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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
A functional dissociation of the anterior and posterior
pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus: excitotoxic lesions have
differential effects on locomotion and the response to nicotine
Helen L. Alderson ÆMary P. Latimer Æ
Philip Winn
Received: 18 July 2007 / Accepted: 16 January 2008 / Published online: 12 February 2008
ÓThe Author(s) 2008
Abstract Excitotoxic lesions of posterior, but not ante-
rior pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) change
nicotine self-administration, consistent with the belief that
the anterior PPTg (aPPTg) projects to substantia nigra pars
compacta (SNC) and posterior PPTg (pPPTg) to the ventral
tegmental area (VTA). The VTA is a likely site both of
nicotine’s reinforcing effect as well as its actions on
locomotion. We hypothesized that pPPTg, but not aPPTg
lesions, would alter locomotion in response to repeated
nicotine administration by virtue of the fact that pPPTg
appears to be more closely related to the VTA than is the
aPPTg. Following excitotoxic lesions of aPPTg or pPPTg,
rats were habituated to experimental procedures. Repeated
(seven of each) nicotine (0.4 mg/kg) and saline injections
were given following an on-off procedure. Measurement of
spontaneous locomotion during habituation showed that
aPPTg but not pPPTg lesioned rats were hypoactive rela-
tive to controls. Following nicotine, control rats showed
locomotor depression for the first 2 days of treatment
followed by enhanced locomotion relative to activity
following saline treatment. Rats with aPPTg lesions
showed a similar pattern, but the pPPTg lesioned rats
showed no locomotor depression following nicotine treat-
ment. These data confirm the role of the pPPTg in
nicotine’s behavioural effects—including the development
of sensitization—and demonstrate for the first time that
excitotoxic lesions of the aPPTg but not pPPTg generate a
deficit in baseline activity. The finding that anterior but not
posterior PPTg affects motor activity has significance for
developing therapeutic strategies for Parkinsonism using
deep brain stimulation aimed here.
Keywords Deep brain stimulation Parkinsonism
Rat Substantia nigra Ventral tegmental area
Introduction
Nicotine alters locomotion in a dose-dependent manner
that changes with repeated administration (Clarke and
Kumar 1983a,b). The functional integrity of the ventral
tegmental area (VTA) is critical for these effects, which are
mediated, at least in part, by nicotinic acetylcholine
receptors located on dopamine (DA) neurons in the VTA.
Intra-VTA infusion of nicotine increases locomotion, an
effect blocked by pre-treatment with the nicotinic receptor
antagonist mecamylamine (Panagis et al. 1996). Direct
interference with the integrity of the VTA by 6-hydroxy-
dopamine (6-OHDA) lesion also blocks nicotine’s
locomotor effects (Louis and Clarke 1998). Acetylcholine,
the natural ligand of VTA nicotinic receptors, is provided
by neurons of the Ch5 and Ch6 cell groups in the pedun-
culopontine tegmental (PPTg) and laterodorsal tegmental
nuclei (LDTg). We have shown that indirect interference
with the functional integrity of the VTA—by making
excitotoxic lesions in LDTg—alters the effects on loco-
motion of repeated nicotine administration (Alderson et al.
2005).
The VTA also receives direct cholinergic innervation
from the PPTg, a structure known to be involved in
mediating the reinforcing effects of nicotine (Alderson
et al. 2006; Corrigall et al. 2002). Inputs from PPTg to the
VTA come from the posterior region (pPPTg), while
the anterior region (aPPTg) innervates DA neurons in the
H. L. Alderson M. P. Latimer P. Winn (&)
School of Psychology, St Andrews University, St Mary’s Quad,
South Street, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9JP, UK
e-mail: pw@st-andrews.ac.uk
123
Brain Struct Funct (2008) 213:247–253
DOI 10.1007/s00429-008-0174-4
substantia nigra pars compacta (SNC) (Oakman et al.
1995). Previous work has provided evidence of a role for
the PPTg in the behavioural effects of nicotine. For
example, recent work from our lab has shown that, while
lesions of the SNC-projecting aPPTg do not affect nicotine
self-administration, pPPTg lesions increase it, an effect
likely to be the result of altered regulation of VTA DA
neurons (Alderson et al. 2006). One aim of the present
study, therefore, was to investigate the involvement of
pPPTg and aPPTg on the locomotor effects of repeated
nicotine. We hypothesized that if PPTg connections with
the VTA are of significance in the actions of nicotine,
lesions in the posterior (VTA projecting) portion would
have effects on nicotine-induced locomotion while lesions
in the anterior (SNC projecting) portion would not.
A second aim was to investigate the motor effects of
aPPTg and pPPTg lesions. One paradoxical feature of the
literature relating to PPTg is to do with locomotor activity.
An older literature considered the PPTg to be a part of the
mesencephalic locomotor region, but research in several
laboratories over the last decade making excitotoxic lesions
of the whole PPTg had failed to show any significant
effects on locomotion (see for example Inglis et al. 1994;
Olmstead and Franklin 1994) (though effects relating
to (for example) attention, learning and reward related
responding have all been demonstrated—see Winn (2006)
for review). Nevertheless, motor outflow from the basal
ganglia is directed at the PPTg, and there have been recent
attempts to alleviate the signs and symptoms of Parkin-
sonism using deep brain stimulation aimed at the PPTg
(Mazzone et al. 2005; Plaha and Gill 2005). As such a
second aim of the present study was to determine whether
discrete lesions of these different parts of the PPTg affect
spontaneous locomotor activity.
Materials and methods
Twenty-one male Lister hooded rats (Harlan Olac Ltd, UK;
weighing 295–369 g at the start of the experiment) were
individually housed, with ad libitum access to food and
water. Lights in the holding room were on from 7 a.m. to
7 p.m. and testing was carried out during the light phase.
Compliance was ensured with national (Animals [Scientific
Procedures] Act, 1986) and international (European Com-
munities Council Directive of 24 November 1986 [86/609/
EEC]) legislation governing the maintenance of laboratory
animals and their use in scientific experiments.
Rats were anaesthetized with 1.0 ml/kg sodium
pentobarbitone (‘‘Sagatal’’, Rho
ˆne-Me
´rieux, Harlow UK;
60 mg/ml i.p.) diluted 50:50 with sterile water. Carprofen
analgesia (Rimadyl’’, Pfizer, Sandwich UK; 0.05 ml s.c. to
each rat) was given prior to surgery. Infusions of ibotenate
(Tocris-Cookson Ltd., Bristol, UK; 0.02 M solution in
phosphate buffer [pH 7.4]; final pH adjusted to pH 7.0
using 2 M NaOH) were delivered in a volume of 200 nl to
each site by pressure ejection through a glass micropipette
(tip diameter 35–40 lm). The micropipettes were left in
situ for 300 s after the infusion to allow for diffusion away
from the tip. Control rats (n=9) received the same vol-
ume of phosphate buffer only, delivered in the same
manner as the ibotenate. For the anterior PPTg lesions
(n=6), two injections were made at the following co-
ordinates: inter-aural line (IAL) +0.6 mm, midline (ML)
±2.0 mm, dura (D) -6.2 mm; IAL +1.3 mm, ML
±2.1 mm, D -7.0 mm. Posterior PPTg lesions (n=6)
were made by a single injection at co-ordinates of IAL
+0.2 mm, ML ±2.0 mm, D -6.2 mm. All lesions were
made with the stereotaxic frame set such that the skull was
level at bregma and lambda. Two separate unilateral
operations separated by a minimum of 7 days were con-
ducted to produce bilateral lesions in each rat. A high rate
of post-surgical fatalities has previously been found when
bilateral lesions of the PPTg were carried out in a single
surgery.
Locomotor testing took place under red-light illumina-
tion in wire photocell cages measuring 26 cm (W) 918 cm
(H) 938 cm (L), crossed by two photocell beams equi-
distant along their length. These were controlled by a
‘‘Beetle’’ real-time processor (Paul Fray Ltd., Cambridge,
UK), PC-interfaced for data collection. Locomotion was
recorded as sequential beam-breaks. Daily testing sessions
were 60 min long and began 7 days post-surgery. Rats were
given two habituation sessions with no injections (data not
shown) followed by seven sessions with control injections
of 0.9% saline (1 ml/kg) immediately prior to testing.
Nicotine locomotion testing was carried out over 14 con-
secutive days, with rats receiving nicotine (nicotine
hydrogen tartrate, Sigma–Aldrich, UK; 0.4 mg/ml in 0.9%
saline; dose refers to salt; 1 ml/kg of this solution admin-
istered sc) or saline on alternate days in a day-on-day-off
design, such that all received seven nicotine and seven
saline injections in total.
At the end of testing, rats were deeply anaesthetized
with 200 mg/ml/kg sodium pentobarbitone (‘‘Dolethal’’,
Univet Ltd., Bicester, UK) and perfused transcardially with
phosphate buffered saline followed by 4% paraformalde-
hyde in 0.1 M phosphate buffer. Brains were removed and
stored in 20% sucrose overnight before 50 lm sections
were cut on a freezing microtome. Sections (50 lm) were
processed at 100 lm intervals alternately for nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase (NADPH) his-
tochemistry and neuron-specific nuclear protein (NeuN)
immunohistochemistry, which stains neurons rather than
glia and lesions can be clearly seen in processed tissue.
Processing for NeuN immunohistochemistry used a mouse
248 Brain Struct Funct (2008) 213:247–253
123
anti-NeuN monoclonal antibody (Chemicon International
Inc., Temecula, CA, USA) with a Vector Labs ‘‘Elite’’
ABC kit (Peterborough, UK) followed by Sigma Fast
TM
DAB peroxidase substrate. NADPH diaphorase histo-
chemistry followed a modification of the method of
Vincent and his colleagues (Vincent and Kimura 1992;
Inglis et al. 1993). Lesion extent was also assessed by the
absence of NADPH-diaphorase positive cells in NADPH-
diaphorase stained tissue. In the mesopontine tegmentum,
NADPH-diaphorase positive cell counts correlate very
strongly with counts made of cholinergic cells identified by
choline acetyltransferase immunohistochemistry (Vincent
et al. 1983).
All data were analyzed by repeated measures ANOVA,
followed by planned comparisons where appropriate
(Winer 1971), using Statistica (Version 6.0). Data were
subject to a square root transform; the factors analyzed
were group (aPPTg, pPPTg, control), session (1–7) and
drug (saline, nicotine).
Results
Figure 1shows representative tissue from sham-lesioned
control, pPPTg and aPPTg excitotoxin lesion groups.
Lesions were judged to be of the pPPTg if they
encompassed pedunculopontine neurons posterior to the
decussation of the superior cerebellar peduncle, destroying
cholinergic and non-cholinergic neurons in this region, but
not spreading beyond. Lesions of the aPPTg were those
that destroyed both cholinergic and non-cholinergic
neurons anterior to the decussation of the superior cere-
bellar peduncle. All rats given aPPTg and pPPTg lesions
were found to have acceptable lesions following histolog-
ical analysis according to these criteria.
Figure 2shows the number of beam breaks, square root
transformed, measured during each of the seven habitua-
tion sessions carried out. It is clear that the aPPTg lesioned
group were consistently hypoactive compared to both the
pPPTg lesioned rats and the controls, which clearly did not
differ from each other. Analysis by repeated measures
ANOVA revealed that there was a significant main effect
of lesion group (F
2,19
=17.494, P\0.001) and a signif-
icant lesion group 9session interaction (F
12,114
=2.037,
P\0.05) but no significant main effect of session. Further
analysis of the group 9session interaction revealed that
Fig. 1 Panels a–dpresent material stained by NADPH diaphorase
histochemistry from representative aPPTg lesioned (a,c) and pPPTg
lesioned (b,d) rats (49magnification, scale bar [panel h] 100 lm).
Panel ashows an aPPTg lesioned rat with no loss of diaphorase
staining—the darkly stained neurons at the lateral tip of the scp—in
the pPPTg; Panel bshows a pPPTg lesioned rat with considerable loss
of diaphorase staining in the pPPTg; Panel cshows an aPPTg lesioned
rat with loss of diaphorase staining in the aPPTg—the arrow indicates
the presence of calcification in the tissue, which commonly occurs
after excitotoxic lesions; Panel dshows a pPPTg lesioned rat with no
loss of diaphorase staining in the aPPTg—the arrow points to the
diffuse cluster of darkly stained diaphorase-positive neurons. Panels
e–hshow tissue from the same rats stained using NeuN immunohis-
tochemistry. Panels eand gare from the aPPTg lesioned rat, panels f
and hfrom the pPPTg lesioned rat (49magnification, scale bar [panel
h] 100 lm). In panels f and g the dashed line surrounds the area of
lesion. Panel e shows an aPPTg lesioned rat with no loss of NeuN
staining in the pPPTg; Panel fshows a pPPTg lesioned rat with
considerable loss of NeuN staining in the pPPTg; Panel gshows an
aPPTg lesioned rat with loss of NeuN staining in the aPPTg; Panel h
shows a pPPTg lesioned rat with no loss of NeuN staining in the
aPPTg. LDTg laterodorsal tegmental nucleus; aPPTg anterior pedun-
culopontine tegmental nucleus; pPPTg posterior pedunculopontine
tegmental nucleus; scp superior cerebellar peduncle; SPTg subpe-
duncular tegmental nucleus
c
Brain Struct Funct (2008) 213:247–253 249
123
the aPPTg lesion group differed significantly from both the
control (P\0.01) and pPPTg (P\0.05) lesion groups on
all sessions. There were no significant effects of session for
either the control or pPPTg lesion groups. However,
planned comparisons demonstrated that for the aPPTg
lesion group, session 1 differed significantly from sessions
4(P\0.05), 5, 6 and 7 (all at P\0.01); session 2 was
significantly different from sessions 5 (P\0.05), 6
(P\0.01) and 7 (P\0.05); and session 3 differed sig-
nificantly from session 7 (P\0.05); there were no
significant differences between sessions 4–7.
Figure 3shows the number of beam breaks, square root
transformed, measured following saline and nicotine
treatment. The data shown in this figure indicate that the
response to nicotine was similar in the control and aPPTg
lesioned rats (panels a and c), but different in the PPTg
lesioned rats (Panel b). The pPPTg lesioned rats did not
show hypoactivity when first given nicotine and showed an
increased locomotor response to nicotine before either of
the other groups did. Analysis by repeated measures
ANOVA revealed that there were significant main effects
of lesion group (F
2,18
=17.051, P\0.001) and of session
(F
6,108
=13.143, P\0.001). There was a significant
drug 9lesion group interaction (F
2,18
=5.548, P\0.05),
a significant drug 9session interaction (F
6,108
=21.685,
P\0.001) and a significant drug 9session 9lesion
group interaction (F
12,108
=2.340, P\0.05). Planned
comparisons revealed that the pattern of locomotor activity
in response to nicotine and saline differed over sessions
according to lesion group. The control group showed sig-
nificant locomotor depression in response to nicotine in
sessions 1 and 2 (P\0.001), while the difference in
session 3 approached significance (P=0.054); locomotion
in response to nicotine was significantly greater than fol-
lowing saline in session 7 (P\0.01). The aPPTg lesion
C
Session
17
Square root beam breaks Square root beam breaks Square root beam breaks
15
10
5
0
15
10
5
0
15
10
5
0
A
B
Control saline
Control nicotine
pPPTg saline
pPPTg nicotine
aPPTg nicotin
e
aPPTg saline
**
** **
** *
*
*
** ** **
23456
Fig. 3 Shows the number of beam breaks, square-root transformed,
during the 14 alternating 1 h nicotine/saline treatment sessions.
aMean number of beam breaks elicited by saline (open circles)
and nicotine (filled circles) by sham lesioned control rats. bMean
number of beam breaks elicited by saline (open triangles) and
nicotine (filled triangles) over treatment sessions (seven drug, seven
saline) by pPPTg lesioned rats. cMean number of beam breaks
elicited by saline (open squares) and nicotine (filled squares) over
treatment sessions (seven drug, seven saline) by aPPTg lesioned
rats. Error bars =±SEM; *P\0.05, ** P\0.01
Session
1
Square root beam breaks
20
15
10
5
0
Control
pPPTg
aPPTg
234567
Fig. 2 The mean number of beam breaks (square root transformed)
following saline injection over seven daily habituation sessions by
sham lesioned control (circles; solid line), pPPTg lesioned rats
(triangles; short dashed line) and aPPTg lesioned rats (squares; long
dashed line). Error bars =±SEM
250 Brain Struct Funct (2008) 213:247–253
123
group showed a similar pattern of locomotor depression
and elevation over the seven sessions tested: these rats
showed significant locomotor depression in response to
nicotine in sessions 1–3 (P\0.01); locomotion in
response to nicotine was significantly greater than follow-
ing saline in session 7 (P\0.05). The pPPTg lesion group
however showed a different pattern of responding: there
was no difference between the responding to saline or
nicotine on session 1 or 2, but the response to nicotine was
significantly elevated on sessions 3 and 4 (P\0.05). On
sessions 5 and 6 the increase in the response to nicotine did
not reach statistical significance (session 5: P=0.085;
session 6: P=0.084) but the increase was again statisti-
cally significant on session 7 (P\0.05).
Discussion
Our hypothesis was that if PPTg connections with the VTA
are important for the actions of nicotine, then lesions in
the posterior (VTA projecting) portion would change the
behavioural response to nicotine while lesions in the
anterior (SNC projecting) portion would not. This
hypothesis is unambiguously supported by the present data:
pPPTg but not aPPTg lesions changed the locomotor
response to nicotine, despite the fact that the pPPTg lesions
did not change baseline levels of locomotion during
habituation, in contrast to the aPPTg lesions. When given
nicotine, pPPTg but not aPPTg lesioned rats showed an
altered response, in that the initial locomotor depressant
effect of nicotine was not seen at all in pPPTg lesioned
rats. The locomotor effects of nicotine were similarly
changed after lesions of the LDTg (Alderson et al. 2005)
and, given that the LDTg projects to VTA but not SNC
(Oakman et al. 1995), it is likely that in the present
experiments it is loss of VTA innervation by pPPTg that is
critical.
Several intriguing microinjection and neurophysiologi-
cal studies have emphasized the role of VTA in mediating
the behavioural effects of nicotine. The present data, taken
together with the intravenous self-administration studies of
Alderson and her colleagues (2006), strengthen the belief
that the pPPTg has a role to play in mediating the behav-
ioural effects of nicotine through interaction with the VTA.
One mechanism that might underlie this is the up-regula-
tion of cholinergic receptors in the midbrain following
lesions in PPTg. This has not been examined in the VTA,
but is known that unilateral lesions of the whole PPTg
result in an increase in striatal DA efflux after microin-
jection of nicotine into the substantia nigra (Blaha and
Winn 1993). While upregulation of receptors might be a
likely mechanism, it is still important to determine which
receptors are primarily responsible for these effects. It has
been proposed that the primary effect of nicotine in the
VTA is on GABA and glutamate containing terminals, with
a direct action on DA neurons themselves being of lesser
importance (Mansvelder et al. 2002). There seems little
doubt that nicotinic activation of receptors on glutamate
terminals (Jones and Wonnacott 2004) can stimulate
release of this transmitter and consequently drive DA
neurons. Likewise, nicotinic activation of GABA neurons
(either local inhibitory interneurons or collaterals of pro-
jection neurons (Garzon et al. 1999 and possibly GABA
neurons that project back to the PPTg, Laviolette and Van
der Kooy 2004) will generate inhibitory activity, though
because of rapid desensitization this is likely to be only a
relatively brief event (Mansvelder et al. 2002). Neither of
these processes however precludes the possibility of direct
nicotinic activation of DA neurons. The cholinergic
innervation of both the SNC and VTA is well documented:
electron microscopy studies show that cholinergic fibres
penetrate the SNC, each one making multiple synaptic
contacts with the dendrites of DA neurons (Bolam et al.
1991), and in the VTA, some 40% of cholinergic terminals
are in apposition to tyrosine hydroxylase containing neu-
rons (Garzon et al. 1999). In addition, it is important to
remember that, regardless of the local synaptology, the
endogenous ligand for all the nicotinic receptors on mid-
brain DA neurons is provided by the Ch5 and Ch6 neurons
of the mesopontine tegmentum. In the present experiments
pPPTg lesions clearly alter the locomotor response to
nicotine. Identifying precisely how these lesions influence
the dynamics of neuronal interactions in the VTA—do they
affect a direct nicotinic activation of DA neurons or is the
effect mediated through GABA?—is an obvious next
question to address, as is the question as to whether or not
specific nicotinic subunits are involved in these effects.
One further possibility needs to be borne in mind. While
it might be parsimonious to explain the present data in
terms of differential PPTg innervation of the VTA, it
must also be recognized that changed activity within the
mesopontine tegmentum might directly account for all or
part of the effects. Recent work has demonstrated that
inactivation of the LDTg significantly reduces the ability of
PPTg stimulation to generate burst firing in VTA DA
neurons (Lodge and Grace 2006), with the clear implica-
tion that the PPTg and LDTg are not independent units. In
this context it is intriguing to note that excitotoxic lesions
of the LDTg (Alderson et al. 2005) produce a changed
response to repeated nicotine similar to that of pPPTg
lesioned and a baseline hypoactivity similar to that of aP-
PTg lesions.
In contrast to the effects of pPPTg lesions, aPPTg
lesions did not change the locomotor response to repeated
nicotine: an almost identical pattern to the controls of
initial locomotor depression followed later by enhancement
Brain Struct Funct (2008) 213:247–253 251
123
was found. However, aPPTg lesions did affect baseline
levels of locomotion, both in the habituation sessions and
during drug testing. This effect was not shown by rats
bearing pPPTg lesions. The level of spontaneous locomotor
activity by the aPPTg rats increased over the first days of
habituation but stabilized to a constant level through the
later sessions, and through the 7 saline/nicotine injection
regime. (Compare Fig. 2and the saline sessions for the
aPPTg rats shown in Fig. 3.) A reduction in baseline levels
of locomotor activity might be considered predictable,
given that the aPPTg is better connected to the SNC than to
the VTA. Loss of SNC DA neurons has long been asso-
ciated with the development of akinesia in 6-OHDA
lesioned rats and, of course, with Parkinsonism. The
removal of an excitatory drive to the SNC would not be
expected to have profound effects on movement, but a
small reduction in locomotion is not unexpected. One
curious point to note however is that the effect on baseline
locomotion of aPPTg lesions is very similar to that seen
after LDTg lesions (Alderson et al. 2005) despite the
observation that the LDTg projects overwhelmingly to the
VTA, not SNC. One possible explanation for this apparent
paradox is that the LDTg also makes extensive contacts
(bilaterally) with the PPTg. It is possible that these intra-
pontine connections account for the similarity of the
locomotor effects of LDTg and aPPTg lesions. The
prediction would have to be that the LDTg reduced spon-
taneous locomotor activity by virtue of eliminating an
excitatory drive on the SNC via the PPTg, though precisely
how this might be mediated is not clear. Another possi-
bility is that connections of the LDTg, other than those
with the VTA or PPTg, independently affect spontaneous
locomotor activity.
The effects described here emphasize functional disso-
ciations within PPTg. There are two points of particular
interest to note. (1) It is worth reiterating that several labs
have shown that bilateral excitotoxic lesions of the entire
PPTg do not affect spontaneous locomotor activity (for
example, Inglis et al. 1994; Olmstead and Franklin 1994)
whereas in the present data it is abundantly clear that there
is a reduction in locomotion after aPPTg but not pPPTg
lesions. The clarity of the effect is difficult to match with
clarity of explanation. Hypotheses might be couched in
terms of the effects of pPPTg lesions adding with those of
aPPTg when they were combined as ‘‘whole PPTg’’ lesions,
though if this were the case one might expect pPPTg lesions
to have the opposite effect to aPPTg on spontaneous loco-
motion, rather than no effect. Alternatively, it might be
explained in terms of the effects on DA systems: lesions of
the whole PPTg might uniformly effect midbrain DA neu-
rons, while those in the aPPTg or pPPTg alone unbalance
DA neurons. Here, it would be the relative inactivity of the
SNC that was critical. Recent hypotheses concerning the
organization of DA neurons have emphasized the inter-
connectedness of SNC and VTA, in a spiral looped system
(Haber et al. 2000) and it is therefore possible that selective
interference with a subset of this system has a different
effect to uniform interference across the whole. (2) Recent
clinical studies have demonstrated that deep brain stimu-
lation of the PPTg alleviates the akinesia shown by
Parkinsonian patients (Mazzone et al. 2005; Plaha and Gill
2005). All previous data concerning the effects of excito-
toxic lesions of the whole PPTg in rats indicate that there
are no motor impairments (see Winn 2006). The present
data however suggest that lesions within a restricted portion
of the PPTg in rats do produce motor deficits. Whether these
are achieved through effects on descending motor projec-
tions, or on re-entrant circuits into the basal ganglia, is
not yet clear. The notion of a re-entrant circuit into the
basal ganglia from PPTg is an intriguing one. It has been
recognized for many years that basal ganglia structures,
including pallidum, subthalamic nucleus and substantia
nigra zona reticulata all project to PPTg. However, it is
also the case that structures in the extended amygdala
(Heimer 2003) also project to PPTg (see for example
Zahm et al. 2001; Winn 2006 for review). It is possible
therefore that the PPTg is a structure through which basal
ganglia and extended amygdala outflow can be synthesized
in order to shape ongoing behaviour. This recalls the
notion of a limbic-motor interface (see Heimer 2003) but
set here in the mesopontine tegmentum rather than
forebrain.
In conclusion these data demonstrate functional disso-
ciations within the PPTg, consistent with the effects
already observed with self-administration of nicotine
(Alderson et al. 2006). The data are consistent with the
hypothesis that the pPPTg is more strongly associated with
VTA function rather than SNC, unlike the aPPTg which
has the reverse pattern. The data are also consistent with
the hypothesis that the anterior PPTg—analogous to the
pars dissipatus of Olszewski and Baxter—have functions
related to motor processes, while the posterior PPTg—
analogous to the pars compactus of Olszewski and Bax-
ter—are less concerned with motor control processes. This
is consistent with an emerging body of data regarding the
effectiveness of deep brain stimulation in Parkinson’s
disease.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by a Wellcome Trust
project grant (066281/Z/01/Z) to PW. We wish to thank the School of
Psychology technical staff for their help, Anna Jermyn and Susanne
Monka for their involvement with behavioural testing and David
Roche for his assistance with photography.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which per-
mits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.
252 Brain Struct Funct (2008) 213:247–253
123
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