Optimal cadence selection during cycling

Abstract

Cadence or pedal rate is widely accepted as an important factor influencing economy of motion, power output, perceived exertion and the development of fatigue during cycling. As a result, the cadence selected by a cyclist's could have a significant influence on their performance. Despite this, the cadence that optimises performance during an individual cycling task is currently unclear. The purpose of this review therefore was to examine the relevant literature surrounding cycling cadence in order provide a greater understanding of how different cadences might optimise cycling performance. Based on research to date, it would appear that relatively high pedal rates (100-120rpm) improve sprint cycling performance, since muscle force and neuromuscular fatigue are reduced, and cycling power output maximised at such pedal rates. However, extremely high cadences increase the metabolic cost of cycling. Therefore prolonged cycling (i.e. road time trials) may benefit from a slightly reduced cadence (~90-100rpm). During ultra-endurance cycling (i.e. >4h), performance might be improved through the use of a relatively low cadence (70-90rpm), since lower cadences have been shown to improve cycling economy and lower energy demands. However, such low cadences are known to increase the pedal forces necessary to maintain a given power output. Future research is needed to examine the multitude of factors known to influence optimal cycling cadence (i.e. economy, power output and fatigue development) in order to confirm the range of cadences that are optimal during specific cycling tasks.

Full text

Optimal cadence selection during cycling International SportMed Journal, Vol. 10 No.1, 2009,
pp. 1-15, http://www.ismj.com
Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
1
ISMJ
International SportMed Journal
Review article
Optimal cadence selection during cycling
*1, 2, 3Dr Chris R Abbiss, PhD, 4Dr Jeremiah J Peiffer, PhD, 1Associate
Professor Paul B Laursen, PhD
1School of Exercise, Biomedical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup,
WA, Australia
2Department of Physiology, Australian Institute of Sport, Belconnen, ACT, Australia
3Division of Materials Science and Engineering, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organisation, Belmont, Vic, Australia
4Centre of Excellence in Alzheimer’s Disease Research and Care, Vario Health Institute,
Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
Abstract
Cadence or pedal rate is widely accepted as an important factor influencing economy of
motion, power output, perceived exertion and the development of fatigue during cycling. As a
result, the cadence selected by a cyclist’s could have a significant influence on their
performance. Despite this, the cadence that optimises performance during an individual
cycling task is currently unclear. The purpose of this review therefore was to examine the
relevant literature surrounding cycling cadence in order provide a greater understanding of
how different cadences might optimise cycling performance. Based on research to date, it
would appear that relatively high pedal rates (100-120rpm) improve sprint cycling
performance, since muscle force and neuromuscular fatigue are reduced, and cycling power
output maximised at such pedal rates. However, extremely high cadences increase the
metabolic cost of cycling. Therefore prolonged cycling (i.e. road time trials) may benefit from a
slightly reduced cadence (~90-100rpm). During ultra-endurance cycling (i.e. >4h),
performance might be improved through the use of a relatively low cadence (70-90rpm), since
lower cadences have been shown to improve cycling economy and lower energy demands.
However, such low cadences are known to increase the pedal forces necessary to maintain a
given power output. Future research is needed to examine the multitude of factors known to
influence optimal cycling cadence (i.e. economy, power output and fatigue development) in
order to confirm the range of cadences that are optimal during specific cycling tasks.
Keywords: pedal rate, economy, efficiency, power output
*Dr Chris R Abbiss, PhD
Dr Abbiss is a post-doctoral research fellow in high performance cycling at Edith Cowan
University, Australian Institute of Sport and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organisation, Australia. His primary research interests centre on human physiology
and exercise performance, with focuses on cycling, fatigue, thermoregulation, pacing
strategies and training. His work in this area has resulted in the publication of numerous
peer-reviewed scientific articles.
* Corresponding author. Address at the end of text.

Optimal cadence selection during cycling International SportMed Journal, Vol. 10 No.1, 2009,
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Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
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Dr Jeremiah Peiffer, PhD
Dr Peiffer is a post-doctoral research fellow at the Centre of Excellence for Alzheimer's
Disease Research and Care in the School of Exercise, Biomedical and Health Sciences and
Vario Health Institute at Edith Cowan University in Perth, Australia. His research interests
focus on the influence of physical activity on ageing, chronic disease, and Alzheimer's
disease as well as cycling research focusing on thermoregulation, recovery, and fatigue.
Email address: j.peiffer@ecu.edu.au
Associate Professor Paul B Laursen, PhD
Dr Laursen is an Associate Professor of Exercise Physiology in the School of Exercise,
Biomedical and Health Sciences at Edith Cowan University, Perth Australia. His research
interests centre on various aspects of human physiology, with focuses on fatigue, high-
intensity training, thermoregulation, hydration, muscle damage and recovery kinetics.
Email address: p.laursen@ecu.edu.au
Introduction
Understanding factors that affect cycling
performance is of interest to scientists,
coaches and cyclists alike. Accordingly, a
vast body of literature has examined how
various environmental, physiological and
biomechanical factors influence cycling
performance (for review, see references 23,
24). From this work, cycling performance
would appear to be dictated largely by the
ability of the cyclist to produce high power
outputs at minimal metabolic costs. As
pedal rate (i.e. cadence) can influence
both the ability to produce power, as well
as rate of energy consumption, cadence
selection could have a significant impact
on cycling performance. For instance, the
adoption of a high cadence (~90rpm) has
been shown to reduce myoelectrical
activity, muscle force and neuromuscular
fatigue 64. In contrast, high cadences (80-
120rpm) have also been found to be less
economical than lower cadences (≤60rpm)
15. Indeed, Bieuzen et al. 9 observed a
difference between energetically optimal
cadence and neuromuscular optimal
cadence (63.5 and 93.5rpm, respectively),
in well trained cyclists. In addition, optimal
and self-selected cadences have been
found to be influenced by cycling intensity
46, course geography (grade) 43, muscle
fibre composition 18, 33, 52 and cycling
experience 46. While information
concerning pedal rate selection during
cycling exists, a comprehensive review of
the present literature is not currently
available. As such, the cadence that
results in the best possible performance
outcome during the vast array of cycling
events and conditions remains unclear.
Therefore the purpose of this review is to
1) examine the literature pertaining to self-
selected, forced and optimal cadences, 2)
determine the factors that are responsible
for the self-selection of cadence, and 3)
provide a greater understanding of
cadences that optimise performance
during the variety of tasks performed by
cyclists.
Understanding self-selected/freely
chosen cadence
Publications on cycling cadence often
comment on the unusually high pedal rate
(>90rpm) adopted during both level and
uphill cycling by seven time Tour de
France champion Lance Armstrong 17, 41.
Based on the success of this cyclist it
seems reasonable to propose that such
high pedal rates might optimise
performance during the most influential
phases of professional cycling events (i.e.
uphill and time trials). However, successful
elite cyclists have also been observed to
adopt significantly lower cadences during
uphill mountain accents (≤75rpm) 43, 74. As
such, the effect of such high cadences on
performance during cycling is unclear. It
has been suggested that a high
mechanical efficiency and maximal
aerobic capacity (V
•O2max) may allow
particular cyclists to increase power output
(475 – 500W) using noticeably higher
pedal rates 42. Alternatively, other cyclists
may choose to cycle at lower cadences in
order to minimise oxygen cost, since
higher cadences appear to be less
efficient (see section on Efficiency and

Optimal cadence selection during cycling International SportMed Journal, Vol. 10 No.1, 2009,
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economy). If this hypothesis is correct,
then any one single cycling cadence is not
likely to be beneficial for all cyclists 42.
Instead, the optimal cadence to adopt
during cycling will depend on the central
(i.e. V
•O2max) and peripheral (i.e. muscle
fibre contribution) physiological
characteristics of each individual. Such a
notion could explain the close association
observed between an athlete’s cycling
experience and a freely chosen pedal rate.
Indeed, well-trained cyclists typically adopt
higher cadences compared with their
lesser trained counterparts 16, 29, 46.
However, as with optimal cadences, the
factors affecting self-selected pedal rate
remain unclear.
To date, very few studies have examined
the effects of training on self-selected and
optimal pedalling cadences. Hansen et al.
32 found that following 12 weeks of
strength training, self-selected cadence
during submaximal cycling was
significantly reduced. In this study, it was
suggested that the decline in self-selected
pedal rate may be related to a reduction in
perceptions of force associated with
increased strength 32. Indeed, it has been
shown that when cycling at constant
power outputs (90-180W), perceived
exertion is negatively related to pedal
rates in the range of 40-80rpm 56. Despite
this, no research has examined the
influence of cadence training on self-
selected and optimal pedal rates in trained
cyclists. As a result it is unknown whether
cyclists habitually adopt their own optimal
pedalling cadence, mimic the pedal rate of
successful cyclists, or both. Further
research is needed in order to examine
the influence of training at various
cadences on optimal and preferred
cadence selection.
Defining optimal cadence
For many years, scientists, coaches and
athletes have attempted to determine the
optimal pedal rate to apply during a variety
of cycling tasks. While numerous
investigations have been conducted 25, 28,
59, 66, 69, the best possible cycling cadence
remains unclear. This uncertainty may be
due to methodological differences and
variations in the precise definition of the
term ‘optimal’ used within cadence
research. Indeed, previous research in this
area has focused on the effects of various
cadences on cycling mechanics 38, 49, 66,
cycling efficiency 44, hemodynamics 28, 69,
neuromuscular fatigue 37, 64, 65, 72 and more
recently cycling performance 25, 75.
Therefore the ideal cycling cadence may
differ, dependent on whether the term
refers to the most economical, powerful,
fatigue-resistant or comfortable cadence
25, 57. For the purpose of this review on
cadence, the term ‘optimal’ refers to the
pedal rate resulting in the best possible
performance outcome. The cadence that
optimises performance under a variety of
conditions experienced by cyclists is likely
to be dictated by the trade-off between
cycling economy, power output and the
development of fatigue. Thus throughout
this review each of these variables will be
discussed with respect to various cycling
disciplines.
Cycling power output
Pedal force and joint moments
Recent advancements in strain-gauge
technology have led to improved
understanding of the interaction between
pedal force and resultant crank torque 7, 38,
49, 57. Studies examining pedal force during
cycling have revealed both effective and
ineffective pedal loads 11, 22, 61. Further,
effective and ineffective pedal loads can
be separated, by force, into normal (force
applied perpendicularly to the pedal
surface) and tangential (force applied
along the surface of the pedal)
components. Typical effective pedal
loading at various cadences and power
outputs are shown in Figure 1.

Optimal cadence selection during cycling International SportMed Journal, Vol. 10 No.1, 2009,
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Figure 1: Effective pedal forces throughout the entire crank cycle during cycling at various
power outputs (a) and cadences (b). 0° crank angle refers to top dead centre. Figure
reproduced by permission of the publisher Taylor & Francis Ltd ,
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals from Sanderson DJ, Hennig EM and Black AH. The influence
of cadence and power output on force application and in-shoe pressure distribution during
cycling by competitive and recreational cyclists. J of Sports Sci 2000. 61.
The effective pedal force acts
perpendicularly to the bicycle crank,
generating a torque which is transmitted
through the bicycle chain to the wheel.
From Figure 1 it can be seen that the
effective pedal force and thus crank torque
vary substantially throughout the pedal
cycle. Indeed, peak torque typically occurs
at approximately 100°, past top dead
centre, whereas negative load occurs on
the upstroke of the pedal cycle (Figure 1).
Since power output is the product of crank
torque and crank angular velocity,
instantaneous power output also varies
throughout a crank cycle 11.

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Despite this, average power output
produced over an entire revolution may be
determined by the following equation:
Power (W) = average net effective pedal
torque x average angular velocity
(cadence) 11.
Based on the above formula, the average
force/torque applied to the pedals over an
entire pedal revolution at a fixed power
output is reduced at higher cadences 71.
For example, at 350W the average
effective force applied to the pedals is
~15% lower when cycling at 105rpm
(184N) compared with 90rpm (215N). This
reduction in average pedal force (i.e. force
over an entire revolution) is
predominantely due to a decrease in peak
normal forces (Figure 1b; 60, 61). This is
important as the peak normal forces
observed during maximal cycling are likely
to be dictated by the force/torque-velocity
relationship of muscle contractions 45, 63. In
short, the peak torque that can be applied
to the pedals during short duration
maximal cycling is reduced at faster
contraction velocities (i.e. faster cadences;
Figure 2).
Figure 2: Relationship between peak crank torque, crank velocity (i.e. cadence) and power
output during short duration (<10s) maximal cycling in two separate subjects (solid and
dashed lines). Figure used with permission from J Appl Physiol. 51
Based on the contractile properties of
human muscle it has been shown that
maximal cycling power output is achieved
at approximately 120-130rpm (Figure 2; 8,
50, 51, 62, 78). Such high cadences may be
important to maximal sprint cycling
performance. Indeed, track and bicycle
motorcross (BMX) cyclists typically
perform short duration events (≤1000m) at
average cadences equal to or greater than
120 rpm 19, 20. However, Zoladz et al. 78
found that when pedalling above 100rpm
there was a decrease in the power output
delivered at any given oxygen cost, which
was in turn associated with an earlier
onset of anaerobiosis 77, 78. Such findings
highlight the disadvantage of adopting
such high cadences (>100rpm) during
prolonged high-intensity exercise, such as
competitive road cycling.
With regards to prolonged submaximal
performance, optimal cycling cadence is
one that typically maximises global power
output (i.e. effective pedal force) from the
musculature of the lower limb 14 at low
metabolic cost 23. In an attempt to gain
insight into cadence optimisation over
prolonged exercise durations, researchers
have examined the influence lower

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extremity net 49 and individual 21, 53 joint
moments on muscular effort and its
association with the preferred 49 or optimal
59 cadence. While it appears that the
relative contribution of the joint moments
at the ankle, knee and hip remain fairly
constant at various cadences and cycling
power outputs 53, the average absolute
moments (i.e. moment-based mechanical
cost function) across these joints may
decrease with increasing cadences in the
range of 50-95rpm, with a subtle but
noticeable increase from 95-110rpm 49.
Further, Marsh et al. 49 found that the
cadence which minimises the sum of
these moments increases at higher power
outputs. These findings and those of
others 36, 59, suggest that the moment-
based mechanical cost functions may be
reduced in the range of 90-110rpm and
could be important in determining the
preferred or optimal cadence during
cycling.
Inertial load and momentum
To further understand the mechanical cost
associated with cadence, researchers
have quantified both the muscular and
non-muscular components that dictate
pedal forces and crank torques 7, 54.
Muscular components refer to forces or
torques that are produced by muscular
activity, whereas non-muscular
components refer to other factors that may
influence pedal or crank forces, such as
gravity or inertia 7. While muscular pedal
forces are reduced with higher cadences
(as described in the previous section),
non-muscular pedal forces increase
linearly with pedal rate 7, 54. As a result,
overall pedal forces at fixed power outputs
follow a quadratic relationship with
increases in cadence (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Muscular, non-muscular and total pedal forces while cycling at 120W and at 60, 75,
90, 105 and 120rpm. Reprinted from: J Biomech, Vol.32, Neptune RR and Hertzog W. The
association between negative muscle work and pedaling rate, pp.1051-1026, 1999, with
permission from Elsevier. 54.
Examining this relationship, Neptune and
Herzog 54 found that when cycling at
260W, a minimum pedal force of 190N
was observed at 90rpm, compared with
higher (105 and 120rpm) and lower (60
and 75rpm) cadences. Since gravitational
forces are largely unaffected by changes
in cadence 7, 12, increasing non-muscular
pedal forces that occur with higher
cadences are primarily due to the
influence of inertial load (i.e. increased
inertia of the crank) (kg m2) 7. Indeed, by

Optimal cadence selection during cycling International SportMed Journal, Vol. 10 No.1, 2009,
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increasing crank inertial loads, self-
selected cadence has been found to
significantly increase, possibly an attempt
to reduce peak crank torque 31. It has
therefore been suggested that changes in
inertial properties associated with
increasing cadence may influence lower
extremity neuromuscular coordination 7, 38,
40.
Neuromuscular fatigue and
myoelectrical activity
The influence of inertial properties on
neuromuscular coordination during cycling
has previously been examined 7, 40, 55.
Through the examination of muscle
activation burst patterns and the
coordination of mono- and bi-articular
antagonists, it has been shown that higher
cadences result in a forward shift (i.e.
earlier in the crank cycle) in the activation
of gluteus maximus, vastus lateralis, and
tibialis anterior 38, 39. Further, the
magnitude of this shift decreased in
proximal (hip) to distal (ankle) limb
segments 39. Since increases in pedalling
rate can influence neuromuscular
recruitment patterns, it seems plausible to
presume that variations in cycling cadence
might induce the development of
neuromuscular fatigue. Nevertheless,
research on this topic has produced
conflicting results 37, 44, 64-66, 72. Studies
have shown that the self-selection of
relatively high pedalling rates (~80–90rpm)
may reduce muscle activation of vastus
lateralis 44, 64, 72. Therefore it has been
suggested that cyclists may spontaneously
select a high cadence in order to prevent
the development of neuromuscular fatigue,
regardless of the energy cost 64. In support
of this, Takaishi et al. 72 found that
integrated electromyography (iEMG) of
vastus lateralis as a function of time (i.e.
slope of the iEMG) followed a quadratic
relationship with cadence and was
minimised at 80-90rpm. The authors
concluded that cyclists tend to adopt such
cadences in order to minimise muscular
fatigue, and not metabolic demand, since
lower cadences (60-70rpm) were
associated with reduced oxygen
consumption 71, 72. In contrast to these
findings, Sarre et al. 65 found that when
cycling at constant power outputs (60%,
80% and 100% of maximal aerobic power
output) neuromuscular activation of vastus
lateralis and vastus medialis were
unaffected by varying cadence (70 – 130%
of self-selected pedal rate). Further, with
the use of femoral nerve electrical
stimulation, it was shown that similar
variations in cadence (± 20% of self-
selected cadence) during prolonged
cycling had no effect on the occurrence of
either central or peripheral fatigue
development of the leg extensors 37, 66.
Inconsistencies in findings within this
research area may be related to
methodological differences relating to the
functional role of the muscles examined,
training level of the subjects, and the
range of power outputs/cadences used 64.
While muscle activation of the knee
extensors (i.e. vastus lateralis and vastus
medialis) has been found to be reduced 44,
64, 72 or unaffected 65 by increases in
cadence, muscle activation of
gastrocnemius lateralis and biceps femoris
has been shown to increase at faster
pedal rates 45, 47, 71. It is thought that such
increases in muscle activation allow for a
greater delivery of forces during the
downstroke and reduced negative forces
during the upstroke of the cycle pattern 64.
Negative force refers to the
counterproductive force typically observed
during the upstroke of the pedal action
(Figure 4).

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Figure 4. Diagram demonstrating the direction and magnitude of pedal forces throughout a
typical clockwise pedal cycle. Note counterproductive (negative) pedal forces during the
upward phase of the pedal cycle. Reprinted, with permission, from J.P. Broker, 2003, Cycling
Biomechanics: Road and Mountain. In: High-Tech Cycling: The Science of Riding Faster,
edited by E.R. Burke, 2nd ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 125, figure 5.4.11.
This negative force is generated by the
insufficient speed of the rear leg during the
upstroke of the pedal cycle 57, 66. Despite
an increase in activation of biceps femoris
at higher cadences, the increase in pedal
rate and thus crank speed/momentum
may still result in greater negative work.
Thus in order to overcome this increase in
negative work, it has been suggested that
the front leg may be required to perform
greater positive work during the
downstroke, resulting in increased fatigue
(especially at high power outputs) 66.
In addition to affecting neuromuscular
coordination, alterations in cadence may
also influence muscle fibre recruitment
patterns 2. Such recruitment patterns are
thought to be in response to a reduction in
muscle force development when cycling at
higher cadences, rather than an increase
in the velocity of contraction (see section
on Pedal force and joint moments). It is
believed that a reduction in myoelectrical
activity observed during high cadence
cycling may indicate less recruitment of
Type II muscle fibres 2 or, conversely,
greater recruitment of Type I muscle fibres
2, 64. Supporting this, Ahlquist et al. 2 found
that when cycling at a constant metabolic
cost (~85% maximal aerobic capacity), a
low cadence (i.e. high force; 50rpm)
resulted in significantly greater Type II
muscle glycogen depletion compared with
a higher pedal rate (100rpm). In addition,
Sarre et al. 64 examined the
electromyographic signal of vastus
lateralis using spectral analysis and found
that the median power frequency was
minimised during the cyclist’s freely
chosen pedal rate (88rpm). Since the
mean power frequency reflects the action
potential velocity of motor units 3, 4, it has
been suggested that a higher mean power
frequency could represent a greater
recruitment of fast twitch motor units 30.
The optimal cadence to adopt during
prolonged submaximal cycling may
therefore be based on the rate at which
recruitment of fast twitch motor units is
minimised 63, 64, although this does not
appear to be the case for all activated
muscles of the lower extremities 64.
Indeed, the role and contribution of each
individual muscle should be appreciated
when examining factors influencing self-
selected and optimal cadences.
Minimising the recruitment of fast twitch
motor units may be important for

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prolonged submaximal cycling, since Type
II muscle fibres are typically more
metabolically demanding than the Type I
subtype 18, 33.
Efficiency and economy
Numerous studies have examined the
influence of pedalling frequency on the
efficiency and economy of cycling 6, 27, 44, 46,
48, 71, 72. Generally, when cycling at
constant power outputs, lower cadences
have been found to result in reduced
oxygen cost (i.e. improved gross
efficiency) compared with higher cadences
6, 15, 27. Improved efficiency of cycling
observed at lower pedalling rates is likely
to be dictated by the relationship between
muscle shortening velocity and the
efficiency of muscle contractions (percent
Type I and Type II active fibres). For
instance, under in vitro conditions, it has
been observed that the efficiency of
skeletal muscle contractions is augmented
with increasing speed of contraction, until
a maximum is reached (i.e. an
economically optimal shortening velocity)
35. The most economical cadence appears
to be extremely low (~50-60rpm) when
cycling at low power outputs (≤200W), but
increases to approximately 80-100rpm
with increasing workloads (~350W) 26, 44,
58. The cause of the rise in the
economically optimal cadence is unclear,
but is again likely to be due to the power-
velocity relationship of muscle contraction
and the additional recruitment of fast
twitch muscle fibres with increases in
exercise intensity. As previously
mentioned (see section on Pedal force
and joint moments), an increase in
cadence at higher exercise intensities may
optimise the power-velocity relationship,
and as a result reduce the metabolic cost
of cycling. Indeed at lower cadences,
greater force per pedal stroke is required
to maintain a given power output, which
requires additional muscle fibre
recruitment and thus a higher energy
expenditure 58, 67. Supporting this,
myoelectrical activity of vastus lateralis is
reduced at higher cadences (see section
on Neuromuscular fatigue and
myoelectrical activity).
In addition to reducing the average pedal
force per revolution, a faster pedal rate
might reduce the oxygen cost associated
with high intensity cycling since the
mechanical efficiency of both fast and slow
twitch muscle is improved at high and low
contraction velocities, respectively 34, 35, 63,
68. It has therefore been suggested that a
cyclist’s ability to improve their efficiency
at high cycling cadences might be dictated
by a cyclist’s individual muscle fibre
composition 33. Indeed, human muscle
containing high levels of slow twitch
muscle fibre composition has been found
to be more efficient during cycling than
muscle with fast twitch muscle fibre
predominance 18, 33. In the light of this,
Hansen and Sjøgaard 33 suggest that
when individuals with low levels of slow
twitch muscle fibres increase pedal rate
(especially at higher workloads), muscular
efficiency will be either unchanged or
possibly reduced due to significant
involvement of less efficient fast twitch
muscle fibres. However, in cyclists with
greater percentages of slow twitch muscle
fibres, an increase in pedal rate could
minimise fast twitch fibre recruitment and
enhance slow twitch fibre use 2, 33. Within
this framework, fatigue of Type I muscle
fibres that may occur during prolonged
constant intensity exercise might result in
a progressive recruitment of additional fast
twitch fibres, resulting in an increase in the
energetically optimal cadence 10, 76. In
support of this, Brisswalter et al. 10 showed
that following 30min of constant pace
cycling (80% of V
•O2max), the energetically
optimal cadence of trained triathletes
increased from 70rpm to 86rpm.
Conversely, others have shown that
energetically optimal cadences remain
relatively stable during prolonged cycling 5,
73. In addition, self-selected cadence
during prolonged cycling is typically found
to decrease 1, 5 or remain relatively
constant 43, rather than increase. The
influence of fatigue on muscular power
development and thus self-selected and
optimal cadences is currently unclear.
However, it seems plausible that variations
in pedal rate that occur during prolonged
cycling may be related to alterations in
muscle fibre recruitment strategies and
thus related to exercise intensity, duration
and muscle fibre composition. Further
research examining the influence of
metabolic and neuromuscular fatigue on
self-selected and optimal cadences
throughout a range of cycling durations
(e.g. sprint, prolonged and ultra-
endurance) is warranted.

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Hemodynamic/blood flow
While numerous studies have investigated
the influence of cadence on oxygen
consumption, power output and fatigue
development (described above), few
studies have examined the hemodynamic
changes associated with different pedal
rates 13, 28, 67, 69, 70. As with oxygen
consumption, it has been observed that
when cycling at a constant power output,
heart rate may increase both above and
below the ideal cadence 67. Further, the
pedal rate that minimises heart rate rises
linearly with increasing power output 13, 67.
The close relationship between the
energetically optimal cadence (i.e.
cadence which minimises V
•O2) and the
cadence which minimises heart rate may
be related to the oxygen (see section on
Efficiency and economy) and thus blood
flow demands of working muscle. Gotshall
et al. 28 have shown increases in heart
rate, stroke volume and cardiac output
with higher pedal cadences ranging from
70-110rpm. However, in this study the
elevated cardiac output observed at higher
cadences was associated with a
disproportionately lower rise in oxygen
consumption, as shown by a reduction in
the arterial-venous oxygen difference 28.
Consequently, this study showed that
increases in cardiac output observed at
higher cadences were not solely due to
elevated oxygen demands. Instead the
authors suggested that the higher cardiac
output could have been due to the
enhanced effectiveness of the skeletal
muscle pump resulting from the faster
cadences 28. Indeed, the greater
contraction rate occurring at higher
cadences would facilitate venous return,
augment ventricular preload, and elevate
cardiac output.
In addition to increasing venous return,
higher cadences might also reduce the
period of blood flow occlusion that occurs
in the microvessels of skeletal muscle
during cycling. With the use of near
infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), Takaishi
and co-workers 69, 70 found that when
cycling at 75% V
•O2max, muscle blood flow
and oxygenation of vastus lateralis was
significantly reduced during the initial
pedal downstroke (first third of the crank
cycle; Figure 5), presumably due to high
intramuscular pressure associated with
muscle contraction.
Figure 5: Changes in muscle blood flow (circle), muscle oxygenation (square), pedal forces
(triangle), knee angle and rectified electromyography (EMG) throughout a pedal cycle. 0°
crank angle refers to top dead centre. Figure reprinted with permission from Lippincott
Williams & Wilkens for Takaishi T, Sugiura T, Katayama K, et al. Changes in blood volume

Optimal cadence selection during cycling International SportMed Journal, Vol. 10 No.1, 2009,
pp. 1-15, http://www.ismj.com
Official Journal of FIMS (International Federation of Sports Medicine)
11
and oxygenation level in a working muscle during a crank cycle, Med Sci Sports Exerc, Vol.34
No.3, 2002, pp.520-528 70.
Further, in untrained individuals, this
deoxygenation (i.e. the minimum blood
volume and oxygenation reached) was
more sever at low (50rpm) compared with
high (85rpm) cadences 69. It is therefore
plausible that higher cadences could
improve oxygen delivery to working
muscles by limiting blood flow occlusion.
Such findings may be especially important
during the forceful contractions (i.e. during
high power outputs) typically achieved by
professional/elite cyclists. Despite this,
further research is needed in order to
determine the influence of hemodynamics
on preferred and optimal cadence
selection during cycling.
Conclusion
A vast body of literature has examined
various factors that may influence the
optimal pedal rate to adopt during a variety
of cycling tasks. Despite this research, the
cadence which maximises performance
during cycling remains unclear. It is
possible that much of the uncertainty
surrounding optimal cadences could be
due to methodological inconsistencies
between studies. In particular, the term
‘optimal’ may be used to describe the most
economical, powerful, fatigue-resisting or
comfortable pedal rates. As a result, the
cadence that results in the best possible
performance during the variety of cycling
tasks experienced by cyclists appears to
be multifaceted. Consequently, future
research exploring the best possible
cadence to select during cycling should
examine a number of factors (i.e. power,
neuromuscular fatigue, efficiency, blood
flow and comfort) that may be associated
with maximising performance outcomes. In
particular, the influence of training at
various cadences on performance and
physiological adaptations requires further
examination. Based on previous research,
it would appear that muscle force and
neuromuscular fatigue might be reduced,
and cycling power output maximised, with
relatively high pedal rates (100-120rpm).
However, such high pedal rates increase
the metabolic cost of cycling, especially at
low power outputs (≤ 200W). As a result,
short duration sprint cycling performance
might be optimised with the adoption of
fast pedal rates (~120rpm). Due to the
influence that fast pedal rates have been
shown to impart on cycling mechanics,
cycling efficiency and fatigue
development, performance in longer
duration events might be enhanced from
use of slightly slower cadences (~90-
100rpm). During ultra-endurance cycling,
performance might be improved by using
relatively low cadences (70-90rpm), since
cycling economy is improved and energy
demands are lowered. Future research
examining a multitude of factors known to
influence optimal cycling cadence (i.e.
economy, power output and fatigue
development) is needed to confirm these
hypotheses.
Address for correspondence:
Dr Chris R Abbiss, School of Exercise,
Biomedical and Health Sciences, Edith
Cowan University, 100 Joondalup Drive,
Joondalup, WA, Australia 6027
Tel.: +61 8 6304 5740
Fax: + 61 8 6304 5036
Email: c.abbiss@ecu.edu.au
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