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Abstract
A nation brand is a complicated multi-facet construct. Even the critics of nation branding have admitted that nation brands exist. What they dispute is what nation branding refers to, and how a nation can be branded. This article aims to clarify some misunderstandings about nation branding. A conceptual framework is developed to illustrate the origins and different interpretations of the concept. Detailed comparisons are drawn between nation branding and commercial branding. A new definition is offered, which emphasises the need to shift from branding the nation to nation image management. The use of nation image management is not only a change of terms but also helps overcome the public scepticism over the use of branding, and clarifies what can be branded and what cannot be branded.
... Nation branding includes and deals with a large number of stakeholders 1 . Interactions with all kinds of stakeholders should be realised through relevant channels with the help of relevant messages [Fan, 2010]. In this case, digital communication tools are becoming increasingly important. ...
... The most common reason for a country to develop a nation brand is economic factors [Anholt, 2004;Gudjonsson, 2005;Dinnie, 2008;Alam, Almotairi, Gaadar, 2013;Hao et al., 2021]. However, the nation brand increases the competitiveness of companies operating on the territory of the country, not only due to economic factors, but also social, political, cultural, etc. [Martens, Starke, 2008;Fan, 2010;Kaneva, 2011;Pop et al., 2020]. ...
... Place branding is about promoting a product or service to the target audience. Nation branding is another direction, since there is no product or service to sell, no advertising purpose, and nation branding appeals to people to see the country from a different angle [Fan, 2010]. For this reason, the copying of commercial methods and tools is not relevant for nation brands and cannot be used in the implementation of nation branding. ...
Globalisation and digitalisation blur the borders between countries and they lose their uniqueness. Relations between countries are becoming close; however, national priorities and ideas of each country are becoming less clear. Nation branding helps to bridge the gap between how a state positions itself and how it is actually perceived. Digital communication tools provide benefits for the realisation of a nation brand. The development of digitalisation as one of the priorities for a country as well as the growth of the number of “digital” audiences necessitate the use of digital communication tools in the implementation of nation branding. Although the use of digital communication tools is common in the commercial and non-commercial sectors, there is a lack of research establishing the relationship between the goals of nation branding and the relevant digital communication tools to achieve these goals. This article analyses the possibilities of digital communication tools in reaching the goals of nation branding. The concepts of a nation brand and nation branding are defined, and the main functions of nation branding are highlighted. There were selected five digital communication tools that are of the greatest interest for the implementation of nation branding; their advantages were identified. Digital communication tools are aligned with the goals of nation branding. The capabilities of digital communication tools to achieve the goals of nation branding are determined. Keywords: nation brand, nation branding, digital communications, communication tools, nation branding goals, digitalisation.
... Many studies have been done on nation branding in the past. These studies emphasized the importance of tourism in nation branding (Papadopoulos and Hamzaoui-Essoussi, 2015;Steenkamp, 2019;Papadopoulos et al., 2016;Fan, 2010;Hao et al., 2019;Vecchi et al., 2021;Andersson and Paajanen, 2012;Fetscherin and Marmier, 2010;Sataøen, 2019;Rodner and Kerrigan, 2018;Schatz et al., 2015;Berrada, 2021;Cho, 2017;Dinnie, 2008b;Jaffe, 2015;Jones, 2017;St ahlberg and Bolin, 2016;Cull, 2012Cull, , 2016Xuereb, 2017). ...
... In recent years, the concept of nation branding has emerged as a new terminology related to concepts such as destination branding, public diplomacy and national identity in tourism (Fan, 2010). Nation branding attracts the attention of researchers and practitioners because it has a natural outcome such as developing a positive country image (Dinnie, 2008a). ...
... Therefore, nation branding aims to attract tourists and foreign investments in order to increase the export of the country's products (Anholt, 2003;Aronczyk, 2008;Che-Ha et al., 2016). In general, the interest of nation branding is closely related to the image and reputation of a country in the world (Fan, 2010). This may affect the interest in the products produced by the country in question and the destinations it has (Papadopoulos et al., 2016). ...
Purpose
Nation branding efforts are carried out by means of communication. The element, which is the object of communication tools, must have an analogical connection with nation branding. The object of analogy should have attractive features that will strengthen the nation brand. Online tourism content, which has the quality to add value to nation branding, can produce a strong analogy. Online tourism content can easily be internalized in a positive way, as it creates attractive connotations such as memories, entertainment, holidays, etc. in the mind of the audience. In this direction, the research aims to reveal that the online tourism brand is a strategic transmission tool of nation branding.
Design/methodology/approach
The research study was carried out with the semiotics method. Content analysis has been made for the videos of GoTürkiye, Turkey's tourism brand, on YouTube.
Findings
Research findings show that content covering a large part of Turkey has been created. Messages to be given in the content; it is that Turkey has authentic and attractive elements and hosts international events. The content on GoTürkiye's YouTube has reached a significant number of views.
Practical implications
The research aims to reveal how to build an online nation brand through online tourism brands. In this respect, it is thought that the results can guide the politicians or marketers responsible for nation branding.
Originality/value
The idea of how to build an online nation branding through online tourism brands remains unclear. In this respect, the research demonstrates its original value in proposing a model that will contribute to online nation branding.
... Destinations have long been investing in building strong brands that focus on sustainability, as stronger brands tend to increase the attention that a particular destination receives from stakeholders [10]. However, these efforts are known to be very challenging due to the lack area and providing use as a way of living in terms of its natural setting, national identities, commercial activities, and urban planning [26,27]. ...
... Examining the benefits of environmental, social, and economic sustainability is undoubtedly an adequate development path for places to be positioned in tourism as competitive and niche, offering dynamic experiences [31]. An example is social life as the ingredient that provides the ethical essence and identity, as well as the human aspects that make the place authentic and unique in terms of tourism [27]. An additional concept aligned with place branding and sustainability is destination social responsibility (hereafter DSR) [9,32]. ...
Admittedly, tourism stakeholders become more aware of the negative impacts of tourism, and it has become increasingly important to brand and position destinations towards sustainability. The main concern is emphasizing economic, social, and environmental awareness and implementation at the destination level regarding planning and development. This paper identifies the importance of sustainable place branding as part of destination social responsibility in the current global context. The main focus is identifying visitors’ responses as part of sustainable destination marketing. The study conducts a systematic literature review by rigorously selecting 26 related articles from the 106 search results for further analysis. The study results highlight the emergence of sustainable place branding concepts in academic literature, especially after the post-pandemic period. The themes identified in the literature analysis revolve around sustainable place branding in creating unique tourism experiences and engagement that resonates with the visitors’ self-perceptions and expectations of a destination. Sustainable place branding positively impacts destination image, trust, value, and loyalty. Moreover, it can create positive visitor outcomes, such as an intention to revisit because of positive word of mouth. The article concludes with suggestions for future research, emphasizing the need to explore further sustainable place branding and its influence on visitors’ responses in the evolving landscape of global tourism.
... Ello se explica también en el contexto del neoliberalismo y la globalización (Jordan, 2014;Stahlbergh y Göran, 2016). No es gratuito que la primera campaña de la que se tiene registro (Fan, 2010). ...
... [U]n proceso estratégico sistemático que involucra a los sectores público y privado para diseñar una estrategia de marca para la nación, comunicar los valores fundamentales y la identidad nacional de la nación, y aplicar estrategias y tácticas de marca para promover la imagen de una nación, mejorar la reputación del país entre todos los diferentes audiencias, diferenciar a una nación de otras naciones y alcanzar competitividad económica, social, política, empresarial e internacional. (Rojas-Méndez, y Khoshnevis, 2022: 114) Por ello, crear, modificar, monitorear y evaluar son procesos fundamentales de la gestión de la marca-país (Fan, 2010), que contribuyen a diferenciarla de otros como el de la construcción de la nación (nation-building) y el nacionalismo "suave" o "banal". En el primer caso, la disparidad esencial es que las estrategias de construcción de la nación se dan hacia el interior de un Estado, teniendo como público principal la propia población (comunicación política intraestatal); mientras que las de gestión de marca-país se dan al exterior del Estado (Jordan, 2014; Stahlbergh y Göran, 2016; Rojas-Méndez y Khoshnevis, 2022). ...
En 2014, Suecia adoptó una Política Exterior Feminista, a partir de entonces una serie de países en el mundo lo han seguido: Noruega (2016), Canadá (2017), Francia y Luxemburgo (2019), España y Alemania (2021) y Chile (2023). En septiembre de 2019, México se anunció como el primer país de América Latina y del Sur Global que adopta una política exterior de esta naturaleza. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo caracterizar a la Política Exterior Feminista, promovida por el Gobierno mexicano encabezado por Andrés Manuel López Obrador, como una estrategia de comunicación política internacional, que puede entenderse desde la diplomacia pública y la gestión de la marca-país (nation-branding). Con ello, busco establecer los puntos de convergencia entre esas tres perspectivas teóricas con el fin de desarrollar un marco que permita problematizar el uso de la agenda feminista en la promoción de los países a nivel internacional de manera interdisciplinaria.
... Estados, similarmente ao setor corporativo, fomentam outros atores vislumbrando o alcance de objetivos, a ampliação das redes de influência e a capacidade de negociação. Logo, uma estratégia de promoção da marca-país permite a coordenação de ações domésticas e externas promotoras a imagem competitiva do Estado, capacitando-o a gerar percepções eficazes e consistentes em distintos níveis(FAN, 2009). Em outras palavras, ações direcionadas em diferentes dimensões, não restritas aos tradicionais canais diplomáticos formais, alcançam o aprimoramento da reputação em públicos alvos. ...
... Naturalmente, não basta criar uma narrativa sem lastro na realidade. Como lembraFan (2009), o êxito da estratégia de "branding" requer que os diferentes grupos sociais a identifiquem como legítima e capaz de marcar os diferenciais competitivos positivos daquele país.Nesse contexto de potencialidades da ação estatal, a atração do interesse internacional por promoção de dinâmicas sociais, valores e produtos, dentre outros, viabiliza o desenvolvimento da ideia de uma marca à nação, um conceito que identifica a capacidade de inserção dos Estados num sistema internacional que compete pela atração de recursos, isto é, uma identidade apta à apresentação internacional. Isso significa que a identidade competitiva é um modelo sintetizador capaz de projetar a imagem do Estado em um cenário globalizado, utilizando-se de uma audiência global para gerar meios propícios ao aumento de sua atratividade, uma vez que seja bem sucedido em ligar-se aestruturas de pensamento que o favoreça (ANHOLT, 2007). ...
Analisa-se a marca-país como estratégia de inserção internacional pela qual o Estado gerencia sua imagem frente a um sistema globalizado e competitivo. Trata-se de pesquisa exploratória de natureza qualitativa que recupera o quadro analítico de Anholt para avaliar a marca Qatar. Conclui-se que a promoção da marca-país contribui para destacar atributos e recursos positivos nacionais além de oferecer uma alternativa a narrativas rasas e histórias únicas disseminadas em desfavor de alguns Estados.
... Nation branding, originally attached to the marketing of destinations and places, diplomacy, and international relations, focuses on how a nation positions itself using traits and cultural markings to increase its competitiveness and soft power in various ways (Fan, 2008(Fan, , 2010. Such branding processes have been studied in the Nordic domain to some extent (Andersen, 2020;Browning, 2007;Kettunen, 2011;Marklund, 2017;Mouritzen, 1995;Strang et al., 2021), but not from the perspective of education and its export. ...
This chapter explores the confluence of the (myths of) the so-called Nordic model through the commercialisation of Nordic education abroad. We investigate education export in Finland and Sweden to uncover the various aspects of the multifaceted Nordic model in education. Our research enquires the ways the policy rhetoric on education export in Finland and Sweden represents the Nordic model in education. Acknowledging that the term ‘Nordic’ has been employed not only as a rhetorical device for political purposes but also for business objectives, our analysis highlights substantial differences in education export approaches in the two countries. In fact, both national contexts have offered opportunities for private edu-business actors to flourish, thereby sustaining the global education industry. Education exports are strategically positioned rhetorically in relation to both the national and Nordic contexts in diverse ways, which has implications for how Nordic education is framed within the globalised economy. By examining education export and the representation of the Nordic model, we offer empirical and analytical insights into the processes that shape, exploit, support, and challenge specific depictions and interpretations of the Nordic model in education.
... It has been defined by relying on international legitimacy as a distinctive feature of a country's reputation, as: "the presence or absence of the deserved international legitimacy of a country, and it is often closer to soft power" (Tucker & Henrickson, 2004, p. 81 )38ــ Based on its various images among the external public, it was described as: "a set of images that have formed with stakeholders over time" (Passow ,et al., 2005, p. 309 ,)923ــ and described by relying on the good attributes of the country, as: "everything related to the country having a good name among nations, because national reputation is undoubtedly a tool of power (Wang , 2006, p. 91 ")69ــ This clarifies that refining and managing a good national and international reputation is no longer exclusive to individuals and companies. Reputation of countries has been defined based on communicative aspects and their connection to the characteristics of the state, as: "One type of echo feedback that a country receives from the external world, reflecting the credibility of its identity" (Fan, 2010, p. 97 .)301ــ Relying on personal experiences and information from the internal and external audience is the first attempt to develop a clear concept of country reputation, where it is described as: "Perceptions about a country shared by the local and international audience based on personal experience and information received" (Kang & Yang, 2010, p. 52 .)26ــ Country reputation is also described as predicting the future behavior of the state as: "General beliefs about the image and identity of the state that predict its future performance" (Mercer, 2010). Country reputation is also described as: "An accumulated image of a country over a long period of time" (Youssef & Li, 2015, p. 399 ,)114ــ and as: "Stakeholders' perceptions of the relative status of a country on dimensions relevant to the context of exchange" (Dimitrova,et al, 2017). ...
This study sought to uncover the direct and indirect effects of the role of television drama in managing States' reputation, drawing on the comparative correlative approach, and using the identification to gather data from a sample of 382 drama viewers. The results showed that dramas played a positive role in their viewers' perceptions of States, and it turned out that drama viewers were regular in "moderate" proportions of time, and that the results showed a high level of assessment by drama viewers of nations' reputations, whether Korean or Turkish. However, the ranking of reputational factors was different for the two states according to the public attitudes of drama viewers towards those countries, and Korean TV drama also proved to have a direct impact on the management of the Korean state's reputation, while Turkish drama had no tangible impact on the management of the Turkish state's reputation
... The etymology and evolution of these theories include terms such as "economy diplomacy," "science diplomacy," "digital diplomacy," "technology diplomacy," "innovation diplomacy," "techplomacy," and "tech diplomacy" (Mashiah 2023). As Fig. 1 shows and based on prior theoretical and practical knowledge of soft diplomacy (Anholt 2006;Dinnie 2015;Fan 2010;Gudjonsson 2005;Kaneva 2011), nations, whether in developed or underdeveloped regions of the world, can effectively utilize high-tech marketing strategies for nation branding purposes. ...
Innovation is essential for all entities today, including cities, states, regions, and nations. These entities not only establish policies to drive actual innovation but also implement marketing strategies to maintain an image of innovation. This study highlights the strategic role of the innovation-messaging of places around the world. It explores the potential benefits of employing innovation-messaging at the national level for branding purposes, emphasizing its role in job creation, the utilization of inherent resources, as well as its ability to stimulate tourism and economic growth. Through content analysis comparing the ‘most innovative nations’ and ‘less innovative nations’ worldwide, this paper underscores the necessity of innovation-centered storytelling and high-tech marketing strategies in shaping the image of nations. The study also discusses innovation diplomacy and the soft power adopted by nations to promote such messaging for nation branding.
... Using Anholt's theory of the national brand (Anholt, 2007;Fan, 2010) and the push and pull theory of migration motives (Lee, 1966), Yousaf et al. (2020) developed a model that allows determining the relationship between the affective and cognitive image of countries of origin and migration destination. The model also considers migration motives and intentions. ...
... Однако в ряде Северных стран, в т.ч. в Швеции, именно так она и трактуется [Говорова, Журавель, Самыловская, 2018;Журавель, 2021;Кузнецов, Межевич, Болотов, 2016;International Arctic Science…, 2014;Рыжкова, Сергеев, 2019;Larsen, 2021;Fan, 2010]. ...
The article examines the relationship between soft power, nation branding, and educational and cultural cooperation within the framework of the Swedish Institute's policy of international cooperation to promote the country’s image abroad and strengthen the position of its reputational capital. The relevance of addressing this topic is due to the significance of the stated agenda, which, as our research has shown, influenced not only the development of cultural cooperation and academic exchanges, but also the features of building Sweden’s foreign policy image. Based on the analysis of the organization’s materials and data in reports from 2022–2023, the authors aimed to show the process of forming the priorities of the organization’s activities within the framework of the distribution of financial support and the focus of cultural and educational projects. To this end, the role and parameters of building a national brand are analyzed; changes in the topics of educational and cultural events and programs conducted by Sweden in the countries of Eastern Europe and the Baltic region are considered; the dynamics of the processes of cultural exchange between Sweden and these countries are traced; the influence of the current political situation on the volume and measures of financial assistance to them is noted; and the perception of Sweden in Russia, Eastern European and Baltic countries is characterized. The study was based on the methods of comparative analysis, discourse analysis, and case study techniques. It was concluded that in implementing a diverse range of educational and cultural programs, the Swedish Institute adheres to the principle of regionalism, which allows the implementation of such projects, taking into account the interests and needs of both Sweden and partner countries. It was shown that when determining the parameters of national branding, the Swedish Institute relies on the approach of S. Anholt, clarifying it in a number of areas. According to the findings of the study, adaptation of relevant programs for the development of cooperation with partner countries, is aimed at integrating specific Swedish values into the cultural matrix of the host cultures. The global political situation strongly influences the realization of programs, thus causing the exclusion of such an important international partner as Russia. The study confirmed the initial thesis about the relatively slow accumulation of Sweden’s reputational capital, including in the process of the Swedish Institute’s work with ‘promising’ (in the current environment) countries, as well as with the countries of Eastern Europe and the Baltic states. It is further concluded that the Swedish Institute is not only a key actor in the country's cultural and educational policy, as well as a powerful channel of soft power, but also an instrument for Sweden's positioning of itself as a moral superpower, which can be seen in many areas of its policies that go beyond fields of public diplomacy.
... O efeito país de origem pode estar associado à imagem de país de origem, que é uma representação mental de estereótipos culturais de pessoas, produtos, cultura e símbolos amplamente relacionados a um país (VERLEGH & STEENKAMP, 1999). A soma das percepções que os steakholders atribuem a um país (seja de forma intencional ou não) forma a marca país (FAN, 2010). A marca de um produto pode ser estendida a outro produto de uma categoria diferente via similaridade (AAKER & KELLER, 1990). ...
RESUMOO vinho é caracterizado pela complexidade de fatores envolvidos em seu processo de escolha, sendo o país de origem um dos atributos que apresenta particularidades nas preferências dos consumidores. O objetivo desse trabalho é identificar como o país de origem do produto influencia na escolha do consumidor de vinho. O efeito país de origem foi analisado sob três enfoques: diferenças entre produtos tipificados e não tipificados, diferenças regionais conforme proximidade do consumidor ao centro produtor e diferenças oriundas do envolvimento do consumidor com o produto. Foram realizados dois estudos por choice-based conjoint analysis com 120 respondentes. Os resultados revelam que vinho é um produto no qual o país de origem assume relevância para o processo de escolha, mas tal preferência não é repassada a um produto similar e de uso conjunto como o saca-rolhas. Vinhos brasileiros apresentaram maior utilidade para consumidores próximos ao centro produtor, mas menor utilidade para consumidores mais afastados do produtor. Consumidores mais envolvidos com vinho apresentaram maior utilidade associada ao país de origem quando comparados com consumidores com menor envolvimento. Este trabalho oferece uma contribuição em relação à identificação de diferentes efeitos de país de origem conforme a similaridade de produtos e tipos de consumidores.
... Additionally, a nation's brand has swiftly become a pivotal criterion influencing foreign businesses' decisions about where to invest (Lee and Lee 2019; Montanari and Giraldi 2018). While early research in the intersection of nation branding and FDI primarily focused on defining and discussing these concepts (Dinnie 2005(Dinnie , 2015Fan 2010; Morgan et al. 2011), the past decade has witnessed a significant expansion in scholarly attention to this multifaceted subject, with a multidisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach (Joshi 2018;Lahrech et al. 2020a, b;Montanari and Giraldi 2018). ...
Nation branding plays a critical role in attracting foreign businesses and, by extension, sustaining countries’ economic development and global competitiveness. Using Qatar as a lens for investigation, this research applied the single, embedded case study method. Purposive sampling with key decision makers in Qatar-based foreign companies representing diverse geographies and industries were used to understand the influence of nation branding on their investment location decision. The findings revealed five key thematic features of Qatar’s nation brand as an investment destination: socioeconomic prosperity, integrated global hub, activist engagement, collectivist culture, and high-end lifestyle. These brand characteristics were compared in relation to the Eclectic Paradigm’s locational advantage and the Anholt Ipsos NBI’s dimensions of exports, governance, culture/heritage, people, tourism, and investment/immigration. The dimensions exerted a strong effect on Qatar’s nation brand and varying levels of influence on FDI attraction. This research contributes to the nexus between nation branding and the FDI literature. Importantly, the results of the study provide useful guidance to government officials, policymakers, and public and private agencies involved in investment promotion. The findings will also prove relevant to foreign investors with regard to their international expansion and location choice.
... Rephrasing Fan (2010), place branding can be defined as a process by which a place's images can be created, monitored, evaluated and proactively managed in order to improve or enhance the reputation of the place among a target (international) audience. Both image and reputation represent specific states or conditions at given moments, while place branding is a continuous process with the objective of attaining such desired state. ...
This article explores the question of whether place branding should be considered a public policy. While place branding has gained attention in the fields of marketing and related disciplines, its connection to various public policy areas highlights its broader implications. This study aims to provide conceptual clarity on the matter, arguing for the inclusion of place branding within the public policy discourse. The article employs a conceptual framework to assess the alignment of place branding with the key attributes of public policy. A comparative case study of nation branding practices in seven European countries—Estonia, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, Portugal, Spain, and Slovakia—is conducted to assess the applicability of the conceptual framework of public policy to studying nation branding. The case study demonstrates the potential of such approach, highlighting gaps and challenges in the current practices of nation branding. The article concludes by discussing the implications of applying the policy approach to place branding and exploring future research opportunities.
... In a connected and competitive world, hosting Mega Events can be a soft power exercise tool, significantly affecting the global landscape. Clearly, the benefits are not limited to tourism, since the preparation for sports competitions requires the movement of athletes, finding sponsors, entering into partnerships, etc. (Fan, 2010). Throughout this process of organization and management, a fundamental element is the strategies used, among them the branding of the host country/city (Luša, 2017). ...
Purpose – The purpose of the research is to capture the short-term and long-term positive results from the organization of a mega-event in the tourism development of the host country.
Individual objectives concern the economic, social and cultural effects of a mega sports event, the economic, environmental and social effects on tourism, as well as possible opportunities
through the creation of new ones and the improvement of the existing sports and tourist infrastructure.
Design/methodology/approach – 1. What are the short-term benefits of organizing a mega-event in tourism? 2. What are the long-term benefits of organizing a mega-event in tourism (heritage of the tourism product)? The bibliographic review will be used methodologically to answer the research questions, through the use of secondary research sources.
Findings – The impact that major sporting events have is huge for the host countries, in terms of tourism and the revenue generated by visitors, the visibility that the country acquires, as well as the awareness of the people on issues related to its culture and culture. The benefits for the host country are many, both in the short and long term. Research
limitations/implications – The results have shown that the benefits are varied, but further research is needed, with a focus on the environmental footprint and sustainable practices applied to such events.
Practical implications – The aspect of usefulness of the research will provide information about the real results of organizing a popular mega-event, the opportunities it gives to the
local community, as well as the immediate financial benefits. Furthermore, it will highlight that the international tourism industry has recently intensified its efforts, so that sports tourism
grows into a strategic factor in the reshaping and planning of a country's tourist traffic, with emphasis on the proper rational organization and future utilization of infrastructure.
Originality/value – The research becomes original, as it focuses on the organization of a mega-event and the positive impact it had on levels of tourist demand, despite the adversity generated by the fact of the terrorist attack
... That is make the country as a large entity that contains tangibles material things such as antiquities, beaches or museums, and intangibles things such as culture and history (Fig.2) Relationships Nation brand elements can be classified into two groups (Figure2) Therefore, one of the objectives of nation brand presence is to create an international tourism position that can compete in the global market and attract foreign tourists and investors, by enhancing its cultural heritage, diversifying its tourism products, and marketing its various destinations with a focus on its future and the efforts made in that sector to enhance the country's reputation among the target international audience (Fan, 2010) Marketing the state as a brand in the tourism sector comes from advertising efforts for the tourist places in it. Advertising methods are highly effective for society and the state and tourism advertising is not considered a tool to attract tourists from tourist or archaeological areas only. ...
... Nation branding is the deliberate positioning of a specific national image, which involves positively negotiating its reputation through people, society, and government (Anholt, 2007;Chen, 2012;Dinnie, 2008). These impressions or identity narratives are rhetorically driven (Fan, 2010;Lee & Hong, 2012;Liu, 2020). Mediated platforms such as traditional and social media play important roles during special events, augmenting their impact on national image construction and branding. ...
Responding to calls for more visual rhetorical studies in public relations, in this research, we extend Symbolic Convergence Theory to analyze the photographs posted on Facebook by the President of Ghana, H. E. Nana Akufo-Addo, during the 2021 presidential inauguration and explore how users engaged with them. The study first explains why presidential inaugurations are important to public relations, then explores fantasy themes and their implications. We argue that the visual rhetoric employed by the Ghanaian President constructed national images reinforcing Ghana’s COVID-19 management status, the united branches of government, international support for and recognition of the President, and Ghana’s religious tolerance. We also posit that the visual rhetoric impacted the fantasy themes and discuss the implications of our findings.
... O'z navbatida, In Fan milliy brendni -"…jahon miqyosida manfaatdor tomonlar ongida millat haqidagi tasavvurlar to'plami. Ular quyidagi elementlarni o'z ichiga olishi mumkin: insonlar, joy, madaniyat, til, tarix, taom, moda, mashhur shaxslar, global brendlar va boshqalar" deya ta'riflaydi [5]. ...
Milliy brend xalqaro maydonda milliy manfaatlarni ilgari surish, siyosiy suverinitetni saqlab qolish, boshqa mamlakatlar bilan ijtimoiy, iqtisodiy, siyosiy va madaniy munosabatlarini belgilashning ilg‘or mexanizmi sifatida namoyon bo‘lib, uni yaratish va targ‘ib qilishga bo‘lgan talab kun sayin ortib bormoqda
... Yalnızca dışarıdakilerin algıladığı gerçek imajla ilgili olan ulusmarka kavramından farklı olarak, ulus-marka imajı hem dışarıdakilerin hem de içeridekilerin ulus imajlarına ilişkin algıladığı gerçek imajlarla ilgilidir(Kaneva, 2011). Bir ulusun marka imajı, aslında ulus imajındaki temel perspektiflere dayalı olarak, ulusun çok yönlü imajlarından oluşan bir inşa süreci olarak ifade edilebilir(Fan, 2010). Bu noktada Ulus-marka imajı, bir ülkenin ulusal boyutları ve faaliyetleriyle ilişkilendirilen, gerçek imajı, ulusal kimliği ve algılanmak istenen gelecek imajına dayalı olarak bir ülkenin hükümeti tarafından yönetilen çok yönlü görsellerinin toplamı olarak tanımlanmaktadır(Rashid, 2013: 172) Esasitibariyle ulus markalaşması insanları bir ülkenin başarılarının farkına varması ve onun kalitesine inanmasıyla ilgilidir. ...
Ulus markalama bir devletin, başka devletlerin toplumları üzerinde olumlu imaj oluşturmak için kullandığı en aktif ve stratejik yöntemlerden biridir. Bu nedenle ulus markalama faaliyetleri günümüzde özellikle gelişmiş ve gelişmekte olan ülkeler tarafından tercih edilerek kitle iletişim araçları vasıtasıyla diğer ülkelerin halkları üzerinde olumlu etki oluşturmak için kullanılmaktadır. Günümüzde şehirler, bölgeler ve ülkeler kendileriyle ilgili olumlu bir imaj yaratarak görünürlüklerini ve tanınırlıklarını arttırmak istemektedirler. Zira küreselleşen dünyada devletler yatırımcılar, yeni sakinler ve turistler de dâhil olmak üzere çeşitli müşteriler için diğer, ülkeler, bölgeler ve destinasyonlarla rekabet etmektedirler. Farklı ölçeklerdeki yerler, bugün kendilerini bir meta gibi markalaştırarak cazibelerini arttırmak istemektedirler. Bu nedenle gelinen noktada markalaşma, ürünlerin, yerlerin ve ulusların kimliğini tanıtmak ve şekillendirmek için giderek daha fazla benimsenen bir pazarlama aracı
haline gelmiştir. Bu bakımdan ulus markalama bir ulusun imajını desteklemek için markalama ve pazarlama iletişimi tekniklerinin uygulanması ile ilgili bir durumdur. Bir başka deyişle ulus markalama ülkeleri tanıtmak için kurumsal markalaşma tekniklerini uygulama sürecidir, temel amaç bir devletin itibarını inşa etmek ve yönetmektir.
Ulus markalama her ne kadar günümüzde popüler hale gelen bir olgu olsa da kökeni 19. yüzyıla kadar dayanmaktadır. Bununla birlikte bu kavram ilk olarak 1996’da Simon Anholt tarafından kullanıldıktan sonra birçok ülke tarafından dikkate alınmış ve kendi ülke markalarını oluşturmak için faaliyetlere başlamışlardır (Anholt, 2011: 6). Ülkelerin
ilgi göstermesinin asıl sebebi özellikle uluslararası kamuoyunda negatif algıya sahip ülkelerin ivedilikle imajlarını düzeltebileceklerine duyulan inançtır. Ancak ülke markasının imajını kısa vadede restore etmek mümkün değildir. Küresel rekabetin giderek artmasıyla ülkelerin, şehirlerin ve yerlerin bu rekabet içinde ayakta kalabilmesi için marka imajı belirleyici dinamik haline gelmiştir (Göksu, 2019: 407).
Esas itibariyle kamu diplomasisi ve ulus markalama bu yönüyle ülkelerin kendilerini yabancı kamulara anlatarak bir imaj ve itibar oluşturma ortak paydasında buluşmaktadır. Uluslararası sistemde “İyi bir imaja sahip olmak devletlerin itibarını arttıracağı için önemli bir yumuşak güç kaynağı olmaktadır. Kamu diplomasisi, hedef kamularla ilişki geliştirerek, kültürel etkileşim ve iletişim sayesinde imajın
geliştirilmesinde önemli rol oynamaktadır. Ulus markalama, ülkelerin ürettiği değerlerin yabancı kamulara sunumu dolayısıyla bir marka algısı inşa etmeye çalışmaktadır. Ulus markalama faaliyetleri yumuşak güç ile doğrudan ilintilidir. Bir ülkenin turizm, ihracat, politik değerleri vb. ürettiği kıymetler temelde yumuşak güç unsurlarıdır. Her iki konseptin nihai amacı itibar sermayesi oluşturmaktır” (Yazar, 2021: 136).
Kamu diplomasisindeki amaç geleneksel diplomasi dışındaki kanallarla hedef ülkelerdeki toplumlar üzerinde veya uluslararası kamuoyunda ülke hakkında olumlu bir izlenim oluşturmaktır. Bu uygulamaların nihai amacı hedef ülkelerdeki kalpleri ve zihinleri fethederek ulusal itibarı arttırmayı amaçlamaktadır. Buna karşılık “ulus markalaşmasındaki temel görüş ise, nasıl bir ürün veya mal marka haline geldiğinde o ürüne artı değer katmaktaysa, benzer bir şekilde bir ülke de marka haline geldiğinde o ülkenin tüm paydaşlarına artı değer katmaktadır kabulüne dayanmaktadır. Bu yüzden olumlu bir imaj yaratmaya yönelik etkinliklerin tümü ulus markalaşması içinde
değerlendirilebilmektedir. Bu bağlamda mevcut imajını geliştirmek isteyen ve bu sayede yabancı yatırımcı çekmek isteyen, ticaret, turizm gelirini arttırmak isteyen ülkeler ulus markalaşması kampanyaları gerçekleştirerek hem kendi farklılığını hem de üstünlüklerini ortaya koymaya çalışmaktadırlar” (Yağmurlu, 2019: 123-124).
... Формирование имиджа страны под воздействием общих факторов взаимодействия народов и целенаправленных управленческих решений стало предметом научного изучения в последние два десятилетия [19,4,23]. Эта линия исследований возникла при слиянии двух направленийизучения национальных стереотипов, имеющего длительную историю, и современного маркетингового подхода к управлению информационными процессами и построению брендов [22,25]. ...
... Nation branding and public diplomacy are the most visible of such practices. Their exact definition is disputed (see Fan, 2010), but they generally refer to a set of media-centric initiatives, which draw on strategic communications to construct, disseminate and safeguard 'new' or 'improved' versions of national identity to advance political or economic goals (Aronczyk, 2013). ...
Although protests are an essential part of modern politics, scholars in nation branding, public diplomacy and soft power have had very little to say about these episodes. Discussions in the field have only marginally addressed dissent and disruption , falling into a methodological statism that emphasises what states do to construct and legitimise specific versions of national identity. Debates on nation promotion consequently overlook how individuals and organisations outside the state and outside national boundaries can be equally important in the construction and communication of national images. Drawing on domestic and foreign news coverage of protests in Brazil, Romania and Chile, we propose three frames to analyse the relationship between protests and nation promotion: (1) protests as threats, (2) protests as expression of the true nation and (3) protests as strategic communications. These frames shed light on how bottom-up efforts contest-overtly or covertly-state-sponsored versions of national identity and how protests are visibility arenas where competing discourses about the nation are communicated. Protests should therefore be acknowledged not as mere disruptions to national images or reputations but as another expression of the contingent, multifaceted and shifting nature of nationhood, particularly in highly mediatised contemporary societies.
... As scholars interested in the relationship between nationalism, media and organisation, we wanted to initiate a debate about the changing nature of what we call nation promotion-that is, promotional practices aimed at creating, communicating and managing versions of national identity to advance economic or political goals. The exact nature and boundaries of these practices-badged as 'nation branding', 'public diplomacy', 'country branding' or 'soft power'-are disputed (Fan, 2010;Ingenhoff & Klein, 2018;Szondi, 2008) but largely refer to strategic communication initiatives targeted predominantly but not exclusively at foreign audiences, which disseminate and safeguard 'new' or 'improved' versions of national identity to entice tourists, attract investment or prevent conflict, among other objectives (Aronczyk, 2013;Bolin & Ståhlberg, 2022;Kaneva, 2023). ...
This themed section seeks to initiate a debate about the changing nature of what we call nation promotion. That is, promotional practices aimed at creating, communicating and managing versions of national identity to advance economic or political goals. These practices-badged as 'nation branding', 'public diplomacy', 'country branding' or 'soft power-emerged more than two decades ago, in a context characterised by the proliferation of digital communication technologies, the intensification of globalisation and international cooperation, and the shift in the balance of power from states to market forces. However, as we outline in this introduction, nation promotion operates today in a very different environment, marked by a crisis of neoliberal globalisation, the changing communication environment and mounting global challenges. The three articles that make up this themed section tackle the changing practices of nation promotion by focusing on the impact of at least one of these structural shifts, offering conceptual and analytical tools for making sense of these transformations.
Medir e entender a imagem internacional de um Estado tem crescido tanto na agenda de formuladores de política externa e tomadores de decisões estatais, quanto em estudos interdisciplinares que pesquisam a formação, percepção, projeção e impactos da imagem externa das nações. O Brasil tem despertado ascendente interesse da opinião pública internacional ao emergir como ator de relevância global no século XXI. É necessário, portanto, acompanhar as transformações na percepção externa que o país possui, de forma que o presente trabalho se dedicou a investigar “qual foi a imagem internacional do Brasil - no âmbito político - como transmitida pelas notícias do jornal Euronews durante o período das Eleições Presidenciais de 2018?”. Explorou-se o cenário eleitoral brasileiro enquanto contexto de transformação na imagem recente do país com base no noticiário internacional. O estudo se referiu à corrente teórica do construtivismo como pano de fundo para o campo de estudos da imagem internacional dos países, bem como se utilizou de conceitos e teorias presentes na intersecção teórica entre as relações internacionais e a comunicação como elementos de suporte à abordagem teórica e metodológica. Para isso, a metodologia teve uma abordagem quali-quantitativa ao aplicar a técnica da Análise de Conteúdo – em termos de frequência e valência - em notícias veiculadas pela versão online da emissora pan-europeia para o período delimitado. A análise empírica revelou uma imagem complexa do país: o Brasil tem uma percepção relativamente favorável no exterior, porém constantemente afetada por suas instabilidades internas. Neste sentido, o trabalho valida, sintetiza e discute alguns aspectos sobre o papel da mídia de massa – sobretudo jornalística – nas relações internacionais, sobre a imagem do Brasil na imprensa estrangeira, e provoca reflexões sobre as condições necessárias para a recuperação da percepção favorável do país no exterior.
This study reviews the literature focused on nation brands and brand culture through the innovative combination of latent Dirichlet allocation with a multinomial and unordered discrete choice analysis. Unlike a narrow perspective of bibliometric work, which confines itself to reviewing existing literature within a specific research domain, a broader viewpoint leverages bibliometric analysis to pinpoint potential research opportunities indicative of emerging trends in related fields. Adopting this comprehensive paradigm, the current study scrutinizes 60 articles spanning the timeframe from 1992 to 2021. The analysis discerns six prospective marketing strategies instrumental in propelling a country to global brand prominence: the synergistic integration of country-of-origin and city brands, consumption branding, materialistic branding, green branding, ideological branding, and scientific branding. Notably, environmental branding has assumed a pivotal global role post–2015, while ideological branding represents a more recent trend centered on diligent efforts to invigorate national identity systems. Empirical insights underscore the need of a multidisciplinary approach in the creation of nation brands, suggesting that distinct strategies need not be mutually exclusive. Quantitatively, it is found evidence that covering one additional environmental topic in a study increases (decreases) its likelihood of belonging to the consumption (ideology) cluster by 50.8 (50.6) percentage points, respectively. Strategic recommendations for future national endeavors emphasize the significance of becoming a Stackelberg leader in the race to generate added value. Collectively, these findings underscore that the bibliometric analysis employed to elucidate the evolution of nation brands and brand culture, typically associated with international marketing, unveils two promising niche areas for future research in green finance: green nation brands and green brand culture. The former pertains to asset allocations within green enterprises and environmental sectors, enhancing a country's symbolic commitment to the burgeoning green paradigm. Meanwhile, the later delves into the internalization of fintech development's growth and intermediary effects, fostering green innovation, energy efficiency, and green supply chains. This bottom-up approach is geared towards meeting community-based needs and presents valuable avenues for future exploration in the field of green finance.
Müzelerin kamu diplomasisi olarak rolü makalede ele alınmıştır.
الملخص
لقد عرفت الصناعات الثقافية والابداعية، التي تضم مختلف الفنون والأعمال الفكرية والثقافية، انتشارا واسعا على مستوى العالم. وأصبحت تثير، في السنوات الأخيرة، اهتماما كبيرا من طرف العديد من الدول والحكومات عبر العالم، بسبب دورها الاقتصادي وأهميتها كأداة سياسية في تنفيذ السياسة الخارجية. تركز هذه الورقة بشكل رئيسي على دراسة هذه الصناعات لدورها الكبير في ممارسة القوة الناعمة والدبلوماسية الثقافية. وتسعى، على وجه الخصوص، الى تبيان مساهمة الصناعات الثقافية والإبداعية، المتأرجحة بين المجالات الرمزية والمادية، في تعزيز الدبلوماسية الثقافية المغربية وتكوين صورة إيجابية عن المغرب في الخارج، باستخدام امثلة لبعض التجارب الناجحة. قبل ذلك، ستلقي نظرة على أهمية الصناعات الثقافية والإبداعية داخل نظام موارد القوة الناعمة وكذلك فيما يتعلق بالاقتصاد. اعتمدت الدراسة على منهجية البحث الوثائقي وتحليل المحتوى لجمع البيانات، وقد تبيّن من خلالها أن الصناعات الثقافية والإبداعية، التي أصبحت تعتمد عليها العديد من الدول، حققت فعلا آثارا واضحة للتّعريف بالثقافات الوطنية ونشرها على نطاق واسع من جهة، وممارسة المزيد من التأثير وتحقيق كثير من أهدافها المسطّرة من جهة أخرى. وبالتالي، تنطوي تنمية الصناعات الثقافية والإبداعية، التي غالبًا ما يتم تجاهلها، على رهانات استراتيجية للدبلوماسية الثقافية المغربية، والتي بإمـكان المغرب اسـتثمارها لتعزيـز مكانته ودوره الرائـد فـي محيطه الإقليمي، وكذا مكانته على الساحة الدولية.
In the era of globalization, the problem of national image becomes more prominent, and international brand marketing becomes one of the powerful ways for a country to enhance its national image. National branding is an active process aimed at enhancing the reputation of a country, while national image is something that exists in the perception of the audience. Since the reform and opening-up, China's comprehensive national strength has continuously increased, and the world's perception of China has become stronger. Chinese enterprises and brands have gradually overcome the stereotypical impression of being low-quality and cheap. However, in the increasingly fierce competition among major powers, it is urgent to construct China's national image through national brand marketing. China should implement a nation brand plan from a top-level design, involve the entire society, strengthen open communication with the international community, and further promote Chinese enterprises and brands to go global.
Introduction
This article investigates the evolving landscape of diplomacy in the digital age, focusing on diplomats at the United Nations (UN) Headquarters in New York. The central inquiry revolves around how diplomatic actors use digital tools to complement or augment traditional face-to-face diplomacy.
Methods
We systematically compare a substantial corpus of X posts (tweets) from UN diplomats with their public statements at the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), employing advanced computational social science techniques. This study applies a range of large-scale text analysis methods, including word embedding, topic modeling, and sentiment analysis, to investigate systematic differences between offline and online communication.
Results
Our analysis reveals that, while the essence of diplomacy remains consistent across both domains, there is strategic selectivity in the use of online platforms by diplomats. Online communication emphasizes non-security topics, ceremonial matters, and prominent policy stances, in contrast to the operational issues common in UNSC deliberations. Additionally, online discourse adopts a less confrontational, more public diplomacy-oriented tone, with variations among countries.
Discussion
This study offers one of the first systematic comparisons between offline and online diplomatic messages. It illuminates how diplomats navigate the digital realm to complement traditional roles. The findings indicate that some elements of public diplomacy and nation branding, directed toward a wider audience far beyond the council chamber, have become an integral part of multilateral diplomacy unfolding at the UNSC.
The growing interdependence among the nations, the advancement of science and technology and the impact of globalisation have made it less useful for nations to rely predominantly on hard power to pursue their foreign policies’ goals. In the contemporary era, nations have shifted their attention to soft power as an alternative policy to maximise gains from other countries. Although the exercise of hard power is still relevant in international relations, soft power has become a less destructive option. For instance, sports has proved its power as a tool of diplomacy at different times. In India, cricket has moved from its status as a mere sport to a powerful instrument of diplomacy. In this article, the authors analyse the value of sports in general and cricket in particular as an instrument of public diplomacy, its capacity for nation branding, and the future prospects of cricket in pursuing India’s foreign policy goals.
By employing digital soft power as a theoretical framework, this article examines the increasing role of domestic digital platforms in the New Korean Wave and their contributions to cultural diplomacy. It discusses the ways in which digital soft power becomes the primary vehicle in cultural diplomacy related to the Korean Wave. As there are tensions and conflicts between these private platforms and the Korean government, this article critically analyzes the crucial relations between these two major parties in executing cultural diplomacy and digital soft power. As its methodological framework, the utilization of social media by the Korean government, particularly by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, was used. It selects the Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ Facebook posts between 1 January and 31 December of 2022 to determine the ways in which the Korean government utilizes social media as a soft power tool. It develops discourse analysis in tandem with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ Facebook posts to determine several major strategies the Korean government has advanced in the digital platform era.
The use of innovation rhetoric by non-tech individuals reinforces their personal branding. Studying four non-tech political personalities, this study provides evidence of how and why non-tech politicians are trying to present themselves as tech-savvy. As the article describes, innovation buzzwords, stories, narratives, and metaphors add value to any non-tech brand, enhancing promotional presence and marketing effectiveness. It is apparent from the findings that innovation rhetoric has the aim of creating a positive public image, which contributes to the public perception of an individual.
Este estudio analiza el uso de estrategias de reparación de imagen y técnicas de marketing de destino en materiales promocionales turísticos en línea (publicaciones de Instagram) de México, un destino popular de larga tradición, cuya reputación se vio dañada por crisis relacionadas con la delincuencia. Para conseguir una imagen de (desti)nación positiva y una ventaja competitiva en un mundo globalizado, las naciones emplean estrategias de marca (desti)nación para diferenciarse. Las técnicas de comunicación de crisis, como las Estrategias de Restauración de la Imagen de Benoit (1997) y la Teoría de la Comunicación Situacional de Crisis de Coombs (2007), pueden utilizarse en caso de imagen negativa. Investigaciones anteriores también han desarrollado marcos orientados al marketing de recuperación en un contexto de marca (desti)nación, como las estrategias Fuente-Audiencia-Mensaje de Avraham y Ketter (2008a) y los Mensajes de Recuperación de Desastres Turísticos de Walters y Mair (2012). Esta investigación indaga en las estrategias de reparación de imagen utilizadas en el contenido promocional de México, y sus combinaciones y variaciones en un corpus en inglés y español. Un estudio de caso cualitativo de 27 mensajes en inglés y 43 en español en NVivo utilizó la teoría fundamentada y la codificación iterativa informada por estudios anteriores y nuestros datos. Los resultados muestran que las estrategias de los marcos relacionados con la marca de destino fueron las más frecuentes. El corpus en inglés enfatizaba un sentimiento de proximidad con su público objetivo, mientras que el contenido en español mostraba una mayor variedad de estrategias, debido a su diversidad. Estos resultados son útiles para investigadores y comercializadores de lugares, ya que ponen de relieve la importancia de utilizar estrategias pertinentes y de comprender al público destinatario. Además, como contribución teórica a este campo de estudio, proponemos un nuevo marco integrado para la investigación de la marca de destino.
How can states leverage international sports events to strengthen their international relations? The main discussion of this research essay is on the tools that the nation-states already have at their disposal. It can be said that sport diplomacy comes under public diplomacy which is uniquely utilized to enhance immediate and long-term relations between states by manipulating or influencing the foreign public to fulfill foreign policy goals. By reviewing the different aspects leading to sports diplomacy, the research essay will look into multilateral diplomacy and discuss the impact and effectiveness of sports as an arena of diplomacy. The most common objectives are as follows.
a. giving an unofficial cause and venue for world leaders to convene and start a conversation.
b. providing information about the host nation and enlightening others about it.
c. bringing together cultural and linguistic differences among the nation-states as a means to come under a common ground through sports.
d. Providing a platform for new trade agreements and legislations.
Keywords: International, Sports, Diplomacy, Foreign, Public, Policy.
The workplace is a key site through which sex and gender are organizationally produced and unequal gender relations take place. Technologies, which are embedded with and impacting gendered power relations, are also integral to work and workplaces worldwide. As nation‐states promote technologies and rebrand themselves, how do technologies catalyze new forms of gendered embodiment and work—and how might this contribute to a nation‐state's development plans and rebranding efforts? How do the intersections between states, labor, and technologies also reify inequalities, both in and beyond workplace settings? Based on 14 months of fieldwork and interviews with 62 participants, this article analyzes how Thai transgender women's work in the entertainment industry simultaneously advances technological growth and national rebranding efforts. In 2016, the Thai state launched “Thailand 4.0,” an economic plan centered on technological growth, alongside efforts to restore its reputation from a sex tourism destination. In this context, Thai transgender entertainers promote what I call “ techno‐professionalism ,” or professionalism that is not only enhanced by technologies, but that also supports state development plans and rebranding efforts. The concept of techno‐professionalism underscores how technologies figure centrally into new iterations of state development and nation‐branding promoted in global workplaces, adding to our understanding of the linkages between gender, labor, and national development. By highlighting how state development plans intersect with technologies and norms of professionalism, this article reveals how the economy and professions are made up of intimate social relations, including gendered technologies and gendered social roles.
The COVID-19 pandemic has not only become a humanitarian issue but a geopolitical and geostrategic one as well. Informed by a soft power perspective and utilising a mainly qualitative-narrative analysis approach, this paper analyses China’s medical assistance to African states in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Zimbabwe is used as a case study. The study establishes that China’s medical assistance to African countries did not start in the COVID-19 era. It is a historical relationship that has evolved over the years. Chinese vaccine diplomacy in the COVID-19 era has positively assisted a number of African states to kick start and sustain their vaccination campaigns. However, through this assistance China has also intentionally or unintentionally managed to keep its African allies happy while at the same time sending signals to its geopolitical competitors (especially the USA) that Africa is its sphere of influence. Further, although judged less effective than western produced vaccines, Chinese COVID-19 vaccines (especially SinoVac and SinoPharm) and other forms of assistance have been used as a tool for global influence. It is, thus, concluded that China’s projection of soft power in the form of medical assistance towards African countries in the COVID era is both a way of oiling its public diplomacy as well as playing the role of a responsible international power by providing international public goods.
У статті проаналізовано концептуальну й організаційну складові частини брендингових технологій як інструменту зовнішньої політики Ізраїлю. Здатність використовувати наявні переваги для досягнення й захисту національних інтересів, активне просування на міжнародній арені інформації про потенціал та перспективи розвитку, про умови життя людей на державній території є важливим напрямом зовнішньої політики. Творення й підтримка національного бренду розглядається як необхідність для сучасної держави з огляду на її прагнення ствердитися на міжнародній арені та посісти чільне місце у світовому співтоваристві. Кожна країна визначає власний підхід до процесу творення й поширення національного (державного) бренду. Спираючись на складний досвід державотворення та виживання в конфліктогенному середовищі, Ізраїль віднайшов власну модель позиціонування в міжнародному просторі на основі створеного національного бренду. Тож мета дослідження – визначити особливості брендингових технологій у зовнішній політиці Ізраїлю. Дослідження таких практик створить підґрунтя для кращого розуміння позиціонування Ізраїлю в системі міжнародних відносин й аналізу модерних підходів у технологізації зовнішньополітичної діяльності сучасних держав. Унікальність концептуальної та організаційної складових частин брендин- гових технологій Ізраїлю визначається існуванням Хасбари. Хасбара постає системою заходів комунікативного впливу на громадську думку як у середині Ізраїлю, так і за його межами. Реалізація брендингових технологій у зовніш- ній політиці сучасного Ізраїлю здійснюється в умовах жорсткої централізації інформаційних потоків і таргетування інформації в напрямі конкретних діаспор, етнічних, релігійних і мовних груп. Міністерство закордонних справ Ізраїлю є ключовою установою в справі відтворення й підтримки національного бренду. У складі міністерства діє Директорат публічної дипломатії, метою якого є сприяння синхронізації повідомлень Ізраїлю та координація роботи між різними державними й недержавними агентами з метою відтворення національного бренду.
The aim of the chapter is to assess and compare the differences in the approach of European and Slovak cities to city branding with focus on utilisation of digital tools of marketing communication tools. The concept of city branding has developed through several stages and nowadays, it is strongly affected by utilization of digital tools. The empirical research verifies the current approaches to urban branding in 13 European and eight Slovak cities which are the administrative and cultural centres of the regions and have the best potential for applying the concept of city branding in Slovakia. By questionnaire survey, the authors have verified in depth the defined approaches to city branding in eight Slovak cities. For inspiration, the process of city branding in one of the best ranked European cities—Amsterdam—is presented. In the conclusion, the chapter defines the measures that should be taken to implement city branding as a comprehensive, systematic and targeted process aimed at shaping the positive image of the city in order to promote it on the market and to ensure comprehensive city development.
This paper examines how soft power, nation branding and academic cooperation came together in the scholarship policy pursued by the Swedish Institute (SI) from 1995 to 2023. An investigation of the organisation’s materials, scholarship statistics and feedback interviews with SI programme alumni suggests that the implementation of the scholarship policy was erratic during the study period. A comprehensive analysis of the Institute’s efforts was carried out to describe the relationship between nation branding, soft power and education. The focus was on the principles and practices behind promoting Sweden’s image in an international educational setting, the evolution of the Institute’s scholarship policy and the effect of soft power and nation branding on a grantee’s academic track. Interactions between the SI and grantees during and after their stay in the country and scholarship distribution were examined to understand the dynamics behind the scholarship policy. The study draws on the concepts of nation branding and soft power to explore the corresponding elements in certain regional and national cases during the study period. It is concluded that the Institute is an effective tool of Sweden’s soft power, with its scholarship policy promoting the Government’s official position on global social, economic and political development. SI grantees complete their chosen programmes and get acquainted with the country’s social and political institutions. As of today, the educational component seems to be subordinate to nation branding and soft power.
Nation branding is imperative in current times. Over the years, governments have engaged in brand-building efforts with the effective use of soft power as a central component. However, the prolonged nature of the COVID-19 pandemic has posed a challenge to these efforts and prompted nations to reevaluate their branding strategy and soft power techniques. In the midst of this crisis, there is a ubiquitous deluge of disinformation that poses a threat and exacerbates the situation through divisiveness, hate speech, and offline violence, all of which have a devastating effect on a nation’s reputation. Recognizing the gravity of this issue and the imminent need to combat the disinformation menace while advancing nation branding efforts, this chapter draws comparisons between the infodemic and the pandemic while highlighting the features behind the rising power of social media and its dark side. It then discusses the threat of disinformation to a nation’s soft power and branding efforts, as well as the measures taken by nations to combat the menace. Noteworthy instances of nations that have been affected by the crisis of disinformation, as well as those that have set an example in countering disinformation and constructing strong nation brands are discussed. The discourse serves as a motivation for researchers evaluating the various facets of nation branding and provides branding professionals with direction for advancing nation branding efforts by navigating the threat of disinformation.
The purpose of this article is to discuss clashing narratives around the Qatar 2022 FIFA World Cup through the lenses of nation branding, public diplomacy, and country image. Beyond the athletic competition, Qatar 2022 was also a cultural clash between East and West, or the Global North and the Global South as it was the first time such a significant mega-event was held in the Arab and Muslim world. While western countries and media framed the event as a sportswashing attempt by Qatar to distract from the death toll of migrant workers, corruption, discriminative policies against the LGBTQ community, and environmental damage, the Qataris positioned the competition as part of a long-term nation building strategy, while counter-criticizing using whataboutism and even through accusations of orientalism and Islamophobia. This case study discusses five areas of dualities in which nation branding and related fields manifested through Qatar 2022: (a) Clashes of civilizations and colonial imperialism, (b) Sportswashing, soft Power, and nation building, (c) Nationalism in a globalized world, (d) Everyone can engage in cultural diplomacy, and (e) Sustainability, inclusion, and greenwashing. The study is significant as it contributes to existing literature nuanced, critical, and at times self-contradicting discussion on sports, nation branding, and related fields, in the context of globalization and the complexity of Middle East geopolitics.
The chapter intends to present a theoretical and applied context in relation to small-scale enterprises performing in relation to the optimization of marketing and branding through the use and the instrumentation of nation branding, which is applied as an analytical context. Consequently, arguments and models rinsing on the obstacle and multi-dimensional setting of small business performance features pertaining to competitive advantages, as well as their capability to exploit possible prospects, are augmented via the implementation of an inclusive branding by instrumenting nation branding as a strategic asset.
Contemporary research on so-called Nordic branding has provided crucial insights into the social power of states and how various actors use and circulate ‘progressive’ nation brand tropes for political and commercial goals. Hitherto, the literature on Nordic branding has focused on a wide range of substantive issues, among other things, human rights, gender equality, social welfare and foreign aid, but considerably less attention has been paid to the topic of security. The present article adds to a small but established literature on how the security sphere is increasingly entangled with nation branding. In the Nordic region, we argue, the latter is particularly evident in the case of Sweden – one of the world’s largest per-capita arms exporters in the post-Cold War era but also a country known and often revered for its peaceful and progressive image. Focusing on the case of Sweden, the article contributes to knowledge of how defence industry-related actors (both public and private) draw on and frame nation branding tropes to sell and legitimise their products and services to both insiders (domestic constituents) and outsiders (the global security market).
The Olympic Movement is in a constant state of crossroads, needing to navigate through and adapt to changing global realities. Manifestations of nation branding and public diplomacy can be traced back to the athletic competitions in Ancient Olympia and through the entire history of the Modern Olympic Games (Dubinsky, 2019a, b; Murray, 2018). Dubinsky (2019b) analyzed the evolution of the modern Olympic Games through such lenses, identifying prior to the pandemic that the Movement might be facing a new era, and addressed it as the survival-oriented era (Dubinsky, 2022a), following his research on the postponed Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games. International Olympic Committee (IOC) President Thomas Bach also used the term “new era” when discussing the future of the Olympic Movement but here referred to Paris 2024 as the point of change (IOC News, 2022). Based on Dubinsky’s reflections on the postponed Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games, this chapter conceptualizes and discusses the nature of the new era of the Olympic Movement and its intersections with nation branding, public diplomacy, country image, and related fields.
The connection between sports and politics goes back to the athletic competitions in Ancient Greece and was strengthened again as sports developed through the nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first centuries (Dubinsky, 2019; Murray, 2012). With over 200 countries participating in the Summer Olympic Games (IOC, 2018), marching in ceremonies, and displaying their flags and symbols, every kind of political regime has been using sports to achieve social, political, and economic goals (Boykoff, 2016; Dubinsky, 2019). The ever-growing media exposure (IOC, 2018), the uncertainty of the outcome, and the universal language of an athletic competition make sports appealing platforms for countries, cities, and communities to use. While Nelson Mandela, who used sports to unite post-Apartheid South Africa, said, “Sport has the power to change the world” (Murray, 2018, p. 257), George Orwell had a different take, referring to sports as “war minus shooting” (Orwell, 1945). While some countries, communities, and organizations have been using sports as a tool to build bridges, some have used it as a powerful tool for diplomatic purposes targeting other foreign policy goals (Boykoff, 2016; Murray, 2018). This chapter discusses the connection between sports, nation branding, public diplomacy, country image, and their related fields (Fan, 2010; Buhmann & Ingenhoff, 2015), suggesting different lenses and theories from multidisciplinary fields of analysis.
On Sunday, April 18, 2021, around 11:00 PM GMT, 12 European football clubs from England, Spain, and Italy coordinatingly announced a creation of a new mid-week private continental competition—The Super League (European Super League Company, 2021a, b), also referred to as the European Super League (ESL) (BBC, 2021; Wagner et al., 2021). The 12 founding clubs were Liverpool FC, FC Chelsea, FC Arsenal, Tottenham Hotspurs, Manchester City FC and Manchester United from England, FC Barcelona, Real Madrid, and Atletico Madrid from Spain, AC Milan, FC Internazionale Milano (Inter Milan), and Juventus FC from Italy, with three more clubs to be added before the first season (European Super League Company, 2021b). According to the format of the competition, each year 20 clubs – the 15 founding clubs along with 5 more clubs that will go through a qualification system, will compete in a tournament consisting of two groups of 10, leading to a playoff through which a champion will be crowned (European Super League Company, 2021b). The ESL, financially backed by global companies such as American bank JP Morgan, and other investors, was supposed to pay 3.5 billion Euros to the founding teams and generate revenues of around 750 million for each team, which would have provided financial stability as the majority of clubs were in debts and recorded a loss of 1.5 billion Euros during the pandemic and the 2019/20 season (Daskal, 2021; Gretz et al., 2021).
The purpose of this chapter is to explore, discuss, and analyze the roles of nation branding, country image, and related fields (Buhmann & Ingenhoff, 2015; Fan, 2010) through the evolution of the FIFA World Cup. Over 3.5 billion people, more than half of the world’s population above the age of 4, watched the 2018 FIFA World Cup (2018 FIFA World Cup Russia, 2018). Four years later, beIN Media Group, the Qatari-based official broadcaster of Qatar 2022 FIFA World Cup, reported over five billion accumulated views (beIN Sports, 2022). Football is the most practiced sport in the world (Woods & Butler, 2021), and the organizing body that regulates it is the International Federation of Football Associations (FIFA), with the World Cup being the crown jewel. According to the official global broadcast and audience summary (2018 FIFA World Cup Russia, 2018), over 1.1 billion watched at least part of the final between France and Croatia having 884.37 million in-home TV viewers and 231.82 million out-of-home and (or) digital-only viewers. At least 10 games in the tournament were viewed live by an average of at least a quarter of a billion live audience (2018 FIFA World Cup Russia, 2018), and all of the last three FIFA World Cup Finals had over half a billion viewers (Richter, 2020). Just for comparison, the 2019 Super Bowl, the most viewed annual TV programming in the USA, had a global rating of 160 million viewers, significantly less than some of the group state matches in Russia (2018 FIFA World Cup Russia, 2018; Richter, 2020). The only event comparable to the exposure and popularity of the FIFA World Cup is the Summer Olympic Games (OG), as according to the International Olympic Committee (2016), “half of the world’s population” watched the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, reaching a global audience of 3.2 billion through television, 1.3 unique users through digital platforms of rights-holding broadcasters, and having 4.4 billion video views (International Olympic Committee, 2020). The Sochi 2014 Winter Olympic Games, followed by the 2018 FIFA World Cup, are considered a pivotal point in Vladimir Putin’s strategy to brand Russia as a global powerhouse as strategic way to achieve imperialist goals. International media and scholars frame countries, regimes, and governments who use sports to launder their reputation from human rights violations as sportswashing (Boykoff, 2022a; Chadwick, 2018, 2022a). While the term pertains mostly to authoritarian regimes, democratic countries have been accused of sportswashing as well (Boykoff, 2022a). Russia is not the first or last to use the FIFA World Cup for soft power and foreign policy goals (Brannagan & Rookwood, 2016; Wolfe, 2020). Countries, cities, and communities have been using sports to achieve social, political, and economic goals, by improving their countries’ images (Dubinsky, 2019a). With football being the most popular sports in the world (Woods & Butler, 2021) and with such a significant international audience, the FIFA World Cup embodies ample opportunities for hosting and participating countries.
The purpose of this chapter is to explore and discuss the role of Title IX on nation branding and country image 50 years after the legislation came into effect. Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 is an amendment to the US Education Act signed by President Richard Nixon on June 23, 1972, stating: “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance” (U.S. Department of Education, 2021; NCAA, 2022). Title IX prohibits discrimination based on sex in any education system that receives financial support, pertaining predominantly to the following areas: “recruitment, admissions, and counseling; financial assistance; athletics; sex-based harassment, which encompasses sexual assault and other forms of sexual violence; treatment of pregnant and parenting students; treatment of LGBTQI+ students; discipline; single-sex education; and employment” (U.S. Department of Education, 2021). There is ample scholarship discussing the impacts of Title IX, power struggles based on gender and race, growth of women’s sports, limitation of Title IX on compensation of student-athletes, inclusion and exclusion of transgender athletes, and other social, financial, and economic, psychological, and health issues affecting American society (Cooky et al., 2015; Staurowsky, 2012; Woods & Butler, 2021). Yet most of the scholarships focus domestically on American society.
The use of sports for nation branding and public diplomacy goes back to antiquity and to the athletic competitions in Ancient Greece, as they did not just provide an opportunity for the different city-states to expose their image but were one of the most important Pan-Hellenic traditions and were even partly used for colonization purposes (Dubinsky, 2019a; Miller, 2004). Through modernization and institutionalization of sports, especially since the second half of the nineteenth century and during the twentieth century and the first two decades of the twenty-first century, sports have been globalized, affecting every country on Earth (Dubinsky, 2019b; Krechmar et al., 2017). With around 10,000 athletes representing over 200 countries and territories and global broadcasting to over 220 countries and territories (Dubinsky, 2022b), states, communities, organizations, and individuals have been using the Olympic Games, for example, to try and achieve a favorable image and leverage their social, political, and economic goals. Yet the globalized nature of sports was also one of the reasons why the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic spread so swiftly and harshly, causing in March 2020 a domino effect, leading to pausing, cancelling, postponing, and modifying the way sports are practiced and held (Frawley & Schulenkorf, 2023). The pandemic did not just cause a health crisis but provoked global waves of activism and protest on social issues that were already challenging social order, politics crises around the world, and economic recessions. While the world found ways to live through what became an endemic by the end of 2022, social, economic, and geopolitical factors growing or emerging during these years changed the ways countries use sports for nation branding and public diplomacy.
The promotion of peace as a national identity is the most prominent feature of Norway's
post-Cold War foreign policy. The reputation of the Norwegian peace model in the
international system, despite its geopolitical constraints, is the topic of this paper. The
authors use the nation-building theoretical framework to show how peace diplomacy has
become the branding of Norwegian foreign policy despite significant and influential actors.
Qualitative data analysis was based on historical and causal explanations. The text suggests
that the Norwegian global branding results from focusing resources on the culturalhistorical benefits of peacebuilding/ Peacekeeping
This book challenges current beliefs about organizational identity, reputation, and branding. It contains a wealth of new ideas for finding the elusive answers to questions troubling contemporary organizations. How does an organization create a strong reputation? What are the implications of corporate branding on organizational structures and processes? How do organizations discover their identities? These are some of the vexing problems addressed in this book by a diverse international team of contributors. According to the authors, the future lies with 'the expressive organization'. Such organizations not only understand their distinct identity and their brands, but are also able to express these externally and internally. In order to thrive in an era of transparency and customer choice, the authors argue, organizations will have to be expressive.
In social psychology, we need to establish a general theory of the self, which can attend to both macro and micro processes, and which avoids the redundancies of separate theories on different aspects of the self. For this purpose, we present core components of identity theory and social identity theory and argue that although differences exist between the two theories, they are more differences in emphasis than in kind, and that linking the two theories can establish a more fully integrated view of the self. The core components we examine include the different bases of identity (category/group or role) in each of the theories, identity salience and the activation of identities as discussed in the theories, and the cognitive and motivational processes that emerge from identities based on category/group and on role. By examining the self through the lens of both identity theory and social identity theory, we see how, in combination, they can move us toward a general theory of the self.
The objective of this article is to clarify the conceptual domains of organizational identity, image, and reputation. To initiate this theory development process, we present a “social actor” conception of organizational identity. Identity-congruent definitions of image and reputation are then specified and an integrated model proposed. With the aid of this model, a structural flawin the organizational reputation literature is identified and suitable remedies proposed. In addition, the authors explore the implications of invoking identity and identification in explanations and justifications of organizational reputation.
Researchers have only recently turned their attention to the study of corporate reputation.As is characteristic of many early areas of management inquiry, the field is decidedly multidisciplinary and disconnected. This article selectively reviews reputation research conducted mainly during the past decade. A framework is proposed that views reputation from the perspective of organizational impression management. Corporations are viewed as social actors, intent on enhancing their respectability and impressiveness in the eyes of constituents.
Addresses the relationship between organizational culture, identity and image. Argues that contemporary organizations need to define their corporate identity as a bridge between the external position of the organization in its marketplace and other relevant environments, and internal meanings formed within the organizational culture. Offers an analytical framework using the concepts of organizational culture, identity and image and suggests implications, including the need for symbolic management in and of the organization and the need to combine knowledge from the disciplines of marketing and organization studies.
This paper examines how widely held country images affect attitudes towards a country's products and services and ability to attract investment, businesses and tourists. It assesses the role of strategic marketing management in promoting the country's image, attractiveness and products.Journal of Brand Management (2002) 9, 249-261; doi:10.1057/palgrave.bm.2540076
Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice is a comprehensive and exciting text that demonstrates why nations are embracing the principles of brand management. It clearly explains how the concepts and techniques of branding can be adapted to the context of nations- as opposed to the more usual context of products, services, or companies. Concepts grounded in the brand management literature such as brand identity, brand image, brand positioning, and brand equity, are transposed to the domain of nation branding and supported by country case insights that provide vivid illustrations of nation branding in practice. Nation branding is a means by which more and more nations are attempting to compete on the global stage. Current practice in nation branding is examined and future horizons traced. The book provides: The first overview of its kind on nation branding A blend of academic theory and real world practice in an accessible, readable fashion A clear and detailed adaptation of existing brand theory to the emerging domain of nation branding An original conceptual framework and models for nation branding A rich range of international examples and over 20 contributions by leading experts from around the world Country case insights on nation branding strategies currently being utilized by nations such as Japan, Egypt, Brazil, Switzerland, Iceland, and Russia Clearly and coherently structured, the book is an essential introduction to nation branding for both students and policymakers and will be an essential text for those interested in this fast growing area.
With the publication of his best-selling books "Competitive Strategy (1980) and "Competitive Advantage (1985), Michael E. Porter of the Harvard Business School established himself as the world's leading authority on competitive advantage. Now, at a time when economic performance rather than military might will be the index of national strength, Porter builds on the seminal ideas of his earlier works to explore what makes a nation's firms and industries competitive in global markets and propels a whole nation's economy. In so doing, he presents a brilliant new paradigm which, in addition to its practical applications, may well supplant the 200-year-old concept of "comparative advantage" in economic analysis of international competitiveness. To write this important new work, Porter and his associates conducted in-country research in ten leading nations, closely studying the patterns of industry success as well as the company strategies and national policies that achieved it. The nations are Britain, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Japan, Korea, Singapore, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States. The three leading industrial powers are included, as well as other nations intentionally varied in size, government policy toward industry, social philosophy, and geography. Porter's research identifies the fundamental determinants of national competitive advantage in an industry, and how they work together as a system. He explains the important phenomenon of "clustering," in which related groups of successful firms and industries emerge in one nation to gain leading positions in the world market. Among the over 100 industries examined are the German chemical and printing industries, Swisstextile equipment and pharmaceuticals, Swedish mining equipment and truck manufacturing, Italian fabric and home appliances, and American computer software and movies. Building on his theory of national advantage in industries and clusters, Porter identifies the stages of competitive development through which entire national economies advance and decline. Porter's finding are rich in implications for both firms and governments. He describes how a company can tap and extend its nation's advantages in international competition. He provides a blueprint for government policy to enhance national competitive advantage and also outlines the agendas in the years ahead for the nations studied. This is a work which will become the standard for all further discussions of global competition and the sources of the new wealth of nations.
Look at the covers of the brochures in any travel agency and you will see the various ways in which countries present themselves on the world's mental map. Singapore has a smiling, beautiful face offering us tasty appetizers on an airplane, whereas Ireland is a windy, green island full of freckled, red-haired children. But do these images depict real places, existing geographical sites one can visit? Or do the advertisements simply use cultural stereotypes to sell a product? Over the last two decades, straightforward advertising has given way to branding --giving products and services an emotional dimension with which people can identify. In this way, Singapore and Ireland are no longer merely countries one finds in an atlas. They have become "brand states," with geographical and political settings that seem trivial compared to their emotional resonance among an increasingly global audience of consumers. A brand is best described as a customer's idea about a product; the "brand state" comprises the outside world's ideas about a particular country. We all know that "America" and "Made in the U.S.A." stand for individual freedom and prosperity; HermEs scarves and Beaujolais Nouveau evoke the French art de vivre; bmws and Mercedes-Benzes drive with German efficiency and reliability. In fact, brands and states often merge in the minds of the global consumer. For example, in many ways, Microsoft and McDonald's are among the most visible U.S. diplomats, just as Nokia is Finland's envoy to the world. In today's world of information overload, strong brands are important in attracting foreign direct investment, recruiting the best and the brightest, and wielding political influence.
Throughout the twentieth century, most of the really successful international brands have come from countries that are successful brands in their own right, and substantial transfer of imagery and brand equity can often be seen to occur between the two.
This paper proposes that a number of ‘emerging’ markets, and especially Brazil, have the potential to produce global brands, for the following reasons:
because there is already high recognition of the brand-print of the country itself, which will consequently support the ‘rightness’ and acceptability of relevant commercial brands from that country;
because the economic environment is increasingly favouring an export mentality;
because certain groups of consumers in other emerging markets might eventually favour brands from emerging or ‘recently-emerged’ markets such as Brazil, in preference to ‘first-world’ nations like USA.
The paper argues that exporting brands, as distinct from commodities, is part of a package of development which, together, can significantly accelerate the process of emergence from the third world. It also proposes that countries like Brazil have a real chance to join the first world ‘club’ of global brand producers in the twenty-first century.
Nation branding and nation brand are two different concepts. A nation has a brand image with or without nation branding. This paper examines the concept of nation branding, focusing on the central question of what is being branded. It differentiates nation branding from product branding, and draws comparisons between nation branding and productcountry image. Paradoxical issues around the concept and the wider context in which nation branding can be applied are also discussed. More research is needed to find out if and how nation branding could help economic development in a country. As many other non-marketing factors also affect a nation's image, the role played by nation branding may turn out to be only a modest one.
Considering the importance of explaining how a nation brand is effectively
managed and how nation branding aligns the nation's brand with country management
so as to gain competitiveness, this research aims to assess the role of nation branding
and to create a strategic management tool for nation branding to achieve sustainable
competitiveness of nations. Focusing on performance in nation branding, the
dissertation develops a brand management model towards a systematic and strategic
application for nation branding.
Adopting a deductive approach based on a five-step plan for systematic research,
the study proposes the Nation-Branding Mechanism Model as a mechanism-based
process model. To provide empirical evidence a case study methodology is
implemented involving two countries: the Republic of Korea and the Republic of
Ireland. Longitudinally, the research investigates contextual variables of the nation
branding process and their dynamics in branding Korea and Ireland by analyzing the
"Export, Science, Technology and Industry"-brand system of Korea and the "FDI,
Industry, Enterprise and Knowledge"- brand system of Ireland. The study identifies
the nation-specific branding mechanisms within their nation-brand systems and the
similarities and differences in both nation branding processes.
An important finding is that nation branding is a process that must align with
country management to influence the sustainable competitiveness of a nation and that
needs a systematic approach to building a nation brand. The mechanism-based
process structures a set of activities carried out by branding actors. Moreover, nation branding is an ongoing and iterative process to develop a nation-brand system and to
influence a nation's sustainable competitiveness.
This research suggests the ‘Nation-Branding Mechanism Model’ as an effective
model for explaining performance in nation branding. Through its development, this
study contributes to building a body of knowledge concerning the role of nation
branding as a strategic management tool for achieving sustainable competitiveness of
nations.
After discussing the concepts of nation and image, this article considers (1) the extent to which the notion of a brand is applicable to a nation, (2) the mechanisms by which a nation’s image influences attitudes toward its products, (3) the choice processes in which country of origin is most likely to play a significant role, and (4) the extent to which the image of a nation can be manipulated. One conclusion is that the reputational capital of a nation with respect to a product category will influence choice more than a nation’s overall attractiveness, though fragments of a nation’s imagery may nonetheless be successfully exploited.
Developing coherent and comprehensive country brands is of vital importance for transitional countries as branding can contribute to the success of transition. Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) is a typical transitional region where the evolution of country branding provides valuable insights and experiences for other transitional regions as well. This paper overviews the most important challenges as well as mistakes of place branding in the region. After conceptualising place branding in the CEE context, the most important functions of country brands in transitional countries are outlined. This paper concentrates on those countries that joined the European Union in 2004 although some references are made to other Eastern European nations, which are at earlier stages of their political and economic transition.
It has long been established that marketing theories can have wide application in practice. Marketing is no longer to be seen and practised solely in the domain of business firms. The broadened context of marketing sees its application in politics, education, public services, planned social change, religion, and in the marketing of nations where the marketing of place is now widespread both in practice and in academia. The concept of branding is now commonly applied to place marketing, and yet this concept does not have universal acceptance. The issues are further complicated as studies into a place's brand identity are closely linked to studies of national identity, which is itself closely linked to the concept of a nation's cultural and political identity. This paper therefore attempts to unravel the complex relationship between nationhood, national and cultural identity, and a place's brand identity by means of a literature review that examines these concepts from a wide range of disciplines. The result is an original model that conceptualises the nation brand identity as a whole, identifies both what affects the nation brand and what is affected by the nation brand, and how the nation brand identity is created and communicated.
Over a five year period, the author of this paper led a university team in developing a brand valuation methodology which is now the most commonly used approach of its type for brand equity measurement in South Africa. This paper describes how the methodology was modified to provide South Africa's International Marketing Council with a brand equity tracking metric.
This paper is an attempt to obtain an overview of the term 'nation branding'. It identifies three different groups or positions on nation branding. The paper discusses how and why it can benefit a nation to use the tools of branding to support a nation's brands. The paper introduces a basic model of a nation's influencers and how that model can be used to identify communication channels and problems and solutions in the competitive battle among nations. Iceland is used as a conversation piece and there is a brief discussion of why Iceland should consider nation branding as described in this paper to protect and support its brands.
The concept of the nation as a brand seems to excite visceral animosity in some people. This paper examines the history of the nation as a brand, and tries to understand why, in the light of clear historical evidence, so many people find the idea objectionable. It concludes that it is not the concept that they detest so much as the word brand, which appears for some people to have trifling and superficial implications unworthy of the national idea.
This article explores the role of others in the (re-)definition of national identity. A brief review of dominant theories of nationalism shows that the existence of the 'other' is an implicit assumption made by most scholars. Nevertheless, the relationship between the nation and the other remains largely unexplored. However, national identity is defined not only from within, namely from the features that fellow-nationals share in common but also from without, that is, through distinguishing and differentiating the nation from other nations or ethnic groups. National identity becomes meaningful only through the contrast with others. This article introduces the notion of 'significant others' to investigate the ways in which others may condition the formation or lead to a transformation of the identity of the ingroup. The Macedonian question and the emergence of a new Greek nationalism is used as a case-study to highlight the role of significant others in shaping the identity of the nation.
This article attempts to move beyond assumptions that nationalism is essentially cultural and/or narrowly political, and that it is primarily past-oriented and defensive. We do this by examining evidence relating to the creative (re)construction of the nation from a contemporary economic perspective. Paying particular attention to Scotland and Wales, we show that the mobilisation of national identity within this process of (re)construction is not exclusive to those who seek greater political autonomy. National identity is also mobilised, often in a ‘banal’ fashion, by non-political national institutions such as economic development agencies. We argue that, within the strategies and discourses of economic development, historic national characteristics are reconciled with contemporary needs and aspirations through four processes: reiteration, recapture, reinterpretation and repudiation.
Despite its popularity soft power remains power of confusion. The paper examines the concept, with a special focus on the nature and sources of soft power. Nye’s notion of soft power is largely ethnocentric and based on the assumption that there is a link between attractiveness and the ability to influence others in international relations. This poses two problems: Firstly, a country has many different actors. Some of them like the attraction and others don’t. Whether the attraction will lead to the ability to influence the policy of the target country depends on which groups in that country find it attractive and how much control they have on policymaking. Secondly, policymaking at the state level is far more complicated than at the personal level; and has different dynamics that emphasise the rational considerations. This leaves little room for emotional elements thus significantly reducing the effect of soft power. Given the nature of soft power being uncontrollable and unpredictable, it would be impossible to wield soft power in any organised and coordinated fashion as Nye suggested. Furthermore, the relationship between two countries is shaped by many complex factors. It is ultimately decided by the geopolitics and strategic interests of nations, in which soft power may play only a limited role. The paper also discusses the link between soft power and nation branding as both concepts are concerned with a nation’s influence on the world stage. Public diplomacy is a subset of nation branding that focuses on the political brand of a nation; whereas nation branding is about how a nation as whole to reshape the international opinions. A successful nation branding campaign will help create a more favourable and lasting image among the international audience thus further enhancing a country’s soft power.
In today's globalized markets a favorable country-of-origin image (CoI) has a considerable impact on consumers' evaluation of products originating from different countries and therefore influences their subsequent buying decisions. The current paper seeks to extend our conceptual understanding of the nature and functioning of the CoI construct. The aim is threefold, namely to provide a succinct state-of-the-art picture of country image research in international marketing, to contribute to a better measurement of the country image construct, and, finally, to develop an agenda for future research.
This paper surveys and reviews the voluminous research on product-country images and their effects, with the objectives of discussing the multi-faceted nature of country equity and its importance, and identifying knowledge gaps and misconceptions that often impede the development of successful business or national strategies based on effective country branding. The paper concludes that country-based marketing is often underused or misdirected due to inadequate understanding of the meaning of 'country branding', and suggests approaches for strategy development as well as pointing to knowledge gaps that call for additional research.
Active repositioning of a country through branding can be done successfully and holds great potential for countries. This paper argues that thoughtful brand positioning gives a country a competitive advantage over other nations. The framework suggested explains how the core of a country's brand must capture the spirit of its people and how it can be developed into a brand positioning after consideration of four essential factors — macrotrends, target groups, competitors and core competencies. It advises that the positioning derived should be rich enough to translate into sub-positionings to target diverse groups and that it should be substantiated in terms of what the country can actually offer.
Why nation branding does not exist?
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