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Making sense of the TTO production function: University technology transfer offices as process catalysts, knowledge converters and impact amplifiers
Abstract
This inductive case study of 7 US university technology transfer offices (TTOs) examines the value added that TTOs contribute to university-industry technology transfer (UITT ). We therefore (i) characterize a set of central organizational TTO practices, (ii) describe how TTOs systemically manage intangible resources to generate these practices, and (iii) describe the conceptual mechanisms through which the practices add value to UITT. The results form an inductive framework that establishes the TTO as (i) a process catalyst that lowers the threshold of UITT stakeholders to engage in technology transfer and to maintain its sustainability, (ii) a knowledge converter that enables congruence between university technology and market needs, and (iii) an impact amplifier that alleviates problems related to the opportunistic incentive structures of UITT stakeholders and maximizes societal impact. The study thus provides new insights into the internal logic of the TTO production function by qualitatively expanding and refining our understanding of the value added generated by TTOs and by helping to comprehend the relationship between inputs and outputs that underlie it.
... TTOs are primarily responsible for the protection of university created intellectual property (IP) and the management of the commercialization process (Markman, 2005;Gubitta et al., 2016;Holgersson and Aaboen, 2019). A can be considered, according to Tahvanainen and Hermans (2011), as a process catalyst, a knowledge converter, and an impact amplifier. ...
... Several studies (de Falco, 2015;Tahvanainen & Hermans, 2011) have shown, however, that many TTOs operate inefficiently (Anderson et al., 2007). These inefficiencies can be attributed to several internal and external factors. ...
... As several studies have shown (de Falco, 2015;Tahvanainen & Hermans, 2011), there are numerous observable inefficiencies in the operation of TTOs (Anderson et al, 2007), which must be understood by considering both internal and external factors influencing the efficiency of the TTO. This critical understanding aids in improving the efficiency of TTOs. ...
The university’s role in reaping the benefits from research by transforming knowledge and technology into commercially usable forms is becoming increasingly important. In this article, we seek to deepen the understanding of the technology transfer office (TTO). TTOs are primarily responsible for the protection of university created intellectual property (IP) and the management of the commercialization process. The aim of this study is to determine which internal efficiency factors are statistically significant for the efficiency of TTOs, and which barriers cited in literature are experienced by TTOs, and to, furthermore, compare these between developed and developing economies. To achieve this objective, we created a survey that was sent to 103 TTO’s distributed in 21 countries. Our results demonstrate that it is apparent that developed economies (EU and UK) have overcome certain barriers experienced by developing economies (BRA, ISA and SA). Additionally, this paper has shown that TTOs have a built-in conflict with researchers. The results also emphasize the important role of networking and industry links.
... Different definitions of a TTO and its role in the socio-economic context are observed in the literature so far. Some of them are formulated on a more philosophical level and mostly focus on the added value (Carlsson & Frith, 2002;Siegel et al., 2003a;Tahvanainen & Hermans, 2011;York, 2012;Lafuente et al., 2017), the others emphasize the functionality of these entities (Anderson et al., 2007;Ustundag et al., 2011;Hulsbeck et al., 2013;Weckowska, 2014;Vining & Lips, 2015). However, summarizing them, the following definition can be outlined as applicable within this study: By recognizing potentially commercializable inventions and identifying licensees and/or investors for them, the Technology Transfer Office is an intermediary between academia and industry, ensuring resources for the development and exploitation of the university's intellectual property. ...
... Following available literature on technology (knowledge) transfer and the performance of TTOs it is evident that so far most of it has been concentrated exceptionally on the cases in the U.S. (Shane, 2004;Thursby & Kemp, 2002;Siegel, Waldman & Link, 2003;Lockett & Wright, 2005;Anderson, Daim & Lavoie, 2007;Kim, Anderson & Daim, 2008;Heisey & Adelman, 2011;Tahvanainen & Hermans, 2011;York, 2012;Tseng & Raudensky, 2014), the UK (Lockett, Wright & Franklin, 2003;Chapple et al., 2005;Meyer & Tang, 2007;Siegel et al., 2008;Kamariah et al., 2011) and Italy (Balderi et al., 2007;Fini, Grimaldi, & Sobrero, 2009;Muscio, 2010;Fini et al., 2017;Algieri, Aquino & Succurro, 2013). The concept of TTO was developed in the U.S., thus it is consequential that most of the studies are conducted in this context. ...
Technology transfer offices (TTOs) play an important role in innovation ecosystems. There is a global strive to make these offices more efficient and improve their performance. This study aims to reason the key factors influencing the performance of TTOs at the members of the European Consortium of Innovative Universities (ECIU). To reach this aim, the comparative literature review of the factors influencing the performance of the TTOs was performed first. The survey along with the semi-structured interviews interviewing leaders of the TTOs with the aim to validate the relevance of the factors was conducted afterwards. The discussion on the key factors influencing the performance of TTOs at ECIU members is presented at the end of the study. The study reveals the following as the key factors influencing the performance of TTOs at the ECIU network: i) TTO strategy; ii) relationships with investors; iii) networking; iv) functioning of a special TTO unit dedicated to working with industry; and v) business experience of TTO staff. It also brings an extension to the technology transfer literature by discussing organizational issues of technology transfer in the European context. The study reveals that the key factors influencing the performance of TTOs at ECIU members are quite similar regardless of the age of TTOs or the country of operation.
... TTOs are primarily responsible for the protection of university created IP and the management of the commercialization process (Markman et al., 2005). A TTO can be considered, according to Tahvanainen and Hermans (2011), as a process catalyst, a knowledge converter and an impact amplifier. Universities are not equally successful in commercializing their knowledge. ...
... Among those three players, TTOs are considered by many to be key stakeholders to determine a university's overall success at this business process (AUTM, 2004). Several studies (de Falco, 2015;Tahvanainen and Hermans, 2011) have shown that a great deal of these TTOs operates inefficiently (Anderson et al., 2007). Oliveira and Teixeira (2010) state that only half of the TTOs in the USA are operating profitably. ...
Purpose
Universities concerned with third mission activities are engines that increase regional competitiveness since their primary role in the knowledge-based economy is to stimulate innovation by transferring new knowledge and technologies to industry and society. The purpose of this paper is to show how IC can be mobilized by university technology transfer offices (TTOs) due to the correlation between efficient university technology transfer and intellectual capital (IC), thus contributing to the third stage of IC research.
Design/methodology/approach
The application of the Maturity Model developed by Secundo et al. (2016) is expanded by collecting data from 18 universities in the European countries to illustrate how IC can be used as a strategy and solution to the barriers faced by TTOs.
Findings
TTOs with increased access to and utilization of IC tend to have higher maturity levels. This new application of the Maturity Model, proves that IC can be utilized to manage and improve the efficiency of TTOs.
Research limitations/implications
An indication of the level of access that TTOs have to university IC is given leading to recommendations to improve university technology transfer. Future research should include a wider sample of universities to increase the validation of the Maturity Model and to prove it as a suitable and strategic approach for IC management at TTOs.
Practical implications
Knowing which IC components are essential for the efficiency of TTOs, and which IC needs greater utilization, will provide insights into policy and practical interventions to improve their efficiency, resulting in increasing universities’ competitiveness.
Originality/value
A new approach and perspective on utilizing IC to improve university technology transfer to contribute to the third stage of IC research calling for more practice-oriented research.
... TTOs are primarily responsible for the protection of university created IP and the management of the commercialization process (Markman et al., 2005). A TTO can be considered, according to Tahvanainen and Hermans (2011), as a process catalyst, a knowledge converter and an impact amplifier. Universities are not equally successful in commercializing their knowledge. ...
... Among those three players, TTOs are considered by many to be key stakeholders to determine a university's overall success at this business process (AUTM, 2004). Several studies (de Falco, 2015;Tahvanainen and Hermans, 2011) have shown that a great deal of these TTOs operates inefficiently (Anderson et al., 2007). Oliveira and Teixeira (2010) state that only half of the TTOs in the USA are operating profitably. ...
Purpose
The process of innovation in developing countries is different from that of developed countries, with mature technologies often being adopted with limited success. Universities are increasingly being viewed by policymakers as engines of innovation through the technology transfer office (TTO). However, with the adoption of various new intellectual property right legislation, university TTOs in developing countries have had an inefficient approach to technology transfer. Framed in the above premises, this study aims to develop a Maturity Model to measure, through non-monetary indicators, the efficiency of TTOs.
Design/methodology/approach
The Maturity Model is inspired by the Berkley (PM)2 Model which allows an organization to determine strengths and weaknesses and to focus on weak practices to achieve higher maturity. Fuzzy analytical hierarchy process is adopted to determine the priorities and weights of the non-monetary indicators because they are ambiguous.
Findings
The Maturity Model to measure the efficiency of TTO cover the following efficiency areas: intellectual property strategy and policy; organization design and structure; human resource; technology; industry links; and networking. The model provides a theoretical continuum along which the process of maturity can be developed incrementally in TTO from one level to the next, moving from awareness, defined, managed, integrated and sustained stage.
Research limitations/implications
The Maturity Model needs to be tested and applied in TTOs in developing countries.
Practical implications
The Maturity Model provides a means to sustain the decision-making process more effectively, especially in those countries considered as an inefficient innovator.
Originality/value
The findings inform the design of a customizable solution to barriers to the success of technology transfer and highlight weaknesses within each institution or TTOs efficiency.
... Several studies have addressed and discussed the establishment and performances of TTOs in developing countries. Some of them demonstrated that many TTOs in developing countries are operating inefficiently (De Falco, 2015;Oliveira, Teixeira, 2010;Tahvanainen, Hermans, 2011). According to Kruss and Visser (2017), most of the TTOs in developing countries have implemented a reactive approach to the TT on a case-by-case basis, and only when the TT opportunities arise. ...
Technology transfer offices have an important role as facilitators in the management of the technology transfer process between academia and industry, and in stimulating innovation and economic development. This paper aims to provide a theoretical overview of the existing technology transfer office organizational forms and relevant factors for technology transfer, to analyze and discuss the relevant factors for successful technology transfer in Montenegro, and to identify the appropriate organizational form for the establishment of the Technology Transfer Office in Montenegro. The results of the conducted analysis indicate the establishment of the National Technology Transfer Office as the most appropriate organizational form in Montenegro. The establishment of the National Technology Transfer Office as an important and currently missing entity in the National Innovation System will have a positive impact on the technology transfer process, stimulating innovation and economic development in Montenegro.
... In this pursuit, entrepreneurial universities have often opted to establish technology transfer offices (TTOs) or similar intermediary units (Hsu et al., 2015). The TTO is the catalyst of the technology transfer process from university research to commercial application and enables the transfer of implicit knowledge, codified or non-codified knowhow, and technology to create wealth and to increase economic development (Tahvanainen and Hermans, 2011). Therefore, the performance of the TTO influences the promotion of academic entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurial configuration of the university. ...
Purpose
Successful promotion of academic entrepreneurship is a determining factor in the pursuit of university entrepreneurialism. This paper aims to illustrate how qualitative data on the performance of the technology transfer office (TTO), based on access to intellectual capital (IC) indicators, can be transformed into a metric to provide insights that assist in strategy development for a university moving towards a more entrepreneurial configuration.
Design/methodology/approach
The TTO performance metric takes the form of a self-assessment of access to IC indicators, which are determinants of effectiveness. This study involves the use of the metric through the completion of an online survey and follow-up interviews, to collect and analyse the data.
Findings
The performance of 34 TTOs in continental Europe and the UK are measured, and insights into the success of promoting academic entrepreneurship were gained. The qualitative data are studied in detail to illustrate how the university can strategically leverage IC to enhance academic entrepreneurship.
Research limitations/implications
This study recommends that the university align the mission statement and organisational structure of the TTO, to enable access to IC. This, in turn, may result in increased academic entrepreneurship activities, which will drive the university towards increased entrepreneurialism.
Practical implications
The interpretation of the qualitative data relating to the performance of the TTO, and which factors influence it, aids in understanding the performance of the entrepreneurial university and illustrates, which strategic interventions can be made.
Originality/value
Understanding the link between IC, academic entrepreneurship (as encapsulated in the performance of the TTO) and the characteristics of the entrepreneurial university is particularly useful for university management decisions.
... The number of TTOs was established over the last 20 years, starting with the US and now spreading over Europe. The scope of their activities is extended from patenting and licensing to collaborative research and company establishing (Tahvanainen & Hermans, 2011). A technology transfer strategy to perform an effective item-oriented search instead of randomly browsing all patents of the entire database is proposed by Russo et al. (Russo, Montecchi and Ying, 2012). ...
Establishing a technology transfer office (TTO) is no trivial matter. The goal is to fulfil the gap between research and innovation by involving different kinds of organizational structures aiming to assist public research organizations in managing their intellectual properties that facilitate their transformation into benefits for society. Taking into account the specifics of the transfer of technology as an innovative process described by appropriate business model, the information system is the right choice to help make the appropriate decisions. This article describes an approach to develop of a new e-media based on the proposed business model of TTO. The described model is used for development of an information system. The proposed virtual agents are used as fundamental element of developed e-media to describe some information processing functions which are performed usually by some of media users. The design of described e-media is driven by constructed business model of the office of technology transfer.
... Across Europe, this process slowly took place over time with, for example, the United Kingdom and Spain adopting laws in the early 1980s; Switzerland, France and Belgium in the 1990s; and Denmark, Germany, Norway, Slovenia, Hungary and Ireland in the 2000s (Geuna and Rossi, 2011;Giuri, Munari and Pasquini, 2013). In the wake of this process, these IP-focused policies led to the development of dedicated and centralized support within PROs for technology transfer in the Many studies have examined TTOs in terms of their effectiveness in enhancing university-industry technology transfer (Siegel, Waldman and Link, 2003) and the institutional and environmental factors that determine their effectiveness (Geuna and Muscio, 2009;Siegel, Waldman and Link, 2003;Tahvanainen and Hermans, 2011). However, although research has analyzed the impact of innovation-specific variables, such as patents and firm innovativeness, on the university-industry link, TTOs' organizational dynamics remain under-researched (Perkmann and Walsh, 2007). ...
TTOs have been considered the most important instrument for universities to support and develop academic entrepreneurship. Various policies and instruments can be implemented by TTOs to support the commercialization of academic knowledge. We focus on factors such as TTOs' governance and their internal organization, the mission/ strategy underlying their activities, and the national and specific constrains under which they work to better understand the role of TTOs and the role of universities as facilitators (or inhibitors) of academic entrepreneurship. Using the data from a survey developed under the FinKT (Financing Knowledge Transfer in Europe) project, we provide evidence on the support that academic, European TTOs offer to academic entrepreneurship using a cross-country lens.
... TTos have been the subject of many studies, where the majority have scrutinized their effectiveness in enhancing university-industry technology transfer (Siegel et al., 2003), and the institutional, environmental and organizational factors which determine TTos' effectiveness (Geuna and Muscio, 2009;Siegel et al., 2003;Tahvanainen and Hermans, 2011). But while most existing research focuses on the effects of university-industry links on innovation-specific variables, such as patents or firm innovativeness, the organizational dy-124 Economia e Politica Industriale © E d i z i o n i F r a n c o A n g e l i namics of these relationships remain under-researched (Perkmann and walsh, 2007). ...
Although university-industry collaboration has been analyzed following different perspectives and approaches, some aspects are still scant and unexplored. This article assesses, by referring to an inductive, exploratory case study of technology transfer offices (henceforth TTOs), how external support may affect university-industry collaboration, and what characteristics both parties and intermediary units might facilitate in the success of this relationship. We considered two of the most active TTOs in Italy, namely Politecnico of Torino and University of Bologna, using various documents and twenty-five semistructured interviews with academics, CEOs' and TTOs' employees. Tapping the subdivision identified by Van Dierdonck and Debackere (1988), different barriers to universityindustry collaboration, pointed out by respondents, are proposed. Additionally, our findings revealed previously underexplored aspects about TTOs' support to university-industry relationships. In particular, we argue that university-industry collaboration is more likely to succeed if parties resort to external support (such as that of TTOs), and if specific characteristics of both parties and TTOs subsist. A summarizing model is proposed.
A transferência de tecnologia busca transferir conhecimentos e inovações de uma organização para outra, e é considerada um importante instrumento para a promoção de competitividade no setor produtivo, bem como para o desenvolvimento industrial e econômico das nações. Para que alcance o objetivo a que se propõe, são necessárias estruturas de apoio e práticas de gestão de transferência de tecnologia. Desse modo, o presente estudo tem como objetivo analisar como o tema gestão de transferência de tecnologia vem sendo explorado recentemente em pesquisas nacionais e internacionais. Trata-se de um estudo de caráter exploratório, com abordagem qualitativa, realizado por meio de uma revisão sistemática da literatura. Os resultados evidenciam estudos que se relacionam com o tema, permitindo classificá-los em três grupos: modelos de transferência de tecnologia, processos de transferência de tecnologia colaborativos e análise da gestão de transferência de tecnologia. Os estudos revelam que, atualmente, o processo de transferência de tecnologia não atende as necessidades e complexidades das relações que se estabelecem com esse propósito, sendo preciso maior interação entre as partes interessadas, assim como considerar os diferentes aspectos que permeiam esse processo. Os escritórios de transferência de tecnologia são estruturas para a gestão da transferência de tecnologia, contudo, precisam ter atuação fortalecida para garantir o sucesso da transferência de tecnologia. Para estudos futuros, sugere-se a realização de novas pesquisas em diferentes bases de dados, bem como a realização de análises e comparações do processo de transferência de tecnologia em países em desenvolvimento.
Os Sistemas de Informação com Inteligência Artificial vêm promovendo uma série de inovações disruptivas em todo o mundo e são considerados uma área prioritária pelo governo brasileiro. A Propriedade Intelectual, estabelecida por meio de acordos e leis internacionais, é o principal mecanismo utilizado na sociedade moderna para garantir aos inventores o direito de obter uma recompensa por sua criação. Nesse sentido, esta pesquisa parte do seguinte problema: como a PI está sendo utilizada no Brasil? Especificamente, foi pretendido: 1) verificar se há patentes de invenções concedidas no Brasil; 2) examinar a situação dos pedidos e os juros ao longo do tempo; 3) identificar os principais inventores e suas origens; 4) as principais áreas de aplicação. Os procedimentos metodológicos tratam da criação de um panorama de patentes dos pedidos de patentes de invenções que tenham em seu título o termo “inteligência artificial”. A análise considerou pedidos de patente ao Instituto Nacional da Propriedade Industrial que contenham em seu título o termo "inteligência artificial". Como resultado o estudo analisou 39 pedidos de patentes, identificando duas patentes concedidas a uma universidade brasileira e um interesse crescente em registrar invenções baseadas em Inteligência Artificial. O interesse das empresas americanas na proteção nacional é notável, apesar do processo demorado e discutível. O aumento da compreensão dos critérios de patenteabilidade das invenções baseadas em software deve promover um maior aproveitamento desse tipo de Propriedade Intelectual, aprimorando a proteção já garantida pela Lei do Software.
This paper studies a retail chain that introduced a sales incentive plan that rewarded for exceeding a sales target and subsequently cut the incentive intensity in addition to increasing the target. Utilizing monthly panel data for 54 months for all 53 units of the chain the paper shows that the introduction of the sales incentive plan increased sales and profitability, while the changes in the plan lead to a marked drop in sales and profitability. Thus, modifying the incentive plan proved costly for the firm. The results are consistent with the gift-exchange model of labor contracts.
The study shows that the exceptional drop in volume of Finland's GDP in 2009 - as much as 8 per cent -was to a large extent due to huge decline in exports and production of one industry, ICT. The contribution of ICT (or electronics and electro-technical industry) to GDP decline was close to two percentage points. The reduction of the industry's value added resulted, again, from the dramatic deterioration of profits (capital income). Nokia is by far the biggest player in the industry (more than half of the value added), and the decline of profits is mainly due to Nokia. Since 80-90 per cent of Nokia's shares is owned by foreigners, the consequences of profit and value added decline are felt mainly outside Finland. Similarly, when the values added and profits grew in the early 2000s, the contribution to GDP growth was overestimated. The reason is that national accounting does not take into account the ownership structure of accumulated retained profits. However, as a result of the crisis the Finnish economy has experienced a permanent decline in its potential production.
The study investigates empirically how ownership affects firms' domestic employment and its fluctuations. We look at six different ownership categories: first generation family businesses, second generation (or older) family businesses, state-owned companies, foreign-owned companies, publicly listed companies, and others (e.g. co-operatives and non-listed, non-family companies). It turns out that ownership matters. Volatility of employment in listed companies is much higher than in other firms. State-owned companies show the highest stability in employment, and they have also reduced their personnel less than others during the economic crisis of 2008-2009. The group of 'second generation family businesses' shows higher stability of employment than 'first generation'. Family businesses (especially the second or subsequent generation enterprises) are typically not high-growth firms. They seem to prefer stability over swift growth.
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