiple pyrethroid insecticides may occur because of their broad use on crops and for residential pest control. To address the potential health risk from co-exposure to pyrethroids, it is important to understand their disposition and toxicity in target organs such as the brain, and surrogates such as the blood when administered as a mixture. The objective of this study was to assess the correlation between blood and brain concentrations of pyrethroids and neurobehavioral effects in the rat following an acute oral administration of the pyrethroids as a mixture. Male Long-Evans rats were administered a mixture of β-cyfluthrin, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, esfenvalerate and _cis_- and _trans_-permethrin in corn oil at seven dose levels. The pyrethroid with the highest percentage in the dosing solution was _trans_-permethrin (31% of total mixture dose) while deltamethrin and esfenvalerate had the lowest percentage (3%). Motor activity of the rats was then monitored for 1 h. At 3.5 h post-dosing, the animals were euthanized and blood and brain were collected. These tissues were extracted and analyzed for parent pyrethroid using HPLC-tandem mass spectrometry. Cypermethrin and _cis_-permethrin were the predominate pyrethroids detected in blood and brain, respectively, at all dosage levels. The relationship of total pyrethroid concentration between blood and brain was linear (r2 = 0.87). The pyrethroids with the lowest fraction in blood were _trans_-permethrin and β-cyfluthrin and in brain were deltamethrin and esfenvalerate. The relationship between motor activity of the treated rats and summed pyrethroid blood and brain concentration was described using a sigmoidal Emax model with the Effective Concentration50 being more sensitive for brain than blood. The data suggests summed pyrethroid rat blood concentration could be used as a surrogate for brain concentration as an aid to study the neurotoxic effects of pyrethroids administered as a mixture under the conditions used in this study.
... Pyrethroids (PYRs) are synthetic insecticides, increasingly used in a wide range of indoor and outdoor pest control applications (CDC, 2003). A large body of data indicate that low-level exposure to multiple PYRs may occur in humans (CDC, 2005;FDA, 2008;Fortin et al., 2008;Heudorf et al., 2004;Jardim and Caldas, 2012;Li et al., 2014;Morgan et al., 2014;Tulve et al., 2006). A dual type-I/type-II toxicological classification for PYRs was established~35 years ago based on their chemical structure (i.e., absence or presence of an α-cyano group, respectively) and acute effects in adult mice and rats administered high doses as a single-injection bolus via the intravascular or intracerebral routes. ...
... We selected BIF to model a potent tremorigenic compound, and CYPM to model a prototypical CS-syndrome compound. Moreover, BIF and CYPM rank at top positions in environmental studies and food pesticide residue surveys, what makes frequent oral exposure to these insecticides highly probable in general population (Melnyk et al., 2014;Tornero-Velez et al., 2012;Tulve et al., 2006;Weston et al., 2013). Our results extend prior evidence supporting the factors age, endpoint and testing conditions as major determinants of pesticide neurotoxicity in laboratory animals. ...
... Identical endpoint and testing procedures used in single compound assessments were used to examine a mixture of BIF and CYPM. This mixture simulated a worst case scenario of exposure to a simple combination of insecticides, including BIF, one of the most toxic PYRs (Julien et al., 2007;Melnyk et al., 2014;Tornero-Velez et al., 2012;Tulve et al., 2006;WHO, 2010). In addition, we sought to combine oral doses well below threshold levels for PYR-specific signs of neurotoxicity such as salivation, whole body tremors, and choreoathetosis, based on previous neurobehavioral studies in adult (Soderlund et al., 2002;Wolansky et al., 2006Wolansky et al., , 2007aWolansky and Harrill, 2008) and developing (Shafer et al., 2005;Sheets, 2000) rats, and a pilot work (data not shown). ...
... Collection of SDR samples is a relatively cheap and straightforward method to determine the level of indoor contamination from organic compounds (Butte and Heinzow, 2002;Lioy et al., 2002;Mercier et al., 2011). The mean environmental load of SDRs varies across studies: 0.01 (p,p'dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene) to 2.9 ng/cm² (cypermethrin) in the study by Stout II et al. (2009), 0.0002 (malathion) to 0.061 ng/cm² (t-permethrin) in the study by Clifton et al. (2013), and from 0.004 (t-mevinphos) to 0.42 ng/cm² (chlorpyrifos) in the study by Tulve et al. (2006). In a previous French study, the median load of compounds using wipes was 0.02-0.04 ...
... Reagents; Milano, Italy) in order to obtain a mixture of 57 compounds, corresponding to a load of 0.03 ng/cm² (solution S 1 ; average concentration: 55μg/L, see Supplemental Materials, Table S1). This is close to the pesticide surface loadings previously reported from indoor floor wipe dust samples Clifton et al., 2013;Stout II et al., 2009;Tulve et al., 2006 ...
... Our observations from the urban area (zone 4) support this hypothesis: despite a "zero-pesticide-use" policy since 2008, seven of the ten most frequent pesticides found in RDS in urban households were banned.However, our interpretation is limited by the lack of historical information on pesticide application and precise dates of restrictions for agricultural and domestic use. Similar to our study, permethrin was the most frequent detected pyrethroid insecticide in three other studies(Quiros-Alcala et al. 2011;Tulve et al. 2006;Colt et al. 2004). ...
Testicular germ cell tumors (TGCT) are the most common cancers in men aged 15–39 years. Environmental exposures occurring in the prenatal period are suspected to play a role, but no clear associations with TGCT risk are known. This thesis aimed to develop an epidemiological approach to study the impact of prenatal exposures to pesticides on the TGCT risk. First, through a systematic literature review, we identified a gap in knowledge regarding prenatal exposures, as well as the need for more reliable assessment of environmental pesticide exposures. Second, through a survey of indoor dust sampling in 239 households, we identified the environmental determinants of agricultural pesticide exposure to develop a metric to assess environmental pesticide exposures using a geographical information system. Crop acreage within 500m (orchards) or 1000m (cereals/vineyards), wind, and vegetative barriers were identified as determinants of the indoor contamination. The overall good efficiency of our cellulose wipe was assessed through laboratory experiments. Our results also suggested domestic pesticide use as a major source of households’ pesticide exposure. Third, through a case-control pilot study we tested different approach to recruit young men and their mothers, and we confirmed our ability to collect information about their exposures, and to map precisely their addresses until the 1970’s. Our findings lead to the development of a national case-control study (TESTIS project) aiming to assess the impact of prenatal pesticides exposures on the TGCT risk. This project has been funded and is currently on-going. Our research also serves as basis for further multidisciplinary projects
... There are a number of studies reporting the prevalence and distribution of indoor insecticide residues [15][16][17][18]. Most of the occupied homes in the U.S. had insecticide residues with permethrin being the most common [17]. ...
... Permethrin is the most frequently detected insecticide in this study. It was also the pyrethroid insecticide most frequently detected in window wipe samples in California homes [40], carpet dust in homes from four states in the U.S. during 1999-2001 [15], and dust samples in daycare centers in 2001 [18]. Cypermethrin was the second most frequently detected insecticide in this study. ...
Insecticide use in homes leads to human exposure to insecticide residues that persist in the environment. Integrated pest management (IPM) programs have been known to be more environmentally friendly for managing German cockroach (Blattella germanica L.) infestations, but their effect on indoor insecticide residue levels are not well understood. An IPM program consisting of applying cockroach gel baits and placing insect sticky traps as the primary treatment methods were implemented. Floor wipe samples were collected from the bedroom and kitchen floors of 69 apartments with German cockroach infestations at 0 months and again at 12 months from 49 of the 69 apartments sampled at 0 months. Levels of 18 insecticide residues were measured. The mean insecticide residue concentration per apartment decreased by 74% after 12 months. The number of insecticides detected per apartment decreased from 2.5 ± 0.2 to 1.5 ± 0.2 (mean ± standard error). Indoxacarb residue was only detected in two apartments at 12 months despite the fact that an average of 32 ± 4 g 0.6% indoxacarb gel bait was applied per apartment. IPM implementation can result in significant reduction in the insecticide residue concentrations and number of detected insecticides in floor dust samples.
... Pyrethroid-containing products often contain more than one pyrethroid, due to differing insecticidal properties among this class of compounds. Furthermore, the increasing use of pyrethroids in general increases the probability that exposure will be to multiple, not individual compounds (Tulve et al., 2006;Stout et al., 2009) either simultaneously or sequentially. Thus, understanding their interactions in mixtures is an important toxicological and human health issue. ...
... However, real life exposures to pyrethroids are not likely to be binary or equimolar mixtures. Instead, exposure to complex mixtures of pyrethroids will be based on use patterns of the individual compounds in the mixture (c.f., Tulve et al., 2006). ...
... Considering that living in social housing carries a higher risk of bedbug infestation and head lice [80,81], we anticipated high concentrations of pyrethrin I. To our knowledge, only one study reported air concentration of pyrethrin I in a residential setting, but not social housing. We observed higher concentrations compared to this literature value [90]. ...
Background
Low socioeconomic status (SES) residents living in social housing, which is subsidized by government or government-funded agencies, may have higher exposures to pesticides used in indoor residences since pesticides are applied due to structural deficiencies, poor maintenance, etc.
Objective
To estimate exposure of residents in low-SES social housing built in the 1970s to legacy and current-use pesticides and to investigate factors related to exposures.
Methods
Twenty-eight particle-phase pesticides were measured in the indoor air of 46 units in seven low-income social housing, multi-unit residential buildings (MURBs) in Toronto, Canada using portable air cleaners deployed for 1 week in 2017. Pesticides analyzed were legacy and current use in the classes: organochlorines, organophosphates, pyrethroids, and strobilurins.
Results
At least one pesticide was detected in 89% of the units with detection frequencies (DF) for individual pesticides of up to 50%, including legacy organochlorines and current-use pesticides. Current-use pyrethroids had the highest DF and concentrations, with the highest particle-phase concentration for pyrethrin I at 32,000 pg/m³. Heptachlor, restricted for use in Canada in 1985, had the highest estimated maximum total air (particle plus gas phase) concentration of 443,000 pg/m³. Heptachlor, lindane, endosulfan I, chlorothalonil, allethrin, and permethrin (except in one study) had higher concentrations than those measured in low-income residences reported elsewhere. In addition to the intentional use of pesticides to control pests and their use in building materials and paints, tobacco smoking was significantly correlated with the concentrations of five pesticides used on tobacco crops. The distribution of pesticides with high DF in individual buildings suggested that pest eradication programs by the building management and/or pesticide use by residents were the major sources of measured pesticides.
Impact
Low-income social housing fills a much-needed demand, but the residences are prone to pest infestation and hence pesticide use. We found exposure to at least 1 of 28 particle-phase pesticides in 89% of all 46 units tested, with the highest DF and concentrations for current-use pyrethroids and long-banned organochlorines (e.g., DDT, heptachlor) due to very high persistence indoors. Also measured were several pesticides not registered for use indoors, e.g., strobilurins used to treat building materials and pesticides used on tobacco crops. These results, which are the first Canadian data for most pesticides indoors, show widespread exposure to numerous pesticides.
... In general, urban soil may be caused by more serious pollutions from high density residential population, the rapid socio-economic development, urbanization, and industrial expansion in China (Wang et al., 2005;Yuan et al., 2014). Numerous studies showed that toxic trace pollutants in urban environment had reached the level that may influence human health (Gouin et al., 2004;Tulve et al., 2006). Therefore, the risk assessment with OCPs in urban soils should be attracted more attentions. ...
Along with the restriction and prohibition of historic used organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), current used pesticides (CUPs) were widely used as alternatives. In order to investigate the pollution characteristics of pesticides, the levels and spatial distributions of OCPs and CUPs in 154 surface soil across China were comprehensively compared. Totally, 107 target pesticides were screened, and 20 OCPs and 34 CUPs were detected. The numbers of co-occurred pesticides in single soil sample were from 17 to 36 indicating the diversity and complexity of pesticides pollution. The concentrations of OCPs in urban soils were higher than rural soils, while rural > urban for CUPs. Furthermore, obviously different spatial distribution patterns were found for OCPs and CUPs. For OCPs, the secondary distribution pattern was dominant. For CUPs, the primary distribution pattern was obviously observed due to their current extensive usage. In addition, higher concentrations of both CUPs and OCPs were accumulated in the Northeast China Plain due to long-range atmospheric transport and deposition. Along with the old topic of OCPs, the study pointed out the preliminary understanding of CUPs pollution characteristic in surface soil of China, which provided a new story with the deep understanding of their environmental fate in both China and the world.
... Previous studies have primarily focused on phthalate pollution in the Chinese home environment since it is the most important site for children's indoor exposure [36][37][38]. Meanwhile, preschool children also spend many of their waking hours in daycare centers or kindergartens (e.g., 8-10 h per day, 5 days per week) [39]. However, research regarding phthalate pollution in daycare centers or kindergartens is limited in China. ...
Phthalates are typical chemical pollutants in kindergarten classrooms since numerous artificial products (e.g., polyvinyl chloride (PVC) floorings, soft polymers and plastic toys) that might contain phthalates are widely distributed in kindergarten classrooms. Although Chinese preschool children spend a considerable amount of their waking hours (>8 h/day) in kindergartens, phthalate exposure in such indoor environment has not been given much attention. In this study, the mass fractions of six phthalates in twenty-six artificial products (fifteen flat decoration materials and eleven plastic toys) commonly found in Chinese kindergarten classrooms were measured. Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) was the most predominant compound in all materials. The emission characteristics of the DEHP from these materials were further investigated. The measured emission characteristics were used for predicting multi-phase DEHP concentrations in kindergarten classrooms by applying a mass transfer model. The modeled concentrations were comparable with those measured in the real environment, indicating that these products might be the major sources of DEHP in Chinese kindergarten classrooms. Preschool children’s exposure to DEHP was found to be 0.42 μg/kg/day in kindergartens under baseline conditions, accounting for 18% of the total exposure to DEHP in Chinese indoor environments.
... Furthermore, our results reveal a need to investigate the degradation of OP pesticides indoors. Currently there is limited research to understand this phenomenon, despite the prevailing hypothesis that pesticides can persist for long periods of time indoors [41] and the detection of pesticides within indoor environments that implicates historic exposure [40,[42][43][44]. ...
Organophosphate (OP) pesticides are associated with numerous adverse health outcomes. Pesticide use data are available for California from the Pesticide Use Report (PUR), but household- and individual-level exposure factors have not been fully characterized to support its refinement as an exposure assessment tool. Unique exposure pathways, such as proximity to agricultural operations and direct occupational contact, further complicate pesticide exposure assessment among agricultural communities. We sought to identify influencing factors of pesticide exposure to support future exposure assessment and epidemiological studies. Household dust samples were collected from 28 homes in four California agricultural communities during January and June 2019 and were analyzed for the presence of OPs. Factors influencing household OPs were identified by a data-driven model via best subsets regression. Key factors that impacted dust OP levels included household cooling strategies, secondary occupational exposure to pesticides, and geographic location by community. Although PUR data demonstrate seasonal trends in pesticide application, this study did not identify season as an important factor, suggesting OP persistence in the home. These results will help refine pesticide exposure assessment for future studies and highlight important gaps in the literature, such as our understanding of pesticide degradation in an indoor environment.
... The only pesticide detected in the adolescents' wristbands and not in the current study was dacthal, an herbicide heavily used in the agricultural region in which the adolescents lived. Among child care centers in the United States nationally representative study of child care centers, chlorpyrifos and cis-and trans-permethrin were also detected in outside soil samples and wipes collected on indoor surfaces (Tulve et al., 2006). Our study and others have found mixed relationships between environmental and behavioral factors and indoor pesticide exposures. ...
Introduction:
Young children may be exposed to pesticides used in child care centers and their family homes. We examined pesticide use and environmental and behavioral factors potentially associated with child exposures in these settings.
Method:
Preschool-age children (n = 125) wore silicone wristbands to assess pesticide exposures in their child care centers and home environments. Information about environmental and behavioral exposure determinants was collected using parent surveys, child care director interviews, and observations.
Results:
Commonly detected pesticides were bifenthrin, chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, fipronil, and cis- and trans-permethrin. Pesticide chemical storage onsite, cracks in the walls, using doormats, observed pests, or evidence of pests were associated with child exposures. Exposures were higher in counties with higher agricultural or commercial pesticide use or when children lived in homes near agricultural fields.
Discussion:
Young children are being exposed to harmful pesticides, and interventions are needed to lower their risk of health problems later in life.
... Although the fate and transport of pesticides in the environment has been studied extensively including those completed for pesticide registration (Test Guidelines for Pesticides and Toxic Substances, 2019), there is very limited information on the persistence of pesticides in indoor environments (Class and Kintrup, 1991;Lu and Fenske, 1998;Wright and Jackson, 1976;Starr et al., 2014) where degradation mechanisms, such as direct sunlight, water, and soil microbes, do not exist. Numerous studies have documented the presence of many different pesticides inside homes and day care centers in indoor air, in dust and on surfaces (Stout and Bradham, 2009;Tulve and Jones, 2006;Julien and Levi, 2008;Quandt and Arcury, 2004;Julien and Adamkiewicz, 2008;Bradman and Whitaker, 2007) indicating long-term persistence. Few studies evaluate indoor pesticide fate for extended periods but results from previous pesticide misuse cases (reference 8 and personal communication) suggest that pesticide residues persist indoors due to the absence of the primary degradation factors found outdoors. ...
The improper and excessive use of pesticides in indoor environments can result in adverse human health effects, sometimes necessitating decontamination of residential or commercial buildings. A lack of information on effective approaches to remediate pesticide residues prompted the decontamination and persistence studies described in this study. Decontamination studies evaluated the effectiveness of liquid-based surface decontaminants against pesticides on indoor surfaces. Building materials were contaminated with 25-2,400 µg/100cm² of the pesticides malathion, carbaryl, fipronil, deltamethrin, and permethrin. Decontaminants included both off-the-shelf and specialized solutions representing various chemistries. Pesticides included in this study were found to be highly persistent in a dark indoor environment with surface concentrations virtually unchanged after 140 days. Indoor light conditions degraded some of the pesticides, but estimated half-lives exceeded the study period. Decontamination efficacy results indicated that the application of household bleach or a hydrogen peroxide-based decontaminant offered the highest efficacy, reducing malathion, fipronil, and deltamethrin by >94-99% on some surfaces. Bleach effectively degraded permethrin (>94%), but not carbaryl (<70%) while the hydrogen peroxide containing products degraded carbaryl (>71-99%) but not permethrin (<54%). These results will inform responders, the general public and public health officials on potential decontamination solutions to remediate indoor surfaces.
... A large number of studies have shown that toxic trace contaminants in urban environments have reached a level that may affect human health, and therefore, close attention should be paid to this issue (De Kimple and Morel, 2000;Gouin et al., 2004;Tulve et al., 2006). Many studies are available on soil pollutants, especially POPs in soils. ...
... Approximately one out of ten pesticides commonly used at homes and gardens has pyrethroids as active ingredients [56]. As a result, preschool children have been found to be potentially exposed to PM from several sources and through several routes in their daily environments [9,57,58]. These facts have attracted attention to the effects of pesticides in developing organisms, which are under intense and controlled cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis [3]. ...
Permethrin (PM) is a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide widely used as domestic repellent. Damage effects to nontarget organisms have been reported, particularly in the early stages of development. Studies indicate redox unbalance as secondary PM effect. Therefore, our goal was to investigate the acute PM effects on larval zebrafish. Larvae (6 days postfertilization) were exposed to PM (25–600 μ g/L) during 24 hours, and 50% lethal concentration was estimated. For subsequent assays, the sublethal PM concentrations of 25 and 50 μ g/L were used. PM increased anxiety-like behaviors according to the Novel Tank and Light-Dark tests. At the molecular level, PM induced increased ROS, which may be related to the increased lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, and apoptosis detected in PM-exposed organisms. In parallel, upregulation of the antioxidant system was detected after PM exposure, with increased superoxide dismutase, glutathione S-transferase and glutathione reductase activities, and thiol levels. The increased of Nrf2 target genes and the activation of an electrophile response element-driven reporter Tg( EPRE :LUC-EGFP) suggest that the Nrf2 pathway can mediate a fast response to PM, leading to antioxidant amplification. By using high-resolution respirometry, we found that exposure to PM decreased the oxygen consumption in all respiratory stages, disrupting the oxidative phosphorylation and inhibiting the electron transfer system, leading to decrease in bioenergetics capacity. In addition, PM led to increases of residual oxygen consumption and changes in substrate control ratio. Glucose metabolism seems to be affected by PM, with increased lactate dehydrogenase and decreased citrate synthase activities. Taken together, our results demonstrated the adverse effects of acute sublethal PM concentrations during larval development in zebrafish, causing apparent mitochondrial dysfunction, indicating a potential mechanism to redox unbalance and oxidative stress, which may be linked to the detected cell death and alterations in normal behavior patterns caused by acute PM exposure.
... Hazard Information-Treatment Groups-Dose Selection Tefluthrin and BIF have been detected in several environmental samples and food residue surveys (Jardim and Caldas, 2012;Morgan, 2012;Tulve et al., 2006Tulve et al., , 2011. The acceptable daily intake (ADI) values for TEF and BIF are 5 and 15 lg/kg bw/day respectively, whereas the values of the acceptable operator exposure level (AOEL) are 1.5 and 7.5 lg/kg bw/day, respectively (NIH Pubchem, 2005. ...
Most pyrethroid insecticides (PYRs) share a similar primary target site in mammals. However, the potency estimates of the lethal and sublethal effects of these compounds differ up to 103-fold. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between the dose administered, the target tissue dose and the effect of two highly toxic PYRs, tefluthrin (TEF; 0.1-9 mg/kg) and bifenthrin (BIF; 0.5-12 mg/kg), by using the oral route, a corn oil vehicle (1 mL/kg) and subcutaneous temperature (Tsc) monitoring assays in adult rats. The Tsc was determined at 30-min intervals for 5 h (TEF) or 4.5 h (BIF) after dosing. Rats were sacrificed at 6 h after dosing, and BIF and TEF concentrations were determined in blood (Bd), liver (Lv) and cerebellum (Cb) by using a GC-ECD system. The minimal effective dose of BIF (3 mg/kg) affecting Tsc was similar to that found in prior studies using other testing paradigms. Regarding TEF, a very steep relationship between the dose administered and toxicity was observed, with a near-threshold to low-effective range for Tsc at 0.1-6 mg/kg, and a near lethal syndrome at ≥ 7.5 mg/kg. At 6-7.5 mg/kg TEF, the Cb/Bd and Cb/Lv concentration ratios were both >1. Conversely, for BIF, the Cb concentration was barely over the Bd concentration and the Cb/Lv concentration ratio remained ˂1. Our results and previous findings call for more comprehensive consideration to establish the relevance of the distribution into target tissues and the tissue dosimetry for health risks through the exposure to PYRs in humans.
... Previous studies have reported that harmful pollutants in the urban environment may severely harm human health, and therefore need to receive particular attention (e.g., De Kimple and Morel, 2000;Chen et al., 2005;Li et al., 2006aLi et al., , 2006b. PAHs have become one of the main pollutants of urban areas (Tulve et al., 2006;Jiang et al., 2009). However, research on the countrywide scale of urban soil pollution in China (such as organochlorine pesticides, PAHs, and other complicated organic pollutants) is rarely reported. ...
... Children can be easily exposed to pesticides via ingestion of pesticide contaminated soil, inhalation of pesticide contaminated dust, and dermal contact with pesticide contaminated soil (Simcox et al., 1995;Damalas and Koutroubas, 2016;Fenske et al., 2002;Eskenazi et al., 1999). Exposure to pesticides through residential soil can cause adverse human health effects (Lu et al., 2000;Lewis et al., 1994;Zahm and Ward, 1998;Ogbeide et al., 2018;Ullah et al., 2018;Dasgupta et al., 2010), especially in children because they are more vulnerable and exposed to more pesticides via soil ingestion than adults (Freeman et al., 2001;Hawley, 1985;Tulve et al., 2006). As different types of pesticides are used, exposure to mixture of pesticides can occur (Fantke et al., 2017(Fantke et al., , 2012cDelgado-Moreno et al., 2017;Cederlund et al., 2017;Rani et al., 2017;Shen et al., 2005;Reimer and Prokopy, 2012). ...
Children can be exposed to organophosphate and carbamate mixtures, which pose additive health effects via soil exposure. However, only 23 countries have soil standard values for organophosphate and carbamate pesticides, and most regulatory jurisdictions do not consider the cumulative exposure. This study derived proposed soil standards for organophosphates and carbamates by introducing the relative potency quotient approach (RPQ). The probabilistic cumulative risk assessment was also applied to evaluate current soil standards of pesticide mixtures. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have soil standards of 19 organophosphates and five carbamates. However, these standards cannot protect population health via chronic exposure in conservative and semi-conservative scenarios based on the probabilistic risk assessment because the U.S.EPA simplified the regulatory process for the cumulative exposure to pesticide mixtures and omitted the soil allocation factor, which should be set for aggregate exposure. The analysis of proposed soil standards developed by the RPQ approach indicates that some human behavior variables, such as soil intake rate and exposure duration, have stronger impacts on the proposed soil standards than human biometric variables like body weight. This study may be helpful to develop regulatory standards and a framework for pesticide mixtures having additive health effects.
... On average, the children of working mothers spend 35 hours a week in such care." Studies of chemical exposures in child care facilities reveal elevated levels of pesticides, [6][7][8] fomaldehyde, 9 bisphenol A (BPA), 10 lead, 11 brominated flame retardants (BFRs), 12 polychlorinated biphenyls (PBCs), 12 and radon. 13 Asthmagens or asthma triggers in susceptible individuals with known asthma, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 14 mold, 13,15 and other triggers such as animal dander 16 also have been detected in child care facilities. ...
... The annual usage of CP has been more than 1 million pounds of active ingredient in Unite States, and its use continues to grow (US EPA, 2016). CP residue was frequently detected in environment, food and even in human breast-milk (Bouwman et al., 2006;Tulve et al., 2006;Yuan et al., 2014). Pyrethroids, including CP, have been considered as potential endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), since they were shown to have hormone-like activities and disrupt the function of endocrine and reproductive systems (Liu et al., 2011a,b;Wang et al., 2007;Zhang et al., 2016;Zhao et al., 2014;Ye et al., 2017a). ...
Pyrethroids are a class of widely used insecticides. Cypermethrin (CP) is one of most commonly used pyrethroid insecticides and its residue has been frequently detected in environmental media. Our recent animal study reported that early postnatal exposure to CP induced an increase in serum levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) as well as the expression of gonadotropin subunit genes [chorionic gonadotropin α (CGα), LHβ and FSHβ] in pituitary tissues. In this study, we further investigated the precise mechanism by which CP at concentrations of 1-100 nM affected the synthesis of gonadotropins using a murine pituitary gonadotropic cell line LβT2. We found that calcium (Ca2+)-dependent extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) activity was required for CP-regulated transcription of CGαs, LHβ and FSHβ. We provided the novel evidence that CP caused both influx of extracellular Ca2+ through L-type voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) and release of intracellular Ca2+ from endoplasmic reticulum (ER) via inhibition of Ca2+-ATPase. Our results showed that CP disrupted Ca2+ homeostasis via these two separate and independent pathways, thus resulting in the activation of protein kinase C (PKC)/c-Raf/ERK1/2/ immediate-early genes (IEGs) pathways and subsequent increase in the transcription of gonadotropin subunit genes. Our findings would have important implications for understanding the underlying mechanisms of the disrupting effects of some pyrethroids (such as CP) on the synthesis of pituitary gonadotropins.
... Alcuni autori ritengono che la dieta sia tra le principali vie di esposizione nelle persone non professionalmente esposte. Tuttavia, i piretroidi sono stati misurati in alte concentrazioni in vari ambienti frequentati dall'uomo, per cui anche le esposizioni in contesto domestico o in altri contesti sociali possono generare rischi di uguale importanza (Rudel 2003, Colt 2004, Tulve 2006, Julien, 2008 (ATSDR, 2003). Il loro meccanismo d'azione, come per tutti gli insetticidi, è di natura neurobiologica, ma vari autori ritengono che, oltre al meccanismo tossicologico più conosciuto, in molte specie possano subentrare meccanismi d'azione non previsti e ancora da chiarire (Anadón et al., 2009). ...
Per combattere l’eccedente presenza di zanzare, amministrazioni pubbliche, aziende private e singoli cittadini svolgono ripetuti interventi antiparassitari, riversando ingenti quantitativi di pesticidi nell’ambiente. La diffusione di grandi quantitativi di sostanze chimiche di sintesi e la conseguente contaminazione degli ecosistemi ha ridotto drasticamente le popolazioni dei predatori delle zanzare stesse (pipistrelli, uccelli insettivori, libellule, gechi) col paradossale risultato di una sempre maggiore presenza di zanzare e altri fastidiosi parassiti. Nel quaderno si presentano quindi i dati relativi all’impatto ambientale delle sostanze di più largo utilizzo nella profilassi anti-zanzara, molti dei quali di comune uso anche in agricoltura.
... To understand exposure implications, identifying the etiology of possible exposure is crucial. Children can be exposed at home, via their parents' employment (e.g., parents are agricultural workers), in the community, or at school and daycare (Sattler & Davis del, 2008;Tulve et al., 2006). For instance, children living in agricultural areas have higher levels of urinary metabolites compared to urban children ( Lambert et al., 2005). ...
Widely used around the world, pesticides play an important role in protecting health, crops, and property. However, pesticides may also have detrimental effects on human health, with young children among the particularly vulnerable. Recent research suggests that even low levels of pesticide exposure can affect young children's neurological and behavioral development. Evidence shows a link between pesticides and neonatal reflexes, psychomotor and mental development, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Implications include a need for improved risk assessment and health histories by clinicians, greater education at all levels, more common use of integrated pest management, and continued policy and regulatory strategies to mitigate the effects of and the need for pesticides.
... Studies show that young children attending child care centers are exposed to pests and pesticides Mir, Finkelstein, & Tulipano, 2010;Morgan et al., 2005;Starr, Graham, Stout, Andrews, & Nishioka, 2008;Tulve et al., 2006;Wilson, Chuang, Morgan, Lordo, & Sheldon, 2007). In a survey of 481 child care centers in California, 85% of respondents reported pest problems, and 39% reported applying high-exposure pesticides, which include sprays, foggers, powders, or uncontained pellets (Messenger, Livingstone, & Kerschner, 2015). ...
Introduction:
To reduce young children's exposure to pests and pesticides, an integrated pest management (IPM) intervention was provided for child care center staff.
Methods:
The 7-month IPM education and consultation intervention was conducted by trained nurse child care health consultants in 44 child care centers in California. IPM knowledge surveys were completed by child care staff, objective IPM assessments were completed by research assistants pre- and postintervention, and activity logs were completed by the nurses.
Results:
There were significant increases in IPM knowledge for the child care staff who attended workshops. There were reductions in the prevalence of pests and increases in IPM practices at the postintervention compared with the preintervention time point. The nurses consulted an average of 5.4 hours per center.
Discussion:
A nurse-led IPM intervention in child care centers can reduce exposure to harmful substances for young children attending child care centers.
... It has been detected in semen, fat, and breast milk (Regnery and Puttman 2010; Hudec et al, 1989; LeBel et al., 1989 ) and the metabolite bis (1,3-dichlo- ropropyl) phosphate (BDCPP) has been detected in urine (Sundkvist et al., 2010). Tulve et al., 2006). Early childhood education (ECE) facilities are located in a variety of building types, including homes, schools, commercial buildings, and portable classrooms. ...
Organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) are used as additives in plasticizers, foams, hydraulic fluids, anti-foam agents, and coatings for electronic components/devices to inhibit flames. These chemicals were developed and used as flame retardants because of environmental and health concerns of previously used brominated and chlorinated flame retardants (FRs). OPCFRs are divided into five main groups: organophosphates, organophosphonates, organophosphinates, organoposphine oxide, and organophosphites. Most of OPFRs are organophosphate esters that are further classified into the following five groups: 1. Aliphatic, 2. Brominated aliphatic, 3. Chlorinated aliphatic, 4. Aromatic-aliphatic, and 5. Aromatic phosphates. These OPFRs have the following neurotoxic actions: 1. Cholinergic Neurotoxicity, 2. Organophosphate-Induced Delayed Neurotoxicity (OPIDN), and 3. Organophosphate-Induced Chronic Neurotoxicity (OPICN) in addition to being endocrine disruptors. OPFRs have very low cholinergic neurotoxicity and this effect does not pose significant health hazards to adults or children. On the other hand, some OPFRs have shown to cause OPIDN that is a delayed central-peripheral axonopathy, characterized by neuronal cell death of the lower brain regions, spinal cord and peripheral nervous systems, leading to long-term neuronal injury. OPICN is characterized by neuronal cell death in the cortex, hippocampus campus and cerebellum and spinal cord. Finally, OPCFRs act as endocrine disrupters, that affect many functions of the body such thyroid glands and reproductive functions, and may be involved in the development of diabetes and cancer. Residues of these OPCFRs are widespread in the environment, home and workplaces. These chemicals adversely affect human health, especially for vulnerable population such as the elderly, pregnant women, fetuses, and children. Because some OPFRs cause neuronal cell death in the brain and spinal cord that do not repair as well as act as endocrine disrupters they may lead to permanent functional deficits such obesity, memory impairment, decreased motor skill and even more serious diseases such as diabetes and cancer. Because recent reports have accredited FRs for significant decrease in building fires, it is important to balance the risk and benefits of FRs and to use only the safest available FRs including OPFRs.
... Indoor dust samples (n = 50) were collected at the home visit. Sampling methods used hard surface wipe collection procedures previously developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in a national exposure survey (Stout et al., 2009;Tulve et al., 2006). Pre-cleaned acrylic cloths were used for dust sample collection. ...
... Pyrethroid exposure may occur during their manufacture, during their use in agricultural and residential settings, during their use as a veterinary or medicinal agent, or from the diet. Pyrethroids are detected in indoor surface wipes of child care centers (Tulve et al., 2006) and personal residences (Stout et al., 2009;Julien et al., 2008), indoor dusts (Harnly et al., 2009;Starr et al., 2008;Quivrós-Alcalá et al., 2011) and on fruits and vegetables (U.S. Department of Agriculture [USDA], 2013). ...
Exposure to pyrethroid pesticides is a potential cause for concern. The objective of this study was to examine the in vivo dermal absorption of bifenthrin, deltamethrin, and permethrin in the rat. Dorsal hair on adult male Long-Evans rats was removed. The next day, the skin was dosed with 1750 nmol (312.5 nmol/cm(2)) of radiolabeled (5 µCi) bifenthrin, deltamethrin, or permethrin in acetone. A nonoccluding plastic cover was glued over the dosing site. The animals were placed in metabolism cages to collect excreta. At 24 h postdosing, the skin was washed with soap and water, and rats in one group were euthanized and their tissues were collected. The skin was removed and tape stripped. The remaining animals were returned to the metabolism cages after the wash for 4 d. These rats were then euthanized and handled as already described. Excreta, wash, tape strips, tissues, and carcass were analyzed for pyrethroid-derived radioactivity. The wash and tape strips removed >50% of the dose and skin retained 9-24%. Cumulative radioactivity in excreta was 0.5-7% at 24 h and 3-26% at 120 h. Radioactivity in tissues was <0.3% of the dose, while carcass retained 2 to 5%. Assuming absorption equals cumulative recovery in skin (washed and tape stripped), excreta, tissues, and carcass, absorption was permethrin ~ bifenthrin > deltamethrin at 24 h and permethrin > deltamethrin > bifenthrin at 120 h. Using the parallelogram approach with published in vitro data, human dermal absorption of these pyrethroids was estimated to be <10% of the dose.
... Indoor dust samples (n = 50) were collected at the home visit. Sampling methods used hard surface wipe collection procedures previously developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in a national exposure survey (Stout et al., 2009;Tulve et al., 2006). Pre-cleaned acrylic cloths were used for dust sample collection. ...
Although approximately 123 million people may be exposed to high levels of insecticides through the use of indoor residual spraying (IRS) for malaria control, few studies exist on indoor insecticide contamination due to IRS and its relationship with human exposure. In the present study, we developed a sampling method to collect undisturbed dust from 50 homes in Limpopo, South Africa, a region where dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) has been used in IRS programs to prevent malaria for ~70years. We quantified DDT and its degradation products, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD) in dust samples to determine dust loading levels and compared these levels to paired serum concentrations of p,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE in women residents. p,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE had the highest detection frequencies in both dust (58% and 34% detection, respectively) and serum samples (98% and 100% detection, respectively). Significantly higher detection frequencies for o,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDE, and p,p'-DDD were observed in dust samples collected in buildings that had been previously sprayed for malaria control. We also observed a significant, positive association between dust loading and serum concentrations of p,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE (Spearman's rho=0.68 and 0.54, respectively). Despite the low detection frequency in dust, our results indicate that undisturbed dust may be a good metric to quantify long-term home exposure to DDT-related compounds and that contamination of the home environment may be an important determinant/source of DDT and DDE exposure.
... Multiple harmful exposures have been detected in child care facilities. Studies of exposures in these facilities have found elevated levels of pesticides, which are associated with adverse neurodevelopmental and reproductive effects, as well as childhood cancers and cancers that develop later in life (Cohen, 2007;Cohen Hubal, Egeghy, Leovic, & Akland, 2006;Morgan et al., 2011;Tulve et al., 2006). Lead exposure is also a problem in child care facilities (Greenway & Gerstenberger, 2010). ...
Children are subject to multiple hazards on a daily basis, including in child care facilities. Research has shown that children in the child care setting may be exposed to lead, radon, pesticides, and multiple chemicals that are associated with known or suspected adverse health effects. The authors' study used an existing environmental health endorsement program to describe current practices of child care facilities as related to environmental health and safety. The facilities varied greatly in size and were located mainly in the U.S. with a few from Canada and Australia. A few checklist items had nearly a 100% positive response rate; however, some of the items had more than 10% of the facilities answer "false" or "don't know." Although many areas exist in which these sampled child care facilities are being environmentally responsible, further education is needed, particularly as related to the use of wall-to-wall carpeting, radon testing, aerosols, and air fresheners.
The paper reports a multiresidue method that was validated on 220 multi-class pesticides in three major Indian soils, namely, (i) new alluvial soil (NAS); (ii) red lateritic soil (RS) and (iii) black soil (BS) from three different regions. An ethyl acetate-based extraction method with a freezing-out cleanup step was employed for sample preparation, followed by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric analysis. The method that was initially optimized on BS worked satisfactorily for the other two soil matrices. At the spiking level of 10 µg/kg (LOQ), the recoveries were satisfactory (within 70–120%) with precision-RSDs, ≤20% (n = 6) for 85, 88.6, and 89% of compounds in BS, RS, and NAS respectively. At 20 µg/kg, the method performance was satisfactory in each soil for all pesticides. When this validated method was applied to analyse 25 field samples, 6 pesticides were detected in them. In each case, precision (RSD) was <20%. The method sensitivity, accuracy and precision complied with the SANTE/2020/12830 guidelines. The method can be applied for environmental monitoring and risk assessment purposes, thus aiding in regulating pesticide usage in agricultural fields. The limitations and future scope of the study are also discussed.
• Highlights
• A multiresidue method is reported for simultaneous analysis of multi-class pesticides in diverse soils
• The method was validated on 220 pesticides in new alluvial, red lateritic and black soils
• Sample preparation involved extraction with ethyl acetate and cleanup by a freezing step
• The residues were estimated by gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS)
• The method accuracy and precision complied with the EU’s SANTE guidelines
Pesticide misuse incidents are reported worldwide each year. The potential exposure to pesticides creates a concern for occupants in affected homes, apartments, and other occupied buildings. Pesticides that are improperly applied within these locations may require remediation prior to reoccupation. Incident response personnel rely heavily on data from sampling results to identify residue levels and determine when site remediation is complete. Surface wipe samples are often collected for this purpose. Therefore, it is important to ensure sampling and analysis procedures are well established for the contaminants of concern, particularly for wipe sampling variables that can affect analysis results. This investigation evaluated the effects of surface wipe media, wipe wetting solvents, pesticide concentrations effects, composite sampling, surface types, and pesticide formulation effects on analysis results for fipronil, permethrin, and deltamethrin. Tested surface types included galvanized steel, vinyl tile, and plywood. Wipe media included pre-packaged, sterile cotton gauze, pre-cleaned cotton twill, and a pre-packaged, pre-wetted wipes. Surface recovery results are reported for commercially available fipronil formulations and compared to technical grade fipronil solutions. Fipronil recoveries were 92–107 % for twill wipes, 81–98 % for cotton gauze wipes, and 79 % for pre-packaged, pre-wetted wipes on a galvanized steel surface. Permethrin recoveries were 83–116 % for twill wipes, 66–94 % for cotton gauze wipes, and 73 % for pre-packaged, pre-wetted wipes on a galvanized steel surface. Deltamethrin recoveries were 67–88 % for twill wipes, 55–71 % for cotton gauze wipes, and 63 % for pre-packaged, pre-wetted wipes on a galvanized steel surface. The data collected in this study can inform surface wipe sampling methods and potentially assist in obtaining more accurate sampling data associated with pesticide misuse incidents involving the target analytes.
Little is known about the environmental health-related policies and practices of early care and education (ECE) programs that contribute to childhood asthma, particularly in Oklahoma where child asthma rates (9.8%) and rates of uncontrolled asthma among children with asthma (60.0%) surpass national rates (8.1% and 50.3%, respectively). We conducted a cross-sectional survey with directors of Oklahoma-licensed ECE programs to assess policies and practices related to asthma control and to evaluate potential differences between Centers and Family Childcare Homes (FCCHs). Surveyed ECEs (n = 476) included Centers (56.7%), FCCHs (40.6%), and other program types (2.7%). Almost half (47.2%) of directors reported never receiving any asthma training. More Center directors were asthma-trained than FCCH directors (61.0% versus 42.0%, p < 0.0001). Most ECEs used asthma triggers, including bleach (88.5%) and air fresheners (73.6%). Centers were more likely to use bleach daily than were FCCHs (75.6% versus 66.8%, p = 0.04). FCCHs used air fresheners more than did Centers (79.0% versus 61.0%, p < 0.0001). The majority of ECEs (74.8%) used pesticides indoors. Centers applied indoor pesticides more frequently (i.e., monthly or more often) than did FCCHs (86.0% versus 58.0%, p < 0.0001). Policy, educational, and technical assistance interventions are needed to reduce asthma triggers and improve asthma control in Oklahoma ECEs.
It is often advantageous to store collected environmental samples for future retrospective analyses. However, information about sample stability is necessary to determine if there will be analyte loss or gain or degradation under the specified storage conditions and storage period. Failure to evaluate stability could result in inaccurate results and biased exposure assessments. As part of the National Children’s Study pilot, we considered which types of environmental samples could be stored for extended periods of time. We conducted an extensive literature review and considered the conduct of long-term stability studies for environmental samples. We present our findings and experience below as guidance for consideration by the environmental research community.
Pesticide misuse incidents in residential indoor areas are typically associated with misapplications that are inconsistent with the label directions of the product. Surface wipe sampling and analysis procedures are relied upon to evaluate the extent of indoor contamination and the remediation efforts successfully. In general, surface wipe sampling procedures are widely varied, which can complicate the comparison of the results and data interpretation. Wipe sampling parameters were studied for the insecticides malathion and carbaryl. The parameters evaluated include wipe media, wetting solvents, composite sampling, surface concentration, and the influence of differing product formulations. Porous and nonporous surfaces tested include vinyl tile, plywood and painted drywall (porous/permeable) and stainless steel and glass (nonporous/impermeable). Specific wipe materials included pre-packaged sterile-cotton gauze, pre-cleaned cotton twill, cotton balls, and a pre-packaged, pre-wetted wipe. Commercially available insecticide formulations were tested, and the results were compared to surfaces fortified with neat analytes to determine surface recovery results (efficiency). A sampling procedure to measure pesticide residues was developed, and variables associated with the sampling methods were evaluated to clarify how estimations of surface residues are impacted. Malathion recoveries were 73–86% for twill and pre-wetted, pre-packaged isopropanol wipes on nonporous materials. Malathion formulations ranged from 78 to 124% for pre-wetted, pre-packaged isopropanol wipes and cotton gauze wipes on nonporous materials. Carbaryl and carbaryl formulation recoveries were 82–115% and 77–110%, respectively, on nonporous surfaces for all tested wipe materials. While not every wipe sampling variable could be tested, the collected information from this study may be useful and applied to sampling plans for classes of chemicals with similar physicochemical properties.
Due to their intensive use in agricultural and residential pest control, human exposure to residues of multiple pyrethroids frequently occurs. Pyrethroids have exceptionally high affinity for solid particles, highlighting the need to understand human exposure through oral ingestion of contaminated soil or dust particles. In this study, we used artificial gastrointestinal fluids to measure the desorption or bioaccessibility of eight current-use pyrethroids in soil and dust samples. Tenax was further included as a sink in parallel treatments to simulate the effect of removal due to transfer of pyrethroids to lipid membranes. The use of 0.4 g of Tenax in 20 mL digestive fluids resulted in rapid and efficient trapping of pyrethroids, and further, greatly increased bioaccessibility. In the artificial digestive fluids without Tenax, 6.0-48.0% of pyrethroids were desorbed over 21 h, and the fractions increased by 1.6-4.1 folds to 21.5-79.3% with the Tenax sink. Therefore, 6.0-79.3% of soil or dust-borne pyrethroids may be considered bioavailable upon ingestion. While protein and sucrose increased the estimated bioaccessibility, co-presence of lipid (vegetable oil) decreased the bioaccessibility of pyrethroids, likely due to competitive phase partition. Pyrethroids were also found to be unstable in the artificial intestinal fluid containing pancreatin, further decreasing the potential bioaccessibility of pyrethroids on soil or dust particles. The limited bioaccessibility should be considered to refine the prediction of human exposure and risk through oral ingestion of pyrethroid residues.
Pyrethroids are a class of neurotoxic insecticides and some studies have used single‐time wiping of hard surface flooring to estimate indoor pyrethroid concentrations. Considering that human activities may affect concentrations, knowledge of temporal variability is needed to reduce the uncertainty of exposure estimates that are calculated using wipe sampling of pyrethroids in occupied housing.
During weeks one, two, and six of a six‐week study, two wipe samples of hard surface kitchen flooring were collected in each of 50 occupied residences and used to estimate the temporal variability of eight pyrethroids and six pyrethroid degradation products. Beginning one month prior to sample collection, the participants kept pesticide usage diaries.
All pyrethroids were widely distributed among the houses and co‐occurrence of multiple pyrethroids was common and structured. Application diaries and detection frequencies appeared unconnected but the applications were correlated with measurable changes in pyrethroid concentrations. In general, degradation products were detected less frequently and at lower concentrations than their parent pyrethroids. Estimates of the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) for individual pyrethroids ranged from 0.55 (bifenthrin) to 0.80 (deltamethrin), and two sampling events at each residence would have been sufficient to estimate the mean concentration of most pyrethroids with an ICC of 0.80.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Human-environment interactions have a significant role in the formation of chemical mixtures in the environment and by extension in human tissues and fluids. These interactions, which include decisions to purchase and use products containing chemicals as well as behaviors and activities that explain the uptake and absorption of chemicals, may be viewed as an ecological relationship between humans and their environments. Methods with origins in community ecology for evaluating structure in assemblages of flora and fauna are applied to investigate the nonrandom assembly of chemical species. Presence-absence matrix-based techniques are used to elaborate co-occurrence patterns with the aim of identifying the principal chemicals which tend to co-occur. This ecological premise is expanded by drawing on consumer market basket analysis techniques to show how this approach may help identify robust co-occurrence patterns.
Children spend as much as ten hours per day, five days a week in childcare centers and preschools. In providing healthy environments, these facilities deal with a variety of pest and pesticide issues influenced by their geographic location, local environment, and pesticide regulations. Some rely extensively on pesticides while others use integrated practices to address pest problems. Reducing the unnecessary exposure of children to pests and pesticides can be an important public health measure. Surveys, webinars, and an outreach project were used to demonstrate the dependence of childcare centers on pesticides. Webinars and on-site visits were effective in inform child care administrators and staff about an integrated approach to pest management that reduces the unnecessary exposure of children to pests and pesticides.
Although many U.S. children spend time in child care, little information exists on exposures to airborne particulate matter (PM) in this environment, even though PM may be associated with asthma and other respiratory illness, which is a key concern for young children. To address this data gap, we measured ultrafine particles (UFP), PM2.5 , PM10 , and black carbon in 40 California child care facilities and examined associations with potential determinants. We also tested a low-cost optical particle measuring device (Dylos monitor). Median (inter-quartile range) concentrations for indoor UFP, gravimetric PM2.5 , real-time PM2.5 , gravimetric PM10 , and black carbon over the course of a child care day were 14,000 (11,000 - 29,000) particles/cm(3) , 15 (9.6-21) μg/m(3) , 15 (11-23) μg/m(3) , 48 (33-73) μg/m(3) , and 0.43 (0.25-0.65) ng/m(3) , respectively. Indoor black carbon concentrations were inversely associated with air exchange rate (Spearman's rho = -0.36) and positively associated with the sum of all Gaussian-adjusted traffic volume within a one kilometer radius (Spearman's rho = 0.45) (p-values<0.05). Finally, the Dylos may be a valid low-cost alternative to monitor PM levels indoors in future studies. Overall, results indicate the need for additional studies examining particle levels, potential health risks, and mitigation strategies in child care facilities. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Pyrethroids, a class of insecticides that are widely used worldwide, have been identified as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Our recent epidemiological study reported on an association of increased pyrethroids exposure with elevated gonadotropins levels and earlier pubertal development in Chinese boys. In this study, we further investigated the effects of cypermethrin (CP), one of the most ubiquitous pyrethroid insecticides, on hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis and pubertal onset in male animal models. Early postnatal exposure to CP at environmentally relevant doses (0.5, 5 and 50 μg/kg CP) significantly accelerated the age of puberty onset in male mice. Administration of CP induced a dose-dependent increase in serum levels of luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and testosterone in male mice. CP did not affect gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) gene expression in the hypothalamus, but CP at higher concentrations stimulated GnRH pulse frequency. CP could induce the secretion of LH and FSH as well as the expression of gonadotropin subunit genes [chorionic gonadotropin α (CGα), LHβ and FSHβ] in pituitary gonadotropes. CP stimulated testosterone production and the expression of steroidogenesis-related genes [steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) and Cytochrome p 450, family 11, subfamily A, polypeptide 1 (CYP11A1)] in testicular Leydig cells. The interference with hypothalamic sodium channels as well as calcium channels in pituitary gonadotropes and testicular Leydig cells is responsible for CP-induced HPG axis maturation. Our findings established in animal models provide further evidence for the biological plausibility of pyrethroid exposure as a potentially environmental contributor to earlier puberty in males.
A primary mode of action of all pyrethroid insecticides (PYRs) is the disruption of the voltage-gated sodium channel electrophysiology in neurons of target pests and nontarget species. The neurological actions of PYRs on non-neuronal cells of the nervous system remain poorly investigated. In the present work, we used C6 astrocytoma cells to study PYR actions (0.1-50 μM) under the hypothesis that glial cells may be targeted by and vulnerable to PYRs. To this end, we characterized the effects of bifenthrin (BF), tefluthrin (TF), α-cypermethrin (α-CYP), and deltamethrin (DM) on the integrity of nuclear, mitochondrial and lysosomal compartments. In general, 24-48 h exposures produced concentration-related impairment of cell viability. In single-compound, 24-h exposure experiments, EC15s (MTT assay) were computed as follows (in μM): BF, 16.1; TF, 37.3; α-CYP, 7.8; DM, 5.0. We found concentration-related damage in several C6-cell subcellular compartments (mitochondria, nuclei, lysosomes) at ≥10⁻¹μM levels. Last, we examined a mixture of all PYRs (i.e., Σ individual EC15) using MTT assays and subcellular analyses. Our findings indicate that C6 cells are responsive to nM levels of PYRs, suggesting that astroglial susceptibility may contribute to the low-dose neurological effects caused by these insecticides. This research further suggests that C6 cells may provide relevant information as a screening platform for pesticide mixtures targeting nervous system cells by expected and unexpected toxicogenic pathways potentially contributing to clinical neurotoxicity.
Young children and early care and education (ECE) staff are exposed to pesticides used to manage pests in ECE facilities in the United States and elsewhere. The objective of this pilot study was to encourage child care programs to reduce pesticide use and child exposures by developing and evaluating an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Toolkit for child care providers and staff. A multidisciplinary team developed an English- and Spanish-language IPM Toolkit for child care staff that included an IPM curriculum booklet, IPM Checklist, 11 pest-specific information sheets, and 4 educational posters. The intervention included manager interviews, educational workshops about pests and IPM, a box of ready-to-use IPM tools, an assessment of pest problems using a pilot, 72-item IPM Checklist, and photographs of identified problems. One hundred and seven staff at nine child care centers serving 854 ethnically diverse children were trained. Pre- and post-intervention manager interviews, IPM knowledge forms, and assessments using the IPM Checklists were conducted. Results showed positive changes in IPM policies, awareness, practices, management, and the prevalence of pest problems 4 to 6 months after intervention. The IPM Checklist identified improvements on 34 out of 50 items (68%) and positive changes in reducing pest infestations (100%). Manager interviews revealed positive experiences with IPM and support and satisfaction with the IPM workshop and Toolkit.
This chapter focuses on the direct measurement methods used in observational human exposure studies and includes approaches employed in the design of observational studies and considerations that should be addressed during study design and implementation. State-of-the-science sample collection methods and considerations for the selection of methods used for estimating exposures associated with different routes and pathways of exposure are discussed. This discussion also includes the general principles and state-of-the-science analytical methods used to measure pesticides and metabolites in environmental media, diet samples, and biological samples. The measurement of pesticides or pesticide metabolites in biological specimens, known as biomonitoring, is an important tool used to evaluate human exposure. Modeling is another important tool used to support exposure assessments. Despite the significant advances in biomonitoring and modeling tools, there is a continuing need to perform measurements of pesticides and pesticide metabolites in environmental media and to collect ancillary information to assess exposures. Measurement studies that incorporate the normal activities of people in their everyday environments fall under the category of studies described as observational exposure studies. Various approaches are available for assessing human exposure to pesticides. Direct methods involve measurements of pesticides and/or their metabolites in environmental media, diet samples, and/or biological media. These data and selected ancillary information are used in simple algorithms, statistical methods, and models to estimate exposures. However, the development of sampling and analysis methods for pesticides will continue to be a challenge with the nearly continuous introduction of new active ingredients and formulations.
The widespread use of pyrethroids as insecticides has resulted in exposure of much of the U.S. populace, including pregnant women and children. Greater susceptibility of preweanling rats to high doses of pyrethroids has led to concern that infants and children may be more sensitive than adults to neurotoxic effects at contemporary exposure levels. Research has shown that preweanling rats' low metabolic detoxification capacity is a major contributor to elevated blood and brain levels of the neurotoxic parent compounds. The Council for the Advancement of Pyrethroid Human Risk Assessment (CAPHRA) is initiating a series of research projects to learn more about factors that may contribute to age-dependent sensitivity to pyrethroids, and for their incorporation into physiological models capable of accurately predicting target organ (brain) dosimetry and toxicity in different age-groups for different exposure scenarios. In our own laboratory, CAPHRA is sponsoring investigations of age- and species-dependent: pyrethroid transportation in blood (plasma protein and lipoprotein binding); tissue:blood distribution; and blood-brain barrier (BBB) gastrointestinal (GI) barrier efficiency, including the potential role of GI and BBB efflux transporters. Experiments are underway with Caco-2 cells to characterize GI membrane flux and to learn whether pyrethroids are substrates for P-glycoprotein or other transporters.
Fipronil is a phenylpyrazole insecticide first registered in U.S. in 1996 and in California, is exclusively used for urban structural pest control and landscape maintenance. Although commonly found in urban waterways, runoff potential of fipronil from urban surfaces was seldom assessed, and with different physicochemical properties, conclusions obtained from pyrethroid runoff may not be applicable to fipronil. We conducted a field study by placing concrete blocks in real environment, treating the surfaces with fipronil, and analyzing surface runoff after simulated or natural precipitation. Isopropanol-wetted sponges were simultaneously used to wipe concrete surfaces for runoff prediction. The results showed during repeated precipitations fipronil residue could remain on the concrete for up to 3 months, and fipronil could still be detected in natural rainfall-induced runoff even 7 months after fipronil treatment. Compared to pyrethroids, fipronil has better water transferability. The wash-off in Day 1 was 2.1 ± 0.7 % of applied amount, higher than 0.8 ± 0.5 % for bifenthrin and 0.7 ± 0.5 % for permethrin. However, fipronil is less persistent, and the runoff half-life was 17.2 d. Unlike pyrethroids, 81.1-96.7 % of runoff fipronil was dissolved in the aqueous phase, implying the potential for long-distance transport and better bioavailability. The surface wiping method successfully measured fipronil on concrete, and the same linear model developed for pyrethroids could be also used on fipronil, even for different precipitation schemes and after different periods of post-treatment exposure.
1. Pyrethroids are neurotoxic and parent pyrethroid appears to be toxic entity. This study evaluated the oral disposition and bioavailability of bifenthrin in the adult male Long-Evans rat.
2. In the disposition study, rats were administered bifenthrin (0.3 or 3 mg/kg) by oral gavage and serially sacrificed (0.25 h to 21 days). Blood, liver, brain and adipose tissue were removed. In the bioavailability study, blood was collected serially from jugular vein cannulated rats (0.25 to 24 h) following oral (0.3 or 3 mg/kg) or intravenous (0.3 mg/kg) administration of bifenthrin. Tissues were extracted and analyzed for bifenthrin by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS).
3. Bifenthrin concentration in blood and liver peaked 1–2-h postoral administration and were approximately 90 ng/ml (or g) and 1000 ng/ml (or g) for both tissues at 0.3 and 3 mg/kg, respectively. Bifenthrin was rapidly cleared from both blood and liver. Brain concentrations peaked at 4–6 h and were lower than in blood at both doses (12 and 143 ng/g). Bifenthrin in adipose tissue peaked at the collected time points of 8 (157 ng/g) and 24 (1145 ng/g) h for the 0.3 and 3 mg/kg doses, respectively and was retained 21 days postoral administration. Following intravenous administration, the blood bifenthrin concentration decreased bi-exponentially, with a distribution half-life of 0.2 h and an elimination half-life of 8 h. Bifenthrin bioavailability was approximately 30%. These disposition and kinetic bifenthrin data may decrease uncertainties in the risk assessment for this pyrethroid insecticide.
Many people assume that schools and childcare centers are environmentally safe places for children to learn. However, adverse health effects from pest allergy related illnesses or pesticide exposure incidents can demonstrate the need for safer and more effective pest management strategies. The goal of this research is to measure the efficacy of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Webinar training sessions given to childcare administrators to ultimately protect children's health by protecting children from pest and pesticide exposures in childcare centers. Over the years, numerous IPM initiatives have focused on evaluating and reducing the use of pesticides in K–12 schools; however, until recently, the 0–6 year age group has only marginally been the focus of such efforts. Due to reductions in training and travel budgets, many childcare conferences and workshops have been reduced or eliminated, and replaced by Web-based trainings. An additional goal is to collect a snapshot of pesticide use in childcare facilities via the Webinar venue.
To examine child characteristics (age, gender) and child care center environments (socioemotional quality, physical safety) that jointly predict injuries for preschool children.
A two year prospective study of 360 preschool children, ages 2-6 years, was conducted in four urban child care centers. Composite scores for center quality and physical safety were derived from on-site observations, and injury rates were based on teacher reports. Poisson regression analyses examined age, gender, center quality, center safety, and the interactions of gender with quality and safety as predictors of injury incidence over one child year.
Age was significantly associated with injury rates, with younger children sustaining higher rates. An interaction between gender and center quality also significantly predicted injury incidence: girls in low quality centers experienced more injuries, while girls in high quality centers sustained fewer injuries than their male peers. Finally, an interaction between gender and center safety showed that girls in high safety centers sustained more injuries than boys, while girls in low safety centers sustained fewer injuries.
Injuries occur even in relatively safe environments, suggesting that in child care settings, the socioemotional context may contribute, along with physical safety, to the incidence of injury events. Further, gender specific differences in susceptibility to environmental influences may also affect children's vulnerability and risks of injuries. The prevention of injuries among preschool children may thus require attention to and modifications of both the physical and socioemotional environments of child care.
The concentrations of a suite of persistent organic chemicals were measured in multiple media in 10 child day care centers located in central North Carolina. Five centers served mainly children from low-income families, as defined by the federal Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) assistance program, and five served mainly children from middle-income families. The targeted chemicals were chosen because of their probable carcinogenicity, acute or chronic toxicity, or hypothesized potential for endocrine system disruption. Targeted compounds included polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pentachloro- and nonyl-phenol, bisphenol-A, dibutyl and butylbenzyl phthalate, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides, the organophosphate pesticides diazinon and chlorpyrifos, and the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4D). Sampled media were indoor and outdoor air, food and beverages, indoor dust, and outdoor play area soil. Concentrations of the targeted compounds were determined using a combination of extraction and analysis methods, depending on the media. Analysis was predominantly by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) or gas chromatography with electron capture detection (GC/ECD). Concentrations of the targeted pollutants were low and well below the levels generally considered to be of concern as possible health hazards. Potential exposures to the target compounds were estimated from the concentrations in the various media, the children's daily time-activity schedules at day care, and the best currently available estimates of the inhalation rates (8.3 m(3)/day) and soil ingestion rates (100 mg/day) of children ages 3-5. The potential exposures for the target compounds differed depending on the compound class and the sampled media. Potential exposures through dietary ingestion were greater than those through inhalation, which were greater than those through nondietary ingestion, for the total of all PAHs, the phenols, the organophosphate pesticides, and the organochlorine pesticides. Potential exposures through dietary ingestion were greater than those through nondietary ingestion, which were greater than those through inhalation, for those PAHs that are probable human carcinogens (B2 PAH), the phthalate esters, and 2,4D. For the PCBs, exposures through inhalation were greater than those through nondietary ingestion, and exposures through dietary ingestion were smallest. Differences in targeted compound levels between the centers that serve mainly low-income clients and those that serve mainly middle-income clients were small and depended on the compound class and the medium.
Young children, because of their immaturity and their rapid development compared to adults, are considered to be more susceptible to the health effects of environmental pollutants. They are also more likely to be exposed to these pollutants, because of their continual exploration of their environments with all their senses. Although there has been increased emphasis in recent years on exposure research aimed at this specific susceptible population, there are still large gaps in the available data, especially in the area of chronic, low-level exposures of children in their home and school environments. A research program on preschool children's exposures was established in 1996 at the USEPA National Exposure Research Laboratory. The emphasis of this program is on children's aggregate exposures to common contaminants in their everyday environments, from multiple media, through all routes of exposure. The current research project, "Children's Total Exposure to Persistent Pesticides and Other Persistent Organic Pollutants," (CTEPP), is a pilot-scale study of the exposures of 257 children, ages 1(1/2)-5 years, and their primary adult caregivers to contaminants in their everyday surroundings. The contaminants of interest include several pesticides, phenols, polychlorinated biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and phthalate esters. Field recruitment and data collection began in February 2000 in North Carolina and were completed in November 2001 in Ohio. This paper describes the design strategy, survey sampling, recruiting, and field methods for the CTEPP study.
Epidemiologic studies have used both questionnaires and carpet dust sampling to assess residential exposure to pesticides. The consistency of the information provided by these two approaches has not been explored. In a population-based case-control study of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, carpet dust samples were collected from the homes of 513 control subjects in Detroit, Iowa, Los Angeles, and Seattle. The samples were taken from used vacuum cleaner bags and analyzed for 30 pesticides. Interviewers queried subjects about the types of pests treated in their home using a detailed questionnaire accompanied by visual aids. Geographic variations in pesticide levels were generally consistent with geographic differences in pest treatment practices. Los Angeles residents reported the most treatment for crawling insects, fleas/ticks, and termites, and Los Angeles dust samples had the highest levels of propoxur, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, permethrin, and chlordane. Iowa had the most treatment for lawn/garden weeds, and also the highest levels of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and dicamba. Although Seattle had the highest proportion of subjects treating for lawn/garden insects, the lawn/garden insecticides were higher in other sites. Multivariate linear regression revealed several significant associations between the type of pest treated and dust levels of specific pesticides. The strongest associations were between termite treatment and chlordane, and flea/tick treatment and permethrin. Most of the significant associations were consistent with known uses of the pesticides; few expected associations were absent. The consistency between the questionnaire data and pesticide residues measured in dust lends credibility to both methods for assessing residential exposure to pesticides. The combined techniques appear promising for epidemiologic studies. Interviewing is the only way to assess pesticide exposures before current carpets were in place. Dust sampling provides an objective measure of specific compounds to which a person may have been exposed through personal use of a pesticide or by drift-in or track-in from outside, and avoids recall bias.
As part of the Children's Total Exposure to Persistent Pesticides and Other Persistent Organic Pollutants (CTEPP) study, we investigated the exposures of preschool children to chlorpyrifos and its degradation product 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCP) in their everyday environments. During this study, the participants were still able to purchase and apply chlorpyrifos at their homes or day care centers. Participants were recruited randomly from 129 homes and 13 day care centers in six North Carolina counties. Monitoring was performed over a 48-h period at the children's homes and/or day care centers. Samples that were collected included duplicate plate, indoor and outdoor air, urine, indoor floor dust, play area soil, transferable residues (PUF roller), and surface wipes (hand, food preparation, and hard floor). The samples were extracted and analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Chlorpyrifos was detected in 100% of the indoor air and indoor floor dust samples from homes and day care centers. TCP was detected at homes and day care centers in 100% of the indoor floor dust and hard floor surface wipe, in >97% of the solid food, and in >95% of the indoor air samples. Generally, median levels of chlorpyrifos were higher than those of TCP in all media, except for solid food samples. For these samples, the median TCP concentrations were 12 and 29 times higher than the chlorpyrifos concentrations at homes and day care centers, respectively. The median urinary TCP concentration for the preschool children was 5.3 ng/ml and the maximum value was 104 ng/ml. The median potential aggregate absorbed dose (ng/kg/day) of chlorpyrifos for these preschool children was estimated to be 3 ng/kg/day. The primary route of exposure to chlorpyrifos was through dietary intake, followed by inhalation. The median potential aggregate absorbed dose of TCP for these children was estimated to be 38 ng/kg/day, and dietary intake was the primary route of exposure. The median excreted amount of urinary TCP for these children was estimated to be 117 ng/kg/day. A full regression model of the relationships among chlorpyrifos and TCP for the children in the home group explained 23% of the variability of the urinary TCP concentrations by the three routes of exposure (inhalation, ingestion, dermal absorption) to chlorpyrifos and TCP. However, a final reduced model via step-wise regression retained only chlorpyrifos through the inhalation route and explained 22% of the variability of TCP in the children's urine. The estimated potential aggregate absorbed doses of chlorpyrifos through the inhalation route were low (median value, 0.8 ng/kg/day) and could not explain most of the excreted amounts of urinary TCP. This suggested that there were other possible sources and pathways of exposure that contributed to the estimated potential aggregate absorbed doses of these children to chlorpyrifos and TCP. One possible pathway of exposure that was not accounted for fully is through the children's potential contacts with contaminated surfaces at homes and day care centers. In addition, other pesticides such as chlorpyrifos-methyl may have also contributed to the levels of TCP in the urine. Future studies should include additional surface measurements in their estimation of potential absorbed doses of preschool children to environmental pollutants. In conclusion, the results showed that the preschool children were exposed to chlorpyrifos and TCP from several sources, through several pathways and routes. .
Objectives —To examine child characteristics (age, gender) and child care center environments (socioemotional quality, physical safety) that jointly predict injuries for preschool children.
Methods —A two year prospective study of 360 preschool children, ages 2–6 years, was conducted in four urban child care centers. Composite scores for center quality and physical safety were derived from on-site observations, and injury rates were based on teacher reports. Poisson regression analyses examined age, gender, center quality, center safety, and the interactions of gender with quality and safety as predictors of injury incidence over one child year.
Results —Age was significantly associated with injury rates, with younger children sustaining higher rates. An interaction between gender and center quality also significantly predicted injury incidence: girls in low quality centers experienced more injuries, while girls in high quality centers sustained fewer injuries than their male peers. Finally, an interaction between gender and center safety showed that girls in high safety centers sustained more injuries than boys, while girls in low safety centers sustained fewer injuries.
Conclusions —Injuries occur even in relatively safe environments, suggesting that in child care settings, the socioemotional context may contribute, along with physical safety, to the incidence of injury events. Further, gender specific differences in susceptibility to environmental influences may also affect children's vulnerability and risks of injuries. The prevention of injuries among preschool children may thus require attention to and modifications of both the physical and socioemotional environments of child care.
Objective:
To determine the risk of lead poisoning among children enrolled in day care centers with elevated environmental lead burdens.Design:
Survey.Setting:
Six day care centers on properties owned by a major state-supported university.Patients and Other Participants:
One hundred fifty-five of 234 eligible children (mean age, 4.8 years) enrolled in these centers were screened by questionnaire for risk factors of lead exposures. Blood samples for lead levels were also obtained. Observations of day care activities relative to lead exposure risks were recorded. Analyses of lead levels in paint, dust, and/or soil samples at the six centers were obtained.Main Outcome Measures:
Prevalence of elevated blood lead levels and associated behavioral risk factors for lead exposure in children attending day care centers.Results:
Elevated levels of lead in paint (2.4% to 40% lead) were present in all day care facilities. Three day care centers had elevated lead levels in windowsill dust (62 000 to 180 000 g of lead per square meter) or soil (530 to 1100 mg of lead per kilogram). Questionnaires documented low risk for lead exposure to children in the home environments. Direct observations in the day care setting revealed optimal supervision and hygiene of the children. Blood lead levels were less than 0.5 μmol/L (10 μg/dL) in all but one of the 155 children screened.Conclusions:
Children attending day care centers with high environmental lead burdens need further documentation of blood lead levels, at-risk behaviors, and lead exposure risks in the home environments as an adjunct to the instigation of lead abatement procedures at the day care centers.(Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1995;149:878-881)
To determine the risk of lead poisoning among children enrolled in day care centers with elevated environmental lead burdens.
Survey.
Six day care centers on properties owned by a major state-supported university.
One hundred fifty-five of 234 eligible children (mean age, 4.8 years) enrolled in these centers were screened by questionnaire for risk factors of lead exposures. Blood samples for lead levels were also obtained. Observations of day care activities relative to lead exposure risks were recorded. Analyses of lead levels in paint, dust, and/or soil samples at the six centers were obtained.
Prevalence of elevated blood lead levels and associated behavioral risk factors for lead exposure in children attending day care centers.
Elevated levels of lead in paint (2.4% to 40% lead) were present in all day care facilities. Three day care centers had elevated lead levels in windowsill dust (62,000 to 180,000 micrograms [corrected] of lead per square meter) or soil (530 to 1100 mg of lead per kilogram): Questionnaires documented low risk for lead exposure to children in the home environments. Direct observations in the day care setting revealed optimal supervision and hygiene of the children. Blood lead levels were less than 0.5 mumol/L (10 micrograms/dL) in all but one of the 155 children screened.
Children attending day care centers with high environmental lead burdens need further documentation of blood lead levels, at-risk behaviors, and lead exposure risks in the home environments as an adjunct to the instigation of lead abatement procedures at the day care centers.
Injuries represent the leading cause of death for children aged 0 to 12 years, and exposure to blood or bodily fluids at the time of injury may pose a health and safety problem. More than 800,000 injuries were reported in 2000, and many occurred in childcare programs. This survey examined rate, type, and extent of injuries in centers and the infection control practices employed by staff. Participants included 131 children aged six weeks to seven years, enrolled in two childcare programs in an urban setting. Eight hundred ninety-seven injury reports with 1,023 (126 simultaneous) injuries were recorded over a one-year period. Results indicated the majority of injuries (39%) were for bites and 11% were self-inflicted. Injuries were classified as minor (99%) or moderate (1%) with 73% receiving first aid by staff. Bleeding from injuries was minimal in 14% of injuries, while no injuries reported moderate or severe bleeding. The rate of medically attended (first aid treatment) injury was 5.31 per 100,000 child hours. Injury rates decreased with age in the center (P = .001), were higher for males (P = .036), and occurred most frequently in the morning (P = .001). Age, gender, and time of the day were significant predictors of injuries in the multivariate model.
Asthma is of increasing concern especially in industrialized countries. This cross-sectional study was to assess the influence of spatial and temporal variations in the urban air pollution profile on asthmatic disease. The prevalences presented are based on physician-diagnosed asthmatic and allergic disease data, collected between 1993 and 1995. Seven hundred and thirty-six preschool children (age 2 to 7, mean 5.7 years) of 37 daycare centres in the City of Leipzig participated in the study. Variations were observed in the lifetime prevalences of asthma and allergy with differences in a residential area's ambient pollution profile. Depending on the level of traffic (high or low), children residing in areas with a dominant coal-heating emission profile had more frequently a diagnosis of asthma, 17.5% and 8.8% (95% confidence intervals [CI]: 10.8...23.5 and 5.8...11.6, respectively), as compared to those, living in centrally heated areas 13.4% and 5.8% (CI: 6.6...19.3 and 1.2...9.6, respectively). Allergic disorders occurred more often in areas with a predominantly traffic-associated pollution profile, 14.3% and 9.6% vs. 5.8% and 3.7% (CI: 7.4...20.3 and 6.4...12.5; 1.2...9.6 and 0.2...6.5, respectively). Interestingly, asthmatic disease was not necessarily associated with a clinical history of allergies. Of the children with physician-diagnosed asthma, 83.7% were not reported to have a concurrent diagnosis of allergies nor to show clinical symptoms. This suggests that environmental exposures (i.e., complex pollution mixtures associated with residential coal-heating and/or traffic) may have differentially influenced the phenotypic expression of asthma. A qualitative discussion is presented on the occurrence of "asthma without reported allergies" in Leipzig.
Unlabelled:
Day care centers provide an important exposure arena with potential harmful health effects for children. This study has linked health effect data from a survey among 942 3-5-year-old Oslo children with information on day care center characteristics collected during inspection of the 175 day care centers these children attended. The aim of the study was to estimate associations between dampness problems and other building characteristics and several respiratory health outcomes. Dampness problems (sign of molds, water leakage, damage to floor/wall) were observed in 51% of the day care centers. In multiple logistic regression analyses none of the studied symptoms and diseases (nightly cough, blocked or runny nose without common cold, wheeze, heavy breathing or chest tightness, the common cold, tonsillitis/pharyngitis, otitis media, bronchitis, pneumonia, asthma, and allergic rhinitis) were systematically associated with dampness problems or type of ventilation in day care centers. None of the studied indicators of day care center exposures were found to have a clear effect on day care children's respiratory health. Even so this study does not rule out negative health effects of day care center exposures. The study demonstrates that population-based studies of these relations are demanding with regard to assessment of exposure and health outcomes.
Practical implications:
Simple and easy-to-register indicators of exposures like dampness problems and type of ventilation assessed in 175 day care centers were not related to respiratory health among 3-5-year-old Norwegian children attending the day care centers. The study does not rule out negative health effects of day care center exposures, but demonstrates methodological challenges needed to be addressed in studies of health effects of the day care environment.
First National Environmental Health Survey of Child Care Centers. Volume III: Design and Methodology
- D Marker
- A Fraser
- S M Viet
- M Bailey
- G Anderson
Marker, D.; Fraser, A.; Viet, S. M.; Bailey, M.; Anderson, G. First National Environmental Health Survey of Child Care Centers. Volume III: Design and Methodology; Final Report; Westat: Rockville, MD, July 15, 2003; www.hud.gov/offices/ lead/techstudies/survey.cfm.
First National Environmental Health Survey of Child Care Centers. Volume II: Analysis of Allergen Levels on Floors
- S M Viet
- J Rogers
- D Marker
- A Fraser
- M Bailey
Viet, S. M.; Rogers, J.; Marker, D.; Fraser, A.; Bailey, M. First National Environmental Health Survey of Child Care Centers. Volume II: Analysis of Allergen Levels on Floors; Final Report; Westat: Rockville, MD, July 15, 2003; www.hud.gov/office/lead/ techstudies/Volume_2_Allergen.pdf.
First National Environmental Health Survey of Child Care Centers. Volume IV: Data File Documentation www.hud.gov/offices/ lead/techstudies/survey
- J R Rogers
Rogers, J. R. First National Environmental Health Survey of Child Care Centers. Volume IV: Data File Documentation; Final Report; Westat: Rockville, MD, July 15, 2003; www.hud.gov/offices/ lead/techstudies/survey.cfm.
California Portable Class-rooms Study. Phase II: Main Study. Final Report, Volume II; RTI International: Research Triangle Park
- R Whitmore
- A Clayton
- G Akland
- S Davis
- J Cerhan
Whitmore, R.; Clayton, A.; Akland, G. California Portable Class-rooms Study. Phase II: Main Study. Final Report, Volume II; RTI International: Research Triangle Park, NC, 2003; www.arb. ca.gov/research/indoor/pcs/pcs-fr/pcs-fr.htm. (14) Colt, J. S.; Lubin, J.; Camann, D.; Davis, S.; Cerhan, J.;
Draft Protocol for Measuring Children's Non-Occu-pational Exposure to Pesticides by all Relevant Pathways
- U S Epa
U.S. EPA. Draft Protocol for Measuring Children's Non-Occu-pational Exposure to Pesticides by all Relevant Pathways; EPA/ 600/R-03/026; Office of Research and Development: Research Triangle Park, NC, 2001.
CPSC Staff Study of Safety Hazards in Child Care Settings
- Cpsc
CPSC. CPSC Staff Study of Safety Hazards in Child Care Settings;
Data File Documentation
- Westat
Westat: Rockville, MD, July 15, 2003; www.hud.gov/office/lead/ techstudies/Volume_2_Allergen.pdf. (11) Rogers, J. R. First National Environmental Health Survey of Child Care Centers. Volume IV: Data File Documentation; Final Report;
A Pilot Study of Children's Total Exposure to Persistent Pesticides and Other Persistent Organic Pollutants (CTEPP)
- J K Finegold
- K Hand
- S M Gordon
Finegold, J. K.; Hand, K.; Gordon, S. M. A Pilot Study of Children's Total Exposure to Persistent Pesticides and Other Persistent Organic Pollutants (CTEPP);
CPSC Staff Study of Safety Hazards in Child Care Settings; U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission
CPSC. CPSC Staff Study of Safety Hazards in Child Care Settings;
U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission: Washington, DC,
1999; www.cpsc.gov/library/ccstudy.html.