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Eighth Millennium Pottery from a Prehistoric Shell Midden in the Brazilian Amazon
Author(s): A. C. Roosevelt, R. A. Housley, M. Imazio da Silveira, S. Maranca, R. Johnson
Reviewed work(s):
Source:
Science,
New Series, Vol. 254, No. 5038 (Dec. 13, 1991), pp. 1621-1624
Published by: American Association for the Advancement of Science
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2879492 .
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from strong
coupling
to
low
frequency
modes (19).
In the
M3C60
materials, the
most obvious
low
frequency
modes are
C60-C60
intermolecular
vibrations or
C60
rotations.
Alternatively,
it has been sug-
gested
that the
M+ optical phonon
could
lead to strong
coupling (13).
High-fre-
quency
intramolecular
C60
modes, which
have
been
implicated
in
weak-coupling
analyses (2,
6), are unlikely to
yield
the
large
value
of
2A/kT,
determined
experi-
mentally.
Although
additional work
is
needed
to define whether
the electron-
phonon
interaction
is the
operative
cou-
pling
mechanism and if
so,
the mode rele-
vant
to
pairing,
our
finding
of
strong
coupling
should be accounted for
in mod-
els
of
superconductivity
in
these materials.
We
have also characterized the temperature
dependence
of A in both
K3C60
and Rb3C60
since this
can
provide
additional insight into
the
mechanism
of
superconductivity.
Repre-
sentative
normalized conductance
curves re-
corded on
K3C60
and theoretical fits to these
data
for 4.2 K
<
T
<
TC
are shown
in
Fig.
3.
Qualitatively,
we find that A decreases as
T
approaches
Tc,
and
disappears
for T
>
T,
We
have summarized the results
from
these
temperature-dependent
studies
of
A
for
K3C60
and
for
Rb3C60
by
plotting A(T/
A(4.2)
versus
T/T,
(Fig. 4).
This
figure
explicitly
shows that the normalized energy
gaps
of
Rb3C60
and
K3C60
exhibit
a similar
temperature
dependence,
and
furthermore,
that these data follow the universal
tempera-
ture
dependence
predicted by
BCS
theory.
Importantly,
our
A(T)
data indicate
that it
may
be
possible
to
explain superconductivity
using
a
mean-field
theory (like BCS)
modified
for
strong
coupling.
It is also
interesting
to
consider
real-space
models of superconduc-
tivity
since the coherence
lengths
in
these
materials
are so short
(t
=
25
A).
In
partic-
ular,
it has been
suggested
that a Bose-Ein-
stein condensation of real-space
pairs may
explain superconductivity
in the short coher-
ence
length
(tab
=
10
A) high-Ta
copper
oxide
materials
(20, 21).
Since
A(T)
should
exhibit
a
relatively sharp
transition near
Tc
in
a Bose-Einstein
condensation,
we
believe that
the observed
temperature dependence
of A
argues agamst
thus
interestmg possiblity.
In conclusion,
tunneling spectroscopy
has been used to define the
energy gap
in
the
M3C60 superconductors.
These
experi-
mental results
have shown that
(i)
the
pair
coupling
in these materials
is
strong, (ii)
the
energy gap
scales
with
Tc,
and
(iii)
the
energy gap
exhibits
a universal
tempera-
ture dependence. Regardless of the
mech-
anism of pairing in the M3C60 system,
we
believe that our
results will be important
constraints for
any
theoretical
explanation
of superconductivity in these
materials.
REFERENCES AND
NOTES
1.
A. F. Hebard et al., Nature 350, 600
(1991).
2. M. J. Rosseinsky
et
al.,
Phys. Rev.
Leut.
66,
2830
(1991).
3.
K. Holczer et al., Science 252,
1154 (1991).
4.
C.-C. Chen,
S. P.
Kelty,
C. M. Lieber, ibid.
253,
886
(1991).
5.
P. W.
Stephens
et al., Nature
351, 632 (1991).
6. R. M. Fleming
et
al.,
ibid.
352, 787
(1991).
7. K. Holczer et al., Phys. Rev.
Leu.
67, 271 (1991).
8.
Y.
J.
Uemura
et
al., Nature
352, 605 (1991).
9. G.
Sparn
et
al.,
Science
252,
1829 (1991).
10. J.
E.
Schirber
et al., Physica
C 178, 137 (1991).
11. Z. Zhang, C. C. Chen, S.
P.
Kelty,
H. Dai,
C. M.
Lieber,
Nature
353, 333 (1991).
12. S. C. Erwin and W. E. Pickett,
Science, in press.
13. F. C. Zhang, M. Ogata,
T. M. Rice, Phys.
Rev.
Leu.,
in
press.
14.
J.
Bardeen, L. N. Cooper,
J.
R. Schrieffer,
Phys.
Rev.
108,1175 (1957).
15. E. L.
Wolf, Principles of Tunneling
Spectroscopy
(Ox-
ford
University Press, New
York, 1989).
16. D.
V.
Averin and K.
K.
Likharev, J. Low Temp.
Phys. 62,
345
(1986).
17.
P. J. M. van
Bentum,
H.
van Kempen, L. E. C. van
de
Leemput, P.
A.
A.
Teunissen, Phys. Rev.
Letu.
60,
369
(1988);
R. Berthe and
J. Halbritter, Phys.
Rev.
B
43, 6880 (1991).
18. R. C. Dynes, V.
Narayanamurti, J. P. Garno,
Phys.
Rev.
Lett. 41, 1509
(1978).
19. B.
Mitrovic, C.
R.
Leavens, J.
P.
Carbotte, Phys.
Rev. B
21, 5048 (1980).
20. R.
Friedberg and
T. D.
Lee,
ibid.
40, 6745 (1989).
21. Z.
Schlesinger et al., ibid.
41, 11237 (1990); B. N.
J. Persson and J. E.
Demuth,
ibid.
42, 8057 (1990).
22. We
thank
Z.
Schlesinger and J. E. Demuth of IBM
for
helpful
discussions.
Supported by
the David and
Lucile
Packard, Alfred P.
Sloan, Camille and Henry
Dreyfus, and National
Science
Foundations
(C.M.L.).
13
October 1991; accepted
1
November 1991
Eighth
Millennium
Pottery from a
Prehistoric
Shell
Midden
in the
Brazilian Amazon
A. C. ROOSEVELT, R.
A.
HOUSLEY,
M.
IMAZIO DA
SILVEIRA,
S. MARANCA, R.
JOHNSON
The
earliest pottery yet found
in
the Western
Hemisphere
has been excavated from a
prehistoric
shell midden near Santarem in the lower
Amazon, Brazil. Calibrated
accelerator
radiocarbon dates on
charcoal, shell, and
pottery and a thermolumines-
cence
date on
pottery
from the site fall from about
8000 to 7000
years
before the
present.
The
early fishing village is
part of
a long
prehistoric
trajectory that contradicts
theories that resource
poverty limited cultural evolution in the
tropics.
A
MAZONIA
HAS BEEN DESCRIBED AS
sparsely
occupied by small Indian
groups in
prehistoric times. The re-
source
poverty of
the
tropical forest habitat
was
thought
to
have
precluded permanent
settlement, population
growth,
and cultural
development.
Complex
cultures with
pot-
tery
and
agriculture
were
supposed
to
have
spread
from the
Andes and Mesoamerica
and
decayed
in the
unfavorable
tropical
en-
vironment
(1-4).
Archeological evidence,
however,
reveals a
sequence
that
is
changing
understanding
of the
ecology
of cultural
evolution
in
the Americas. An
important
new finding
is
that the
age of pottery now
appears
to have
begun
earlier in Amazonia
than elsewhere in the
hemisphere.
Although
stereotyped
as
resource-poor
(5), Amazonia has
large
areas
of alluvial
soils
(6)
that would not have
presented
severe
limitations to human
adaptation.
In
fact,
A. C.
Roosevelt, Departmnent
of
Anthropology,
Field
Museum of Natural
History, Chicago,
60605-2496.
R. A.
Housley,
Radiocarbon
Accelerator
Unit,
Oxford
University,
Oxford, OXI
3QJ,
England.
M. Imazio da
Silveira,
Arqueologia,
Museu Paraense
Emilio
Goeldi,
CP
399,
66.000, Belem, PA,
Brazil.
S.
Maranca,
Museu de
Arqueologia
e
Etnologia,
Univer-
sidade de
Sao
Paulo,
Sao
Paulo, SP 42.503,
Brazil.
R.
Johnson, Zoology,
Museum of
Comparative
Zoolo-
gy,
Harvard
University,
Cambridge,
MA
02138.
researchers working
between 1830 and
1945 uncovered evidence for
cultural devel-
opment: deep
stratified middens, earth-
works, elaborate art
and artifacts, and abun-
dant ancient
biological remains (7-11).
Later, archeologists
dismissed this research
as
not scientific and focused on
excavating
pottery, assuming
most other material was
not preserved; they took
contemporary for-
agers
and
shifting
horticulturalists as
models
for
prehistory and
interpreted complex
cul-
tures as
ephemeral
foreign invasions (2-4).
This view was criticized on environmental
and archeological grounds
(12-14),
but it
persisted in the
empirical
vacuum and
54
6
Columbi
Peru
'
G
O
S 0
54
Fig. 1. Location of
Santarem
in Brazil.
13 DECEMBER
1991
REPORTS 1621
greatly influenced
natural scientists.
Recent archeological
research in the trop-
ical lowlands
east of the
Andes reveals
a
trajectory
of
development
from
Paleoindi-
ans, about
12,000 years
ago, to populous
agricultural
chiefdoms
by about 2000
years
ago (12,
14-19). An
important region
is
Santarem
on the
Amazon in Brazil
(Figs.
1
and 2).
There, geologically
heterogeneous
uplands
overlook late
Pleistocene
and Ho-
locene
floodplains, and
seasonal rainfall cre-
ates a mosaic of forests, savannas,
lakes, and
streams
with
plentiful fish,
game,
and
plant
food.
The human occupation
appears
to
have
begun
in the late
Pleistocene
with
nomadic
foragers
who made
large,
bifacial
projectile
points and left
paintings at rock
shelters
(9, 11, 18). Soon
after, people set-
tled into
villages along
rivers
and
began
to
make
pottery.
The early Holocene age of the large shell
middens at such villages in the Lower Am-
azon was recognized in the 19th century on
the basis of geologic evidence
(10-11),
but
mid-20th-century archeologists thought they
were only 1000 to 1400 years old (4). The
considerable age of shell midden pottery at
the
mouth
of the Amazon was established in
1981 when
sites
produced 19 dates between
about 4000 and 6600 years old (19). How-
ever,
most
archeologists have assumed that
the craft originated in northwestern South
America
(20), even though pottery there is
the
same age
or
younger than pottery from
the Amazon
estuary.
A riverine shell midden
identified
in the
last century as an early pottery-age fishing
village is Taperinha (Figs.
2
and 3). It was
excavated
in
1870-71 by geologist C.
F.
Hartt, a
student
of L.
Agassiz (11). We
obtained a radiocarbon date on shell
from
his excavations
(21),
but the
date
of 6665 to
6415
years
B.P.
(Table 1)
was inconclusive
because of
poor stratigraphic
context and
the
possibility that the shell was contaminat-
ed with extraneous carbon in the
ground
or
in the museum.
To
verify
the
chronology,
we excavated
there in 1987
(18).
The
mound,
reduced
since
1871 by lime-mining,
lies on an an-
cient shore under later
prehistoric
refuse and
colluvium. The team
mapped
its
topography
and
geophysics
and
placed
three test excava-
tions
(Fig. 4).
Test
1
cut
through
the
mound's
base, exposed by mining.
Test 2
cut the
upper
strata of the
mound,
and
test 3
cut
through
from
the top
to the base. The
excavations uncovered 48
strata
of
shells,
charcoal,
faunal
bone,
rocks, pottery frag-
ments,
rare human bone, and little soil.
Strata
were
hand-excavated
and sieved
with
graduated
mesh
(1/4
to
1/32 inch).
To
avoid
slumping
and
intrusions,
we took
samples
for
dating
from the basal strata
4
to 5
m
below
the
top
of the mound
(Fig. 5).
Radiometric dates were
computed
on
12
samples
of
shell, charcoal,
and
pottery (Ta-
ble
1).
Accelerator mass
spectrometry
(AMS)
radiocarbon
dating
was
performed
on
11
samples:
four
charcoal
pieces gradu-
ated;
five
shells;
and elemental
carbon and
humic/fuilvic
acids extracted from the
base
of
a
broken
pottery
vessel.
All dated
specimens
but
pottery
had been excavated
without
handling.
To
remove
depositional
contami-
nants,
charcoal
samples
were treated with a
dilute acid wash to remove
carbonates,
an
alkali wash to remove
humic and
fillvic
acids,
and a
further acid
wash to
prevent
incorporation
of
CO2 during drying.
The
dry product was oxidized to CO2 by heating
with CuO. The shell samples were surface
cleaned by shot-blasting with alumina pow-
der, etched to remove secondary carbonate,
S-;
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
otAlegr
Lago
Grandedo
Curaa
a
~~~~~~~~~~Lago dQdeA
(14~~~~~~e
ot
Alegre
ViaSFmanca
*-
-
I~tteredo
Chin
1Lha
MaICA
'
Taperinha
Fig.
2.
Location
of
Taperinha
in
Santar~m
region.
Fig.
3.
Taperinha,
a
pottery-age
shel
midden
in the Brazilian Ama-
;:
....
.
zon. The mound
stands 6 m tall and
;
N
occupies
several hectares
on
the
edge
of
an
ancient river
terrace.
70
Taperinha
shell
mound
Pa*,
Brazil
ContDur
interval
25 cm
Reference
elevation
10
m
w ,
S2
33 22'WI
119'21_
Data
c
Tes,MPoie
1st8 I!
Referencg 4.i Map of ecv
110 L
<
02f
120120
130
140
150 160
170
180
Fig.
4. M of
eavat
at sate with
mined
area at
Meters
North
rgt
1622
SCIENCE,
VOL. 254
~~~~- - 10
J
#
~~~~-
118_* I_
12~~~~~~~~~~~~~~l1
-_0
,0
10cm
Fg.
5.
Stratigraphy
in
test
1,
south cross
section.
(Darker
layers
of sand or
soil are
stippled
or
shaded.
Shells
are
shown as arcs
or
elipses
and
sherds as
rectangles. Charcoal
is
black,
and
rock
is
shaded.) Strata 1 and 2
(levels
1-3):
talus
fallen
from the
top
of the
mound onto lenses of soil
and
shell.
Strata 3-8
(levels
4-9):
shells, ash,
and soil
lenses.
Stratum 9
(level
10 and hearth
feature
2):
charcoal and ash lense with
bones, shells,
and
burnt
rocks on beach sand
reddened
by
heating.
Stratum
10
(levels
11
and
12):
charcoal
and ash
over
layer
of
pottery
fragments,
shells,
a few
bones,
and
burnt rocks
in
sand with a
post
mold.
Strata
11
and 12
(levels
13-16):
sand with base
of
post mold and rare
shell,
charcoal,
and
pottery.
and
treated
with
phosphoric
acid.
The
evolved
CO2
was
collected and
dried. The
pottery
was
processed
to
obtain
two
frac-
tions: humic acids and
elemental
carbon.
The
pottery
was
crushed,
ultrasonicated
in
HCI,
and the
lipids
removed
before the
humic
acids were
extracted with
NaOH.
The
elemental carbon was then
obtained
after
treatment
by
HF
and HCI to remove
inorganic
material.
Thermoluminescence
(TL)
dating
was
performed
on
another
piece
of the
same
pottery
dated
by
AMS
(laboratory
number
A
F
D
Fig.
6.
Pottery
vessel
fragments
from the
excava-
tions.
(A)
Incised rim
(stratum
l
OB,
level 12
base,
test
1).
(B)
Incised
sherd
(stratum 5B,
level
8B,
test
1). (C)
Incised
and
punctate
rim
(stratum 34,
step
4A,
level
2A,
test
3). (D)
Incised
rim
(stra-
um
29,
step
4A,
test
3).
Length,
7
cm.
Ox-581a36)
(22).
The
sample
was
dated
with
the
fine-grain
technique.
Before
mea-
surement',
the
sample
was
irradiated
and
stored at
900C for
two weeks to
remove
the
unstable TL
component
that
gives
rise
to
anomalous
fading.
The internal
annual
dose-
rate of
the
pottery fragment
was
measured
by
thick source
alpha counting
and
flame
photometry.
The
envirornmental
dose-rate
was
calculated
from
measurement
of
soil
blocks
excavated
near the sherd.
The
satura-
tion water
contents
of
both the
sherd
and
soil
were
measured,
and
it was
assumed
that
both
had been
fulfly
saturted
throughout
their
lifetimes, as
they
were
moist
when
excavated.
The
age,
7110
+
1422
years
B.P., is
quoted
with a
+20%
error
range
because of
uncertainties due to
incomplete
environmental
data,
uncertainties
about
the
degree of
lifetime
saturation of
the
sherd
and
soil, and the fact that the
date is
derived
from
a
single
sherd.
The radiometric
analyses
produced a se-
ries
of
quite
consistent
dates. The
1-sigma
ranges of the
11
AMS
radiocarbon dates fall
from
8025 to
7170 years B.P.,
a span
of
about
855
years
in
the
early part
of
the
culture. The
radiocarbon date on
Hartt's
shells,
6665
to
6415 years
B.P.,
extends
its
span
755
years.
The dates
on
associated
charcoal
and shell
are within
160 years
of
each
other,
and carbon
dates
from
pottery
differ at
most 215
years
from
the
nearest
charcoal
and shell
dates. The mean ther-
moluminescence
date
on
pottery falls
within
the
range
of
radiocarbon dates.
A
B.
C
_
Fig.
7. Prehistoric
freshwater
pearly
mussels from
the
excavations.
(A) Castalia
ambigua
(Lamarck).
(B)
Paxyodon
ponderosus
(Schumacher). (C)
Trip-
lodon
corrugatus
(Lamarck).
Length,
8 cm.
Table
1.
Radiocarbon dates
from
Taperinha (26).
CI, confidence
interval.
Uncalibrated
Calibrated
age
Lab no. Level
Material
age
(years
B.P.)
(years
B.P.)
68% CI
95%
CI
Conventional
radiocarbon
date
GX-12844
Calcined shell
5705
+
80
6665-6415
6730-6310
fragments
AMS
radiocarbon dates
OxA-1540 8B
Calcined
shell
6300
?
90
7290-7170
7425-6950
OxA-1541 10
Charcoal
fragment
6860
?
7770-7580
7920-7490
100
OxA-1542 10
Shell
7010
?
90
7930-7690
8030-7600
OxA-1760
10 F2 Charcoal
fragment
6880
?
80
7770-7590
7910-7530
OxA-1543 10 F2
Charcoal
fragment 6930
?
80
7905-7610
7930-7580
OxA-1544
10
F2
Charcoal
fragment
6980
?
80
7915-7685
8020-7590
OxA-1545 10 F2
Shell
7000
?
80
7920-7690
8025-7600
OxA-2431 12 base
Reduced carbon in
6590
?
7570-7365
7600-7280
pottery fragment 100
OxA-2432 12
base
Humic/fulvic
acids
6640 + 80
7580-7430
7600-7335
(same
fragment)
OxA-1546 13
top
Shell
7090
?
80
8025-7785
8050-7690
OxA-1547
13
top
Shell
7080
?
80
8025-7780
8050-7690
Table
2.
Pottery
in
test excavation
1.
Pottery
fragments (> 1
cm)
Levels
Taperinha
Santarem
culture
culture
Surface
20
7
Level
2
2
2
Level
3
11
2
Level
4
4
Level
5
10
Level
6
16
Level 7
31
Level 8
19
Level
9
8
Level
10/F2
5
Level
11
3
Level 12
18
Level
13 1
Level
14
0
Level
15/16
4
13
DECEMBER 1991
REPORTS
1623
These results are
strong
evidence for
the
antiquity
of the
culture because the different
materials
and
methods are not
considered
subject
to the
same sources of error.
The
statistically
identical
dates on shell
and
char-
coal indicate a
lack
of
contamination of
those
materials,
but
we cannot eliminate
the
possibility
that the
pottery
could have
been
slightly
contaminated with modern
carbon
from
handling
or
with
mobile
humic
acids
in
ground water.
The
fragile, red-brown
fragments
of pot-
tery
bowls
found
throughout the shell
mid-
den
(Table
2)
were
grit-tempered,
unlike
later,
organic-tempered
pottery. Of the 383
sherds, 3% have
incised
rim
decoration
(Fig.
6).
Although
similar
to some
othier
early
pottery,
Taperinha
pottery
is at least
1000
years
earlier than
northern
South American
pottery
and
3000
years
earlier than
Andean
and
Mesoamerican
pottery
and could
not be
derived from
them,
although
the
reverse is
possible,
or
independent
origins.
Lithic
artifacts were
limited
to
hammer-
stones,
flake
tools,
and
unshaped
grinding
and
cooking
stones. A bone
awl,
mollusc
and turtle shell
scrapers,
and a
plug
of
aquatic
mammal
bone were also
found. The
faunal
food
remains
represent
an
economy
of intensive
riverine
foraging.
Pearly
fresh-
water mussels
predominate
(Fig.
7),
and
turtles and fish,
mostly
catfish and
characins,
are common.
Plant remains
other
than
char-
coal are
rare,
although
abundant
in
later
deposits.
Foraging
apparently supported
rel-
atively permanent
settlement,
in view of
the
size of the
mound and the
pottery,
rare
among
nomads
without draft animals
(23).
In the
Old
World, early
pottery-age
societies
also subsisted on
fish and
shellfish,
resources
that
may
have
underwritten
incipient
horti-
culture
worldwide
(24).
Later
people
made elaborate
pottery
ves-
sels and
statues, groundstone
tools
and or-
naments of
nephrite
jade,
and
by
1000
years
ago
Santarem
was a center for
complex
societies with
large,
nucleated settlements
(8, 17, 18).
In
the
17th
century,
Europeans
encountered
populous
warlike
chieftaincies
supported
by
agriculture,
foraging, trade,
and tribute
(8,
18, 25).
They
defeated
them
and established
ranches and
plantations
with
forced labor.
By
about
1850,
indigenous
societies no
longer
existed in
the area.
The
developmental
sequence
at
San-
tarem
sheds
light
on human
adaptation
to
the
tropical
environment
over the millen-
nia,
revealing
that
tropical
resources
sup-
ported
the earliest
pottery-age
cultures
yet
known in the
Americas,
as
well
as
diverse
other cultures.
It does not show
that
the
environment
was a barrier to
development
or that
cultures necessarily came
from
oth-
er areas. The findings
illustrate the
frailty
of
evolutionary
scenarios that
rely on
negative
evidence from the
vast
tropical
lowlands,
where
little
systematic research has
been
done.
Lowland
archeology is
important
un-
tapped
evidence relevant
to
evolutionary
ecology,
conservation,
and
planning.
It
shows that
Amazon
floodplains
were
inten-
sively
exploited for
thousands of
years
and
may
be
more
appropriate
for
development
efforts than
poorer
hinterlands still
inhabit-
ed
by
native
groups vulnerable to
accultur-
ation and
extinction under
contact. Protect-
ing
Indians'
cultural and
territorial
integrity
and
ancient
occupation
sites is both
a
prac-
tical
and ethical
priority,
for
they hold
un-
assailable
ancestral
rights
to the land
and
indispensable
knowledge
about
effective,
long-term
management of
tropical
re-
sources.
REFERENCES AND
NOTES
1.
J.
E.
Jennings,
Ed.,
Prehistoric Man in the
New World
(Univ.
of
Chicago
Press,
Chicago,
1964); J.
H.
Steward, Ed., Bull. Bur. Am.
Ethnol. 143
(1946-
1950).
2.
B. J.
Meggers,
Am.
Anthropol.
56,
801
(1954);
Amazonia: Man
and
Nature in
Counterfeit
Paradise
(Aldine,
Chicago,
1971); in
Key
Environments:
Am-
azonia,
G. Prance and T.
Lovejoy,
Eds.
(Pergamon,
Oxford,
1985), pp. 307-327.
3. C.
Evans
and B.
J.
Meggers,
Smithson.
Contrib.
Anthropol.
(1968);
B.
J.
Meggers
and
C.
Evans,
Bull. Bur. Am.
Ethnol. 167
(1957).
4.
C.
Evans and B.
J.
Meggers,
Bull. Bur. Am.
Ethnol.
177
(1960).
5.
R. J.
A.
Goodland and
H. S.
Irwin,
AmazonJungk:
Green Hell to
Red
Desert?
(Elsevier,
Amsterdam,
1975).
6. G.
Irion,
in
The
Amazon:
Limnology
and
Landscape
Ecology of
a
Mighty
Tropical
River, H.
Sioli,
Ed.
(Junk,
Dordrecht, the
Netherlands,
1984), pp.
201-
213 and
pp.
537-579.
7.
L.
Netto,
Arch.
Mus. Nac.
6,
257
(1885);
0.
Derby,
Am.
Nat.
13,
224
(1879).
8.
C.
Nimuendaju, Bol.
Mus.
Paraense Emilio
Goeldi
10,
93
(1949).
9. C.
F.
Hartt,
Am. Nat.
5,
139
(1871);
A.
R.
Wallace,
in A
Narrative
of
Travels on
theAmazon and
Rio
Negro (Ward
Lock,
London,
1889), pp.
92-
111.
10.
D. S.
Ferreira
Penna,
Arch. Mus. Nac.
1,
85
(1876).
11.
C.
F.
Hartt, ibid.
6,
1
(1885);
H.
Smith, Brazil, the
Amazons and
the Coast
(Scribner's,
New
York,
1879).
12.
D.
W.
Lathrap,
The
Upper
Amazon
(Praeger,
New
York,
1970);
in
Origins
ofAgriculture,
C.
A.
Reed,
Ed.
(Mouton, The
Hague,
the
Netherlands,
1977),
pp.
713-752;
J.
Brochado and D.
W.
Lathrap,
Amazonia
(Univ. of
Illinois,
Urbana,
1982).
13. I.
Rouse, Am.
Antiq.
55,
188
(1953);
E.
Ferdon,
SouthwestJ.
Anthropol.
15,
1
(1959).
14.
A.
C.
Roosevelt,
Parmana:
Prehistoric
Maize and
Manioc
Subsistence
along
the Amazon and
Orinoco
(Academic
Press,
New
York,
1980).
15. Relevant citations
listed in A.
C.
Roosevelt,
Mound-
builders
of
the
Amazon:
Geophysical
Archaeology
on
Marajo
Island,
Brazil
(Academic
Press,
San
Diego,
1991); Excavations at
Corozal, Venezuela:
Stratigra-
phy
and
Ceramic
Seriation,
Yale
University
Publica-
tions in
Anthropology
81
(in
press);
Adv.
Econ. Bot.
9,30
(1989);
N. van
der
Merwe,
A.
C.
Roosevelt, J.
C.
Vogel,
Nature
292,
536
(1981);
I.
Rouse and L.
Allaire,
in
Chronologies in
New
WorldArcheology,
R.
E.
Taylor
and C.
W.
Meighan,
Eds.
(Academic
Press,
New
York,
1978), pp.
431-481.
16. U. Bezerra de
Meneses,
Arqueologia Amazonica
(Santarem) (Univ.
de
Sao
Paulo, Brazil,
1972);
M.
Simoes,
Bol.
Mus.
Paraense
Emilio
Goeldi
62,
1
(1976).
17.
H.
C.
Palmatary, Trans. Am.
Philos. Soc. 50
(1960).
18.
A. C.
Roosevelt,
The
Developmental
Sequence
at
Santarem
on
the Lower
Amazon, Brazil
(National
Endowment for the
Humanities,
Washington,
DC,
1990).
19.
M.
Simoes, Bol.
Mus.
Paraense
Emilio Goeldi
78
(1981);
D.
Williams,
Archaeol.
Anthropol. 4,
13
(1981).
Additional
unpublished dates
are in
the
Smithsonian
Anthropology Archives
(No.
87-035,
box
9-10).
20.
S. Feidel,
Prehistory of the
Americas
(Cambridge
Univ.
Press,
Cambridge,
1987);
G. Reichel-Dol-
matoff,
Arqueologia de Colombia
(Litografia
Arco,
Bogota,
Colombia,
1986). For the
earliest
northem
South
American
dates,
see
A.
Oyuela
Caycedo,
Bol.
Arqueol.
2,
5
(1987).
21.
A. C.
Roosevelt
leamed of
Taperinha
in 1976 from
(17).
The
date was
run at Geochron
Labs in
1982
with
Harvard's
permission.
22.
D. W.
Zimmerman,
Archaeometry
15,
29
(1971);
D.
Stoneham and M. B.
Winter,
Nud.
Tracks
Ra-
diat. Meas.
14, 127
(1988); M.
J.
Aitken, Archae-
ometry
18,
233
(1976).
23.
J.
E.
Rafferty,
in
Advances
in
Archaeological Method
and
Theory,
M. B.
Schiffer, Ed.
(Academic
Press,
Orlando,
FL,
1985), pp.
113-156.
24.
C. N.
Aikins and
Higuchi, The
Prehistory
ofJapan
(Academic
Press,
New
York,
1982);
C.
Sauer,
Ag-
ricultural
Origins and
Dispersals
(American Geo-
graphical
Society, New
York, 1952).
25.
J.
F.
Betendorf, Rev. Inst.
Geogr.
Hist.
71
[1910
(1698)];
M.
de
Heriarte,
Descripcam
do
Estado
do
Maranham, Para,
Corupa
e rio
das
Amazonas
[Acade-
mische
Druck &
Verlagsanstalt, Graz,
Austria,
1964
(1662)].
26.
In
1988,
when
the
shell
and charcoal were
dated,
the
Oxford
AMS
facility
used a
modification
of
the
Vogel process
to
produce
graphite
for
dating [J.
S.
Vogel,
D. E.
Nelson, J.
R.
Southron,
Radiocarbon
19,323
(1987);
R.
E.
M.
Hedges,
I. A.
Law, C.
R.
Bronk,
R.
A.
Housley,
Archaeometry 31,
99
(1989)].
In
1990,
when
the
pottery
was
dated,
the
facility
directly
dated the
CO2 [C.
R.
Bronk
and
R.
E. M.
Hedges,
Nucl.
Instrum.
Methods
B29,
45
(1987)].
The
uncalibrated dates are
expressed
in
radiocarbon
years
before the
present
(AD
1950)
using
the
half-life of
5568
years.
Charcoal dates
have
been
normalized to a
b'
C value of
-25
per
mil
using
an
assumed
b13C
value of
-25
per
mil for
charcoal,
a
measured
B'3C
of
-28
per
mil for
reduced
carbon and
humic and fulvic acids
in
pot-
tery,
and a
measured
average
B13C
of
-15
per
mil
for shell. The
errors are
quoted
as one
standard
deviation and
represent
the total error in
the
AMS
system
including
the
sample
chemistry.
The
estimat-
ed error
includes the statistical
precision
from the
number of
"4C nuclei
detected,
the
reproducibility
of the
mass-spectrometric
measurements between
different
targets,
and the
uncertainty
in
the estimate
of the
contamination
background.
This
background
level is
taken to be
0.5
+
0.3%
of the new
NBS
oxalic acid
standard
(from
the
measurements of
'4C
free
material).
Isotopic
fractionation is
accounted for
by
measuring
the
8
C
of the
shell
(averaged
to -15
per mil)
and
estimating
the
charcoal to be
-25
per
mil. The
calibrated
age ranges
were
calculated with
the
CALIB
program
(revised
version
2.1)
using
compiled
bidecadal
weighted
average
dates
[M.
Stu-
iver and
P.
J.
Reimer,
Radiocarbon
28,
1022
(1986)].
27.
The Lower Amazon
Project
is funded
by
NEH,
NSF,
and the MacArthur
Foundation.
The field
team
included B.
Bevan,
N.
Weissberg,
L.
Brown,
L.
Matthews,
D.
Stephan,
C.
Miranda,
and others.
D. Stoneham
of Oxford carried out the
TL
dating.
The
project
was
aided
by
G.
De La
Penha,
N.
Papavero,
W.
Hagman,
A. de
Oliveira,
C.
Correa,
M.
Kamen-Kaye,
D.
Menditto,
H.
Krueger, J.
Doug-
las,
W.
Hurt, J.
A.
Gowlett,
W.
Cox,
S.
Glenn,
and
L.
Sagle,
the
Smithsonian
Archives,
the
American
Museum
of
Natural
History,
the Peabody
Museum
of
Harvard University,
Pima
Community
College,
the Conselho
Nacional
de Pesquisas,
and the
Museu
Goeldi.
13 May 1991;
accepted
7 August
1991
1624
SCIENCE,
VOL. 254
