Short Term Meditation Training Improves Attention and Self-Regulation

Abstract

Recent studies suggest that months to years of intensive and systematic meditation training can improve attention. However, the lengthy training required has made it difficult to use random assignment of participants to conditions to confirm these findings. This article shows that a group randomly assigned to 5 days of meditation practice with the integrative body-mind training method shows significantly better attention and control of stress than a similarly chosen control group given relaxation training. The training method comes from traditional Chinese medicine and incorporates aspects of other meditation and mindfulness training. Compared with the control group, the experimental group of 40 undergraduate Chinese students given 5 days of 20-min integrative training showed greater improvement in conflict scores on the Attention Network Test, lower anxiety, depression, anger, and fatigue, and higher vigor on the Profile of Mood States scale, a significant decrease in stress-related cortisol, and an increase in immunoreactivity. These results provide a convenient method for studying the influence of meditation training by using experimental and control methods similar to those used to test drugs or other interventions.

Full text

Short-term meditation training improves attention
and self-regulation
Yi-Yuan Tang*
†‡§¶
, Yinghua Ma*, Junhong Wang*, Yaxin Fan*, Shigang Feng*, Qilin Lu*, Qingbao Yu*, Danni Sui*,
Mary K. Rothbart
†
, Ming Fan
储
, and Michael I. Posner
†¶
*Institute of Neuroinformatics and Laboratory for Body and Mind, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116023, China; †Department of Psychology,
University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403; ‡Key Laboratory for Mental Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; §Center for Social
and Organizational Behavior, Graduate University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100080, China; and 储Institute of Basic Medical Sciences,
Beijing 100850, China
Contributed by Michael I. Posner, August 16, 2007 (sent for review July 26, 2007)
Recent studies suggest that months to years of intensive and
systematic meditation training can improve attention. However,
the lengthy training required has made it difficult to use random
assignment of participants to conditions to confirm these findings.
This article shows that a group randomly assigned to 5 days of
meditation practice with the integrative body–mind training
method shows significantly better attention and control of stress
than a similarly chosen control group given relaxation training. The
training method comes from traditional Chinese medicine and
incorporates aspects of other meditation and mindfulness training.
Compared with the control group, the experimental group of 40
undergraduate Chinese students given 5 days of 20-min integrative
training showed greater improvement in conflict scores on the
Attention Network Test, lower anxiety, depression, anger, and
fatigue, and higher vigor on the Profile of Mood States scale, a
significant decrease in stress-related cortisol, and an increase in
immunoreactivity. These results provide a convenient method for
studying the influence of meditation training by using experimen-
tal and control methods similar to those used to test drugs or other
interventions.
anterior cingulate gyrus 兩attention training 兩control 兩mental training
In recent years, a number of articles have demonstrated the
benefits of various forms of meditation and mindfulness
training (1–8). Many of them have tested practitioners of
different meditative practices and compared them with controls
without any training. Others have compared groups that were
equivalent in performance before training but had chosen
whether or not to undertake training (2, 4, 9, 10).
In a well done study (2), the experimental group received 3
months of training. The control group c onsisted of matched persons
wanting to learn about meditation. That study used a strong assay
of attention, the attentional blink (11); the two groups performed
equally before meditation. The experimental group was signifi-
cantly better after meditation, suggesting that meditation caused an
improvement in the executive attention network, most probably in
the form of attention used by this task (2).
Nevertheless, problems of subtle differences between control
and experimental groups remain in the study discussed above,
because the two groups were not completely randomly assigned,
and meditators differed greatly in styles of meditation previously
practiced (2). Slagter et al. (2) said that ‘‘the absence of an
association between the amount of prior meditation training and
our study results may be due to the fact that there was great
variation across the practitioners in the styles and traditions of
the previously learned meditation. Longitudinal research exam-
ining and comparing the effects of different styles of meditation
on brain and mental function and the duration of such effects is
needed.’’
Styles of meditation differ. Some techniques such as concentra-
tion meditation, mantra, mindfulness meditation, etc. rely on mind
control or thought work, including focus on an object, paying
attention to the present moment, etc. (2, 12–15). Mental training
methods also share several key components, such as body relax-
ation, breathing practice, mental imagery, and mindfulness, etc.,
which can help and accelerate practitioner access to meditative
states (3, 8, 16–19). This background raises the possibility that
combining several key components of body and mind techniques
with features of meditation and mindfulness traditions, while
reducing reliance on control of thoughts, may be easier to teach to
novices because they would not have to struggle so hard to control
their thoughts. Therefore, integrative body–mind training (IBMT;
or simply integrative meditation) was developed in the 1990s, and
its effects have been studied in China since 1995. Based on the
results from hundreds of adults and children ranging from 4 to 90
years old in China, IBMT practice improves emotional and cogni-
tive performance and social behavior (20, 21).
IBMT achieves the desired state by first giving a brief instruc-
tional period on the method (we call it initial mind setting and
its goal is to induce a cognitive or emotional set that will
influence the training). The method stresses no effort to control
thoughts, but instead a state of restful alertness that allows a high
degree of awareness of body, breathing, and external instructions
from a compact disc. It stresses a balanced state of relaxation
while focusing attention. Thought control is achieved gradually
through posture and relaxation, body–mind harmony, and bal-
ance with the help of the coach rather than by making the trainee
attempt an internal struggle to control thoughts in accordance
with instruction.
Training in this method is followed by 5 days of group practice,
during which a coach answers questions and observes facial and
body cues to identify those people who are struggling with the
method. The trainees concentrate on achieving a balanced state
of mind while being guided by the coach and the compact disc
that teaches them to relax, adjust their breathing, and use mental
imagery. Because this approach is suitable for novices, we
hypothesized that a short period of training and practice might
influence the efficiency of the executive attention network
related to self-regulation (22).
In the present study, we used a random assignment of 40
Chinese undergraduates to an experimental group and 40 to a
control group for 5 days of training 20 min per day. The
experimental group was given a short term of IMBT (module
one) (20, 21). Training was presented in a standardized way by
compact disc and guided by a skillful IBMT coach. Because of
Author contributions: J.W. and Y.F. contributed equally to this work; Y.-Y.T., M.F., and
M.I.P. designed research; Y.-Y.T., Y.M., J.W., Y.F., S.F., Q.L., Q.Y., and D.S. performed
research; Y.-Y.T., Y.M., J.W., Y.F., S.F., Q.L., and Q.Y. analyzed data; and Y.-Y.T., M.K.R., and
M.I.P. wrote the paper.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations: IBMT, integrative body–mind training; ANT, Attention Network Test; POMS,
Profile of Mood States; sIgA, secretory IgA.
¶To whom correspondence may be addressed. E-mail: yiyuan@uoregon.edu or mposner@
uoregon.edu.
© 2007 by The National Academy of Sciences of the USA
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their importance the coaches generally have several years of
experience with IBMT. The control group was given a form
of relaxation training very popular in the West (17, 23).
The two groups were given a battery of tests 1 week before
training and immediately after the final training session. A
standard computerized attention test measured orienting, alert-
ing, and the ability to resolve conf lict (executive attention). The
Attention Network Test (ANT) involves responding to an arrow
target that is surrounded by f lankers that point either in the same
or opposite direction. Cues provide information on when a trial
will occur and where the target will be (24). The Raven’s
Standard Progressive Matrix (25, 26), which is a standard culture
fair intelligence test; an assay of mood state, the Profile of Mood
States (POMS) (27, 28); and a stress challenge of a mental
arithmetic task were followed by measures of cortisol and
secretory IgA (sIgA) (29–34). All of these are standard assays
scored objectively by people blind to the experimental condition.
See details in Materials and Methods.
In prior work (24), ANT has been used to measure skill in the
resolution of mental conf lict induced by competing stimuli. It
activates a frontal brain network involving the anterior cingulate
gyrus and lateral prefrontal cortex (35, 36). Our underlying
theory was that IBMT should improve functioning of this
executive attention network, which has been linked to better
regulation of cognition and emotion (22, 37). Specifically, we
hypothesized that (i) because assignment was random, the
training and control group should not differ before training, (ii)
the training would improve executive attention (indexed by ANT
and POMS scales related to self-regulation and Raven’s Stan-
dard Progressive Matrices) in the experimental group more than
for controls, and (iii) if self-regulation ability improved in the
training group, members of the group should also show reduced
reaction to stress as measured by cortisol and immunoreactivity
assays. In short, the experimental group would show greater
improvement in the executive attention network related to
self-regulation; the Raven’s intelligence test, which is known to
differ with improved executive attention; mood scales related
to self-control; and cortisol and immunoreactivity measures of
stress to a mental arithmetic challenge.
Results
ANOVAs were conducted with group (trained and control) and
training session (before and after) as factors, using each of the
attention network scores as dependent variables. Before train-
ing, no differences were found for alerting, orienting, and
executive networks in two groups (P⬎0.05). The main effect of
the training session was significant only for the executive net-
work [F(1,78) ⫽9.859; P⬍0.01]. More importantly, the group ⫻
session interaction was significant for the executive network
[F(1,78) ⫽10.839; P⬍0.01], indicating that the before vs. after
difference in the conf lict resolution score was significant only for
the trained group (see Fig. 1). The groups did not differ in
orienting or alerting after training (P⬎0.05). The result
demonstrated that the short-term IBMT practice can influence
the efficiency of executive attention.
Because the efficiency of executive attention improved, we
expected better self-regulation of emotion. We used the POMS
to measure emotion in the same two groups. Before training,
none of the six scales of POMS showed differences between the
two groups (P⬎0.05). The ANOVAs revealed a group ⫻session
effect for anger–hostility (A) [F(1,78) ⫽5.558; P⬍0.05],
depression–dejection (D) [F(1,78) ⫽5.558; P⬍0.05], tension–
anxiety (T) [F(1,78) ⫽11.920; P⬍0.01], and vigor–activity ( V)
[F(1,78) ⫽7.479; P⬍0.01]. After training, the ttest indicated
there were significant differences in the experimental group (but
not the control group) in A, D, T, V, and F (fatigue–inertia); in
general, P(positive mood)
average
⬍0.01 (see Fig. 2). The result
indicated that short-term IBMT can enhance positive moods and
reduce negative ones.
In previous work, the network associated with executive
attention has been related to intelligence (38, 39). We also tested
the hypothesis that improvement of efficiency of executive
attention accompanies higher intelligence scores. Scores of
the Raven’s Matrices did not differ before training (P⬎0.05).
The ANOVAs revealed the main effect of the training session;
the Raven’s improvement was significant [F(1,46) ⫽10.171; P⬍
0.01], but the group ⫻session interaction was not significant,
although there was a trend in that direction [F(1,46) ⫽3.102; P⫽
0.085]. The ttests showed a significant improvement in the
experimental group after training (P⬍0.001), but no significant
improvement for the control group (P⬎0.05). The result
revealed that short-term IBMT can improve the Raven’s score
in the experimental group, although only marginally more so
than in the control group.
Cortisol and sIgA are indexes of the amount of stress induced
by a cognitive challenge (29 –34). We applied 3 min of mental
arithmetic as an acute stress after 5 days of IBMT or relaxation.
Fig. 3 shows that at baseline before stress there was no significant
difference between the groups (P⬎0.05). This finding indicated
no sensitivity for cortisol and sIgA reactions to stress under
normal states as found by others (32, 34). After the arithmetic
Fig. 1. Performance of the ANT after 5 days of IBMT or control. Error bars
indicate 1 SD. Vertical axis indicates the difference in mean reaction time
between the congruent and incongruent flankers. The higher scores show less
efficient resolution of conflict.
Fig. 2. Comparison of six scales of the POMS before and after training for the
experimental group. Blue bar, five negative moods and one positive mood
pretraining; red bar, five negative moods posttraining; green bar, one positive
mood posttraining. Significance was found in POMS scales of anger–hostility
(A), depression–dejection (D), fatigue–inertia (F), tension–anxiety (T), and
vigor–activity (V) posttraining in the experimental group. No significant dif-
ference was found in POMS scale C (confusion–bewilderment) posttraining.
**,Paverage ⬍0.01. Error bars indicate 1 SD.
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challenge, both groups increased in cortisol activity, indicating
that the mental arithmetic challenge was stressful (30). Then the
experimental group received an additional 20 min of IBMT and
the control 20 min of relaxation training. An ANOVA showed
that the group (experimental vs. control) ⫻session (baseline
before stress vs. after additional training) interaction was sig-
nificant [F(1,38) ⫽6.281; P⬍0.01]. The experimental group had
a significantly lowered cortisol response to the mental stress
after training than did the control group (see Fig. 3A).
Similarly, there was no significant difference between groups
in sIgA at baseline before stress (P⬎0.05). However, the mental
arithmetic task resulted in a increase of sIgA relative to the
baseline as found by others (34). After training, ANOVA showed
the group ⫻session interaction was significant [F(1,38) ⫽
10.060; P⬍0.001], with the arithmetic challenge resulting in
significantly greater sIgA for the experimental group than the
control group (see Fig. 3B).
Five days of training reduced the stress response to the mental
challenge especially after an additional 20 min of practice.
Discussion
In the ANT and POMS, the experimental group showed signif-
icantly greater improvement after 5 days of IBMT than the
relaxation control group. Because we randomly assigned subjects
to experimental and control groups and used objective tests with
researchers blind to the condition, we conclude that IBMT
improved attention and self-regulation more than the relaxation
control. The reaction to a mental stress was also significantly
improved in the experimental group, which showed less cortisol
and more immunoreactivity than the control group after the
additional training. These outcomes after only 5 days of training
open a door for simple and effective investigation of meditation
effects. The IBMT provides a convenient method for studying
the influence of meditation training by using appropriate ex-
perimental and control methods similar to those used to test
drugs or other interventions. Our findings further indicate the
potential of IBMT for stress management, body–mind health,
and improvement in cognitive performance and self-regulation
(20, 21).
Although no direct measures of brain changes were used in
this study, some previous studies suggest that changes in brain
networks can occur. Thomas et al. (40) showed that, in rats, one
short experience of acute exposure to psychosocial stress re-
duced both short- and long-term survival of newborn hippocam-
pal neurons. Similarly, the human brain is sensitive to short
experience. Naccache et al. (41) showed that the subliminal
presentation of emotional words (⬍100 ms) modulates the
activity of the amygdala at a long latency and triggers long-lasting
cerebral processes (41). Brefczynski-Lewis et al. (42) compared
novices, who participated in meditation 1 h per day by using
three different techniques with expert meditators who had
10,000–54,000 h of practice. Both groups showed activation of a
large overlapping network of attention-related brain regions
(42). Another situation where a single session changed brain
processes is described by Raz et al. (43). Highly hypnotizable
persons when given an instruction to view a word as nonsense
showed elimination of the Stroop interference effect and also
eliminated activity in the anterior cingulate during conflict trials
(43). It was also demonstrated that 5 days of attention training
with a computer program improved the efficiency of the exec-
utive attention networks for children (39). Taken together, we
have reason to believe that 5 days of IBMT practice could change
brain networks, leading to improvements in attention, cognition,
and emotion and reaction to stress.
Why does IBMT work after only a few days of practice whereas
studies with other methods often require months? The following
are possible reasons.
First, IBMT integrates several key components of body and
mind techniques including body relaxation (17), breathing ad-
justment (18), mental imagery (44, 45), and mindfulness training
(12–15), which have shown broad positive effects in attention,
emotions, and social behaviors in previous studies (1– 8). This
combination may amplify the training effect over the use of only
one of these components.
Second, because everyone experiences mindfulness some-
times (12, 13, 19, 46, 47), a qualified coach can help each
participant increase the amount of this experience and thus
guarantee that each practice session achieves a good result (20,
21). For participants with months to years of meditation, there
has been the opportunity to make mistakes, correct them, and
gradually find the right way. For 5 days of training, quality
practice is needed for every session. Recent findings indicate that
the amount of time participants spent meditating each day,
rather than total number of hours of meditative practice over
their lifetime, affects performance on attentional tasks (10).
Third, in one study a selected comfortable music background
showed more effects than Mozart’s music (21). Having music on
the compact disc integrates the practice instruction and occupies
the novice’s wandering mind via continuous sensory input,
maintaining and facilitating the mindful state. Many meditation
Fig. 3. Physiological changes before and after stress. (A) Comparison of
cortisol concentration between the experimental group (red bars) and control
group (gray bars) in three different stages after 5 days of training. *,P⬍0.05;
**,P⬍0.01. Error bars indicate 1 SEM. More cortisol secretion indicates higher
levels of stress. (B) Comparison of sIgA concentration between experimental
group (red bars) and control group (blue bars) at three different stages after
5 days of training. **,P⬍0.01. Error bars indicate 1 SEM. Higher immunore-
activity indicates a better response to stress.
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training methods use audiotapes or compact discs to help
beginners (13, 46, 48).
We do not know which of these features is of greatest
importance in obtaining change, but we believe that the inte-
gration of the various methods into one easy-to-use training
package may explain why IBMT is effective at such a low dose.
We also regard the work of the trainer as critical. The trainer
needs to know how to interact with the trainees to obtain the
desired state. Although the trainers are not present during the
training sessions, they observe the trainees over television and
help them after the session with problems. The trainers could
well be a part of the effective ingredient of IBMT, and their role
requires additional research.
We have thus far assessed the utility of IBMT with random
assignment only for Chinese undergraduates. However, we do
not believe that any meditation method is appropriate for every
person. In other work, similar, but more preliminary, effects
have been observed for Chinese children and adults of many
ages. Preliminary data from studies in the United States suggest
wider utility of IBMT (20, 21). Some may argue that IBMT
effects require a prior belief in the benefits of meditation that
would be common in China. However, belief in meditation and
traditional medicine is not high among undergraduates in mod-
ern China (49). Also a relaxation group used as a control failed
to achieve significant improvement. One potentially important
difference between Eastern and Western meditation studies is
that in China we used group training at the same time of day for
each session over 5 days; most of the Western studies used
individual meditation at different times. Studies of group dy-
namics indicate that the group acts to facilitate outcomes (50),
and possible differences between individual and group admin-
istration of mediation needs further study. Studies of perception,
language, mathematics, and psychopathology suggest differences
between Americans and Chinese within each of these domains
(51–54). Thus culture-specific experiences may subtly shape
cognition and direct neural activity in precise ways. If differences
between Chinese and American studies of attention training
arise, further studies will be needed to determine the reasons.
In previous work, executive attention has been shown to be an
important mechanism for self-regulation of cognition and emo-
tion (22, 37, 39). The current results with the ANT indicate that
IBMT improves functioning of this executive attention network.
Studies designed to improve executive attention in young chil-
dren showed more adult-like scalp electrical recordings related
to an important node of the executive attention network in the
anterior cingulate gyrus (22, 37, 39). We expect that imaging
studies with adults would show changes in the activation or
connectivity of this network after IBMT. Such studies would help
to determine the mechanisms by which IBMT improves perfor-
mance. They may also provide a good objective basis for
comparison between training methods.
In summary, IBMT is an easy, effective way for improvement
in self-regulation in cognition, emotion, and social behavior. Our
study is consistent with the idea that attention, affective pro-
cesses, and the quality of moment-to-moment awareness are
flexible skills that can be trained (55, 56).
Materials and Methods
Participants. Eighty healthy undergraduates at the Dalian Uni-
versity of Technology [44 males, mean age (⫾SD) ⫽21.8 ⫾0.55]
without any training experiences participated in this study. They
were randomly assigned to an experimental or control group
(40:40). Forty experimental subjects continuously attended
IBMT for 5 days with 20 min of training per day. Forty control
subjects were given the same number and length of group
sessions but received information from the compact disc about
relaxation of each body part. The coach observed them from a
closed-circuit television and provided answers to any question
after each training session. The human experiment was approved
by a local Institutional Review Board, and informed consent was
obtained from each participant. ANOVA and ttests were
applied for analysis.
Measures. The ANT was administered before and after training
(24). Each person received 248 trials during each assessment
session. Subtraction of reaction times was used to obtain scores
for each attentional network, including alerting, orienting, and
conflict resolution (24).
The same two groups of 80 subjects took POMS (27, 28), and
48 subjects [28 males, mean age (⫾SD) ⫽21.7 ⫾0.53]
participated in the Raven’s Matrices (25, 26) separately before
and after 5 days of training.
Half of the experimental or control group [20:20, 26 males,
mean age (⫾SD) ⫽21.9 ⫾0.97] was chosen randomly to
participate in the physiological measures. Mental arithmetic was
used as an acute stressor after 5 days of IBMT and relaxation in
two groups (29 –34). Subjects were instructed to perform serial
subtraction of 47 from a four-digit number and respond verbally.
During the 3-min mental arithmetic task, participants were
prompted to be as fast and accurate as possible. If the partici-
pants did not finish the mental arithmetic in time and correctly,
the computer would produce a harsh sound to remind the
subjects, who were required to restart the task and do it again.
Cortisol and sIgA measures were taken during three periods:
baseline before stress, after mental stress, and after additional
20-min training. First, all subjects were given a 5-min rest to get
baseline. Second, all subjects were instructed to finish a 3-min
mental arithmetic task to test whether there were different stress
reactions between two groups. Third, the experimental group
practiced an additional 20-min IBMT, whereas the control group
relaxed for 20 min to test whether additional training could
improve the alterations based on 5 days of training.
To control for variations of cortisol levels over the circadian
rhythm, the math stress was performed from 2 p.m. to 6 p.m.
(32). Saliva samples were collected immediately after each
period by one-off injectors and were encased in test tubes in
succession, with the tubes placed into a refrigerator under ⫺20°C
and then thawed 24 h later for analysis. The concentration of
cortisol and sIgA was analyzed by RIA at Dalian Medical
University (31–34).
IBMT Method. IBMT involves several body–mind techniques in-
cluding: (i) body relaxation, (ii) breath adjustment, (iii) mental
imagery, and (iv) mindfulness training, accompanied with se-
lected music background. In this study, IBMT module one was
used. A compact disc was developed for module one that
included background music. IBMT module one practice in-
cluded (i) presession, (ii) practice session, and (iii) postsession.
In the presession, usually 1 day before the experiment, the coach
gathered subjects to have a free question-and-answer meeting about
IBMT practice via coaching techniques to ensure the clear grasp of
IBMT for the novices. The coach also set up the exact time, training
room, and discipline for the group practice. The most important
thing for the coach was to create a harmonious and relaxed
atmosphere for effective practice (20, 21).
In the training session, subjects followed the compact disc with
body posture adjustment, breathing practice, guided imagery,
and mindfulness training accompanied by a music background.
Y.-Y.T. gave the practice instructions on the compact disc
himself. The practice time was 20 min for 5 days. During the
training session, the coach observed facial and body cues to
identify those who were struggling with the method and gave
proper feedback immediately in postsession.
In the postsession, every subject filled out a questionnaire and
evaluated the practice. The coach gave short responses to
subjects as required.
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IBMT belongs to body–mind science in the ancient Eastern
tradition. Chinese tradition and culture is not only a theory of
being but also (most importantly) a life experience and practice.
The IBMT method comes from traditional Chinese medicine,
but also uses the idea of human in harmony with nature in
Taoism and Confucianism, etc. The goal of IBMT is to serve as
a self-regulation practice for body–mind health and balance and
well being and to promote body–mind science research.
IBMT has three levels of training: (i) body–mind health, (ii)
body–mind balance, and (iii) body–mind purification for adults
and one level of health and wisdom for children. In each level,
IBMT has theories and several core techniques packaged in
compact discs or audiotapes that are instructed and guided by a
qualified coach. A person who achieves the three levels of full
training after theoretical and practical tests can apply for in-
structor status.
IBMT involves learning that requires experience and explicit
instruction. To ensure appropriate experience, coaches (quali-
fied instructors) are trained to help novices practice IBMT
properly. Instructors received training on how to interact with
experimental and control groups to make sure they understand
the training program exactly. After each training session, the
instructors gave brief and immediate responses to questions
raised by the participants, helped those who were observed to be
having difficulties, and asked each participant to fill out a
questionnaire and make any comments. The most important
thing for coaches was to create a harmonious and relaxed
atmosphere and give proper feedback for effective practice. The
coach believes everyone has full potential and equality and that
his/her job is to find and enjoy a person’s inner beauty and
capacities to help them think better and unfold their potentials
rather than to teach them.
A qualified coach is very important for each level of teaching
and practice. Without coaching, it is impossible or very difficult
to practice IBMT with only compact discs.
We thank the Institute of Neuroinformatics staff for assist ance with data
collection and Kewei Chen and the RIA division at Dalian Medical
University for technical assistance. This work was supported in part by
National Natural Science Foundation of China Grant 30670699, Na-
tional 863 Plan Project Grant 2006AA02Z431, Ministr y of Education
Grant NCET-06-0277, and a Brain, Biology, and Machine Initiative
grant from the University of Oregon.
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