ArticlePDF Available

Spondarthritis in the Triassic

PLOS
PLOS ONE
Authors:
Juan Carlos Cisneros at Universidade Federal do Piauí
Juan Carlos Cisneros
Uiara Gomes Cabral at Federal University of Rio de Janeiro
Uiara Gomes Cabral
Frikkie C de Beer at Retired in May 2020 from the South African Nuclear Energy Corporation (Necsa)
Frikkie C de Beer
  • Retired in May 2020 from the South African Nuclear Energy Corporation (Necsa)
Ross Damiani
Ross Damiani
Ross Damiani
  • This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.
Show all 5 authorsHide
Download full-text PDFDownload full-text PDF
Read full-text
Download citation

Abstract and Figures

The evidence of several forms of arthritis has been well documented in the fossil record. However, for pre-Cenozoic vertebrates, especially regarding reptiles, this record is rather scarce. In this work we present a case report of spondarthritis found in a vertebral series that belonged to a carnivorous archosaurian reptile from the Lower Triassic (∼245 million years old) of the South African Karoo. Neutron tomography confirmed macroscopic data, revealing the ossification of the entire intervertebral disc space (both annulus fibrosus and nucleus pulposus), which supports the diagnosis of spondarthritis. The presence of spondarthritis in the new specimen represents by far the earliest evidence of any form of arthritis in the fossil record. The present find is nearly 100 million years older than the previous oldest report of this pathology, based on a Late Jurassic dinosaur. Spondarthritis may have indirectly contributed to the death of the animal under study.
External views of vertebrae BP-1-5796. A. Left lateral view. B. Right lateral view. C. Posterior view. D. Schematic drawing of a basal archosaurian reptile, showing the likely placement of the vertebral series within the caudal region of the column. Scale bars represent 10 mm for (A-B), and 1 m for (D). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013425.g001
External views of vertebrae BP-1-5796. A. Left lateral view. B. Right lateral view. C. Posterior view. D. Schematic drawing of a basal archosaurian reptile, showing the likely placement of the vertebral series within the caudal region of the column. Scale bars represent 10 mm for (A-B), and 1 m for (D). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013425.g001
… 
Neutron tomographies of vertebrae BP-1-5796. A. First (anterior to posterior direction) preserved vertebrae. B. Second vertebrae. CD. Third vertebrae. A-C. Transversal slices, in anterior view, at level of anterior border of the transverse process. D. Transversal slice, in anterior view, at level of maximum thickness of inflammation. E-F. Coronal slices of the vertebral series in dorsal view, (E) at level of the neural canal, (F) at level of the centrae, anterior to the left. G. Sagittal slice of the vertebral series in right view. H. Raw neutron image in right lateral view. Scale bar represents 10 mm. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013425.g002
Neutron tomographies of vertebrae BP-1-5796. A. First (anterior to posterior direction) preserved vertebrae. B. Second vertebrae. CD. Third vertebrae. A-C. Transversal slices, in anterior view, at level of anterior border of the transverse process. D. Transversal slice, in anterior view, at level of maximum thickness of inflammation. E-F. Coronal slices of the vertebral series in dorsal view, (E) at level of the neural canal, (F) at level of the centrae, anterior to the left. G. Sagittal slice of the vertebral series in right view. H. Raw neutron image in right lateral view. Scale bar represents 10 mm. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013425.g002
… 
A. Left lateral view. B. Right lateral view. C. Posterior view. D. Schematic drawing of a basal archosaurian reptile, showing the likely placement of the vertebral series within the caudal region of the column. Scale bars represent 10 mm for (A–B), and 1 m for (D).
A. Left lateral view. B. Right lateral view. C. Posterior view. D. Schematic drawing of a basal archosaurian reptile, showing the likely placement of the vertebral series within the caudal region of the column. Scale bars represent 10 mm for (A–B), and 1 m for (D).
… 
A. First (anterior to posterior direction) preserved vertebrae. B. Second vertebrae. C–D. Third vertebrae. A–C. Transversal slices, in anterior view, at level of anterior border of the transverse process. D. Transversal slice, in anterior view, at level of maximum thickness of inflammation. E–F. Coronal slices of the vertebral series in dorsal view, (E) at level of the neural canal, (F) at level of the centrae, anterior to the left. G. Sagittal slice of the vertebral series in right view. H. Raw neutron image in right lateral view. Scale bar represents 10 mm.
A. First (anterior to posterior direction) preserved vertebrae. B. Second vertebrae. C–D. Third vertebrae. A–C. Transversal slices, in anterior view, at level of anterior border of the transverse process. D. Transversal slice, in anterior view, at level of maximum thickness of inflammation. E–F. Coronal slices of the vertebral series in dorsal view, (E) at level of the neural canal, (F) at level of the centrae, anterior to the left. G. Sagittal slice of the vertebral series in right view. H. Raw neutron image in right lateral view. Scale bar represents 10 mm.
… 
Figures - uploaded by Juan Carlos Cisneros
Author content
All figure content in this area was uploaded by Juan Carlos Cisneros
Content may be subject to copyright.
pone.00134
25.pdf
Content uploaded by Juan Carlos Cisneros
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Juan Carlos Cisneros
Content may be subject to copyright.
Spondarthritis in the Triass
ic.pdf
Available via license: CC BY 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
Spondarthritis in the Triassic
Juan Carlos Cisneros
1
*, Uiara Gomes Cabral
2
, Frikkie de Beer
3
, Ross Damiani
4
, Daniel Costa Fortier
5
1Centro de Cie
ˆncias da Natureza, Universidade Federal do Piauı
´, Teresina, Brazil, 2Departamento de Geologia e Paleontologia, Museu Nacional, Universidade Federal do
Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3Nuclear Technology Division, South African Nuclear Energy Corporation, Pretoria, South Africa, 4Staatliches Museum fu
¨r
Naturkunde Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany, 5Departamento de Paleontologia e Estratigrafia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
Abstract
Background:
The evidence of several forms of arthritis has been well documented in the fossil record. However, for pre-
Cenozoic vertebrates, especially regarding reptiles, this record is rather scarce. In this work we present a case report of
spondarthritis found in a vertebral series that belonged to a carnivorous archosaurian reptile from the Lower Triassic (,245
million years old) of the South African Karoo.
Methodology/Principal Findings:
Neutron tomography confirmed macroscopic data, revealing the ossification of the entire
intervertebral disc space (both annulus fibrosus and nucleus pulposus), which supports the diagnosis of spondarthritis.
Conclusions/Significance:
The presence of spondarthritis in the new specimen represents by far the earliest evidence of
any form of arthritis in the fossil record. The present find is nearly 100 million years older than the previous oldest report of
this pathology, based on a Late Jurassic dinosaur. Spondarthritis may have indirectly contributed to the death of the animal
under study.
Citation: Cisneros JC, Gomes Cabral U, de Beer F, Damiani R, Costa Fortier D (2010) Spondarthritis in the Triassic. PLoS ONE 5(10): e13425. doi:10.1371/
journal.pone.0013425
Editor: Gian Paolo Fadini, University of Padova, Italy
Received June 16, 2010; Accepted September 24, 2010; Published October 14, 2010
Copyright: ß2010 Cisneros et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: Palaeontological Scientific Trust, PAST, South Africa (www.past.org.za). South African Nuclear Energy Corporation, NECSA, South Africa (www.necsa.co.
za). NECSA participated in study design, data collection and analysis of the authors’ study. The funders had no role in decision to publish, or preparation of the
manuscript.
Competing Interests: One of the co-authors is employed at NECSA, one of the funders of the present study. This, however, does not alter the authors’
adherence to all the PLoS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.
* E-mail: juan.cisneros@ufpi.edu.br
Introduction
The Karoo Basin, comprising South Africa and neighboring
countries, has produced an unparalleled wealth of past life, being
notable for its detailed record of fossil vertebrates that highlight the
Permo-Triassic biotic crisis [1]. In this contribution, we analyze
the vertebral remains of a carnivorous reptile from the Lower
Triassic of South Africa, a specimen that shows macroscopic signs
of a severe bone pathology. The condition is here identified as
spondarthritis, which encompasses a diverse group of related
inflammatory arthritides that share multiple clinical features as
well as common genetic predisposing factors [2], and it represents
the oldest instance of this pathology hitherto known.
Materials and Methods
Specimen BP-1-5796 (stored at the Bernard Price Institute for
Palaeontological Research, Johannesburg) consists of three
articulated anterior caudal vertebrae of a large, basal archosaurian
reptile (Figure 1). The specimen was collected at Driefontein
District, Free State Province, South Africa. This locality produces
a fauna that is considered to represent the lower portion of the
Cynognathus Zone (Cynognathus subzone A), of late Early Triassic age
(Olenekian, ,245 Ma) [3,4,5].
Neutron tomography, a nondestructive technique, was em-
ployed in order to examine the internal structure of the specimen.
This was performed through the SANRAD tomography facility at
the SAFARI-1 nuclear research reactor operated by the South
African Nuclear Energy Corporation (NECSA) in Pretoria. The
reactor has a design power of 20MW and provides a neutron flux
of 1.26107 n.cm-2.s-1 at beam port no-2 at the object under
investigation. For detailed specifications of the SANRAD
tomography facility see [6,7]. The specimen was placed on top
of a rotating desk, on which a total of 180 projections in 180
angular degrees were made (Video S1). The image reconstruction
procedure was performed on IDL based GSECARS Tomography
Processing Software [8]. VGStudio MAX 2.1 software from
Volume-Graphics was used for 3D rendering, segmentation and
slicing of the images obtained.
Results
The specimen here studied is composed by three nearly
complete, fused vertebral bodies and partial zygapophyses
(Figure 1). The vertebrae are almost complete, except for the
missing distal portions of the neural spines. Judging from the size
of these vertebrae, it is assumed that they belonged to a large,
probably old individual. These are overall well preserved and show
no signs of taphonomical alteration. As the vertebrae are fused, it
is not possible to provide the length of each vertebra, the total
length of the specimen being 116 mm.
The osseous reactions in all three vertebrae are very similar,
however, the two posterior vertebrae are visibly more affected
(Figures 1A–C and 2A–D). In these vertebrae, the lateral and
ventral surfaces of the vertebral bodies exhibit an exuberant
PLoS ONE | www.plosone.org 1 October 2010 | Volume 5 | Issue 10 | e13425
osseous overgrowth, being located below the left and right
transverse processes. This osseous growth precludes the visualiza-
tion of intervertebral limits. Neither zygapophyses or neural arcs
were affected, due to this, they are not fused, and the space
between these structures is filled with sediment.
The neutron tomography (Figure 2) revealed no traces of
fracture or trauma in the vertebral series. Through the
tomography we observed that the intervertebral disc spaces (both
annulus fibrosus and nucleus pulposus) are totally ossified,
producing the complete ankylosis of the vertebrae (Figure 2F
and G, Video S2 and S4). In this way, it is not possible to
distinguish the limits of each vertebral element. No evidence of
zygapophyseal ankylosis, however, was found through the
tomography (Figure 2E and H, Video S1, S3 and S4), thus,
confirming what was recognized by the external exam of the
specimen. Neutron images also showed that in the innermost layer
of the vertebral bodies the trabecular bone forms trabecular
bridges that follow a regular pattern across the ankylosed areas
(Figure 2G, Video S4). The absence of an irregular pattern of
trabecular bone allows to discard the hypothesis of an infectious
process or tumor [9,10].
Differential diagnosis
There are developmental anomalies that can lead to similar
vertebral ankyloses to the one observed in the vertebrae here
studied. This is the case of congenital vertebral synostosis, which
can occur both by an alteration of the secondary embrionary
segmentation or due to absence of intervertebral discs [11]. It is
not common, however, that bones affected solely by this anomaly
bear an external osseous protuberance such as the one found in
our specimen.
Regarding non-congenital pathologies, there is a variety of
processes that can affect, directly or indirectly, leading to vertebral
ankylosis. Fractures on articular surfaces may result in the damage
and osseous ankylosis of these articulations. This problem is
related to cominutive fractures, where more than one articular
surface is involved with the fibrocartilage callus, fusing two or
more bones [12]. In vertebrae, ankylosis is a common sequel to
fractures by compression of one or more vertebral bodies, this
occurs through a mechanism of fibrocartilage callus production
that extends to one or more adjacent vertebrae [12]. In cases of
ankylosis resulting from trauma, evidence of one or more fracture
lines often remains, allowing recognition of this process. However,
there is no evidence that the ankylosis in the vertebrae here studied
was the result of a traumatic process. There is neither presence of
immature bone nor evidence of fracture lines.
Rheumatoid arthritis of the vertebral column, an illness that
may also lead to vertebral ankylosis, is characterized by
progressive synostosis of the following elements: anterior and
posterior ligaments, capsules and small intervertebral articulations,
and intervertebral ligaments [11]. However, intervertebral discs
are not affected, being a pathological condition that is contradicted
by the specimen under study. Furthermore, the bone reaction in
rheumatoid arthritis is minimal or absent [13].
Another disorder that can produce vertebral ankylosis is the
diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). DISH describes a
phenomenon characterized by calcification and ossification of
entheseal sites. The ossification and calcification of the anterolat-
eral aspect of the thoracic spine are regarded as a hallmark of the
disease, however, it is not limited to the spine, as it has often been
reported to involve peripheral sites as well [14]. It is important to
note that DISH should not be considered merely as an isolated
spinal condition but rather a systemic disease. DISH should be
regarded as an extensive proliferative musculoskeletal disease with
clinical and metabolic derangements [14]. Resnick and Niwayama
[15] defined the classification criterion that is currently used:
involvement of at least four contiguous thoracic vertebral
segments, preservation of intervertebral disc spaces, and the
absence of apophyseal joint degeneration or sacroiliac inflamma-
Figure 1. External views of vertebrae BP-1-5796. A. Left lateral
view. B. Right lateral view. C. Posterior view. D. Schematic drawing of a
basal archosaurian reptile, showing the likely placement of the vertebral
series within the caudal region of the column. Scale bars represent
10 mm for (A–B), and 1 m for (D).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013425.g001
Spondarthritis in the Triassic
PLoS ONE | www.plosone.org 2 October 2010 | Volume 5 | Issue 10 | e13425
tory changes. The condition is recognized radiographically by the
presence of ‘‘flowing’’ ossification along the anterolateral margins
of the vertebrae and the absence of changes of spondyloarthrop-
athy or degenerative spondylosis [16].
Osteoarthritis is a non-erosive type of arthritis, in which the
primary sites of tissue injury are the cartilage of the joint and the
subchondral bone, directly underlying and supporting it [13]. In
osteoarthritis, overgrowth of bone (osteophytes) do occur, but not
bone resorption. Vertebral phenomena, however, are usually not a
result of osteoarthritis. The term osteoarthritis is properly
restricted in application to diarthrodial joints, thus, excluding the
disk spaces [17]. The only form of spine disease accurately referred
to as osteoarthritis is that producing osseous overgrowth
(osteophytes) of the zygapophyseal joints [10].
The term ‘‘spondyloarthropathy’’ is still frequently employed in
the literature (both medical and paleopathological), however, it is
recommended the use of the term ‘‘spondarthritis’’ (or ‘‘spondy-
loarthritis’’), because the suffix ‘‘arthropathy’’ is too ambiguous
and does not indicate the inflammatory nature of the condition
[18,19,20]. The spondarthrites are characterized by axial and
Figure 2. Neutron tomographies of vertebrae BP-1-5796. A. First (anterior to posterior direction) preserved vertebrae. B. Second vertebrae. C–
D. Third vertebrae. A–C. Transversal slices, in anterior view, at level of anterior border of the transverse process. D. Transversal slice, in anterior view, at
level of maximum thickness of inflammation. E–F. Coronal slices of the vertebral series in dorsal view, (E) at level of the neural canal, (F) at level of the
centrae, anterior to the left. G. Sagittal slice of the vertebral series in right view. H. Raw neutron image in right lateral view. Scale bar represents
10 mm.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013425.g002
Spondarthritis in the Triassic
PLoS ONE | www.plosone.org 3 October 2010 | Volume 5 | Issue 10 | e13425
peripheral arthritis, absence of rheumatoid factor, increased
frequency of HLA-B27, overlapping syndromes, familial aggrega-
tion, and mutual association within patients and families [20]. The
following diagnostic criteria have been employed in skeletal
analyses: evidence of zygapophyseal or sacroiliac joint erosion or
ankylosis; asymmetrical arthritis patterns; reactive new bone
formation; syndesmophytes (being either marginals or calcifica-
tions/ossifications within the annulus fibrosus); or, peripheral joint
ankylosis [17,21]. Zygapophyseal joint erosion or ankylosis and
ossification within annulus fibrosus are pathognomonic signals
[17]. In addition, Golding [22] reports that a more florid type of
periosteal reaction occurs in the spondarthritis group of arthritic
disorders, such as Reiter’s disease and psoriatic arthritis.
Furthermore, the presence of annulus fibrosus ossification in
combination with typical syndesmophytes, allows to discard the
diagnosis for DISH, discarthrosis and infectious spondylitis [19].
The diagnosis for some diseases is defined based on the presence
of characteristic features in certain bones or in a group of them.
For this reason, the study of pathologies on isolated bones may
become a delicate question. However, despite of the obstacles that
are inherent to diagnosing isolated bones, these instances of
pathologies do have their own value, specially in relation to
behavior and habitat. In perspective, they reinforce through
understanding the population that they represent [17]. Through
the differential diagnosis of the features found in the vertebral
series, it is possible to discard in our specimen the possibility of
congenital anomaly, fracture, tumor, rheumatoid arthritis, DISH,
or osteoarthritis. Based on the present analysis, the most probable
explanation, supported both by the elimination of other hypothesis
and by the observed characteristics, is that the vertebral ankylosis
was generated by a process of spondarthritis.
Discussion
It is not always feasible to identify the variety of spondarthritis
recorded. Not even clinically, when it is possible to actually talk with an
afflicted human. The presence of ancillary body system involvement
(e.g., dermatologic, genito-urinary symptom) allows spondarthrites to
be distinguished clinically, but discrimination among them may not be
possible when only the skeleton is available for analysis [13].
The present find constitutes the oldest instance of spondarthritis
in the fossil record. The previous oldest evidence of this pathology
was found on vertebrae from the dinosaur Camarasaurus from Utah,
USA [23] of latest Jurassic age (Tithonian, ,147 Ma). Thus, our
find extends the presence of spondarthritis in the fossil record by
nearly one hundred million years, back to the Early Triassic.
The vertebrae under study constitute the remnants of a large,
and presumably old, carnivorous reptile. Being affected by this
pathology, the individual would suffer an increasing constraint of
the movements of its axial skeleton that slowly would hamper its
faculty of locomotion. Such condition was surely disadvantageous
in a number of activities that may require great physical effort,
such as praying and territory defense. By gradually imposing
restrictions in activities that are vital to the individual (i.e.
acquisition of food items) the development of spondarthritis may
have indirectly contributed to the death of this individual.
Conclusions
A severe pathology was recognized in a caudal vertebral series
of a basal archosaurian reptile from the Lower Triassic of the
South African Karoo. Both macroscopic examination and neutron
tomography data revealed features that are diagnostic of
spondarthritis. As such, the present find represents the earliest
example of this pathology in the fossil record. The disease was
likely an indirect cause of the death of the animal.
Supporting Information
Video S1 Rotation of vertebrae BP-1-5796, made from 180
neutron images in 180 angular degrees.
Found at: doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013425.s001 (3.13 MB
MPG)
Video S2 Parasagittal slices of vertebrae BP-1-5796, from left to
right.
Found at: doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013425.s002 (1.04 MB
MP4)
Video S3 Transversal slices of vertebrae BP-1-5796, in posterior
to anterior direction.
Found at: doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013425.s003 (2.21 MB
MP4)
Video S4 Coronal slices of vertebrae BP-1-5796, in ventral to
dorsal direction.
Found at: doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013425.s004 (1.17 MB
MP4)
Acknowledgments
We are in debt to John Hancox (BPI Palaeontology, Johannesburg) for
collecting the specimen and to Bruce Rothschild (University of Kansas) for
valuable discussion. Editor Gian Paolo Fadini and three anonymous
reviewers are kindly acknowledged.
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: JCC FdB RD. Performed the
experiments: FdB. Analyzed the data: JCC UGC. Contributed reagents/
materials/analysis tools: FdB. Wrote the paper: JCC UGC. Processed
images: DCF.
References
1. Rubidge BS (2005) 27th Du Toit Memorial Lecture – Re-uniting lost continents
– Fossil reptiles from the ancient Karoo and their wanderlust. S Afr J Geol 108:
135–172. (doi:10.2113/108.1.135).
2. Ehrenfeld M (2008) Spondyloarthropathies. In: Shoenfeld Y, Cervera R,
Gershwin ME, eds. Diagnostic Criteria in Autoimmune Diseases Human Press.
pp 195–200.
3. Kitching JW (1977) The distribution of the Karroo vertebrate fauna. Memoir of
the Bernard Price Institute for Palaeontological Research, University of the
Witwatersrand 1: 1–131, 1 map.
4. Hancox PJ, Shishkin MA, Rubidge BS, Kitching JW (1995) A threefold
subdivision of the Cynognathus Assemblage Zone (Beaufort Group, South Africa)
and its palaeogeographical implications. S Afr J Sci 91: 143–144.
5. Neveling J, Hancox PJ, Rubidge BS (2005) Biostratigraphy of the lower
Burgersdorp Formation (Beaufort Group; Karoo Supergroup) of South Africa –
implications for the stratigraphic ranges of early Triassic tetrapods. Palaeont afr
41: 81–87. (published 2006).
6. de Beer FC (2005) Characteristics of the neutron/X-ray tomography system at
the SANRAD facility in South Africa. Nucl Instrum Meth A 542: 1–8.
(doi:10.1016/j.nima.2005.01.003).
7. de Beer FC, Strydom WJ (2001) Neutron radiography at SAFARI-l in South
Africa. Nondestruct Test Eva 16: 163–176. (doi:10.1080/10589750108953073).
8. Rivers ML (2001) GSECARS Tomography Processing Software. http://cars9.
uchicago.edu/software/tomography.
9. Rothschild BM, Witzke BJ, Hershkovitz I (1999) Metastatic cancer in the
Jurassic. Lancet 354: 398. (doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(99)01019-3).
10. Rothschild BM, Wang X, Shoshani J (1994) Spondyloarthropathy in
proboscideans. J Zoo Wildlife Med 25: 360–366.
11. Campillo D (2001) Introduccio´n a la Paleopatologı´a. Barcelona: Bellaterra. 591 p.
12. Ortner DJ (2003) Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal
Remains, Second Edition. Amsterdam: Academic Press. 645 p.
13. Rothschild BM, Martin LD (2006) Skeletal Impact of Disease. Albuquerque: N
Mex Mus Nat Hist Sci Bull. 226 p.
Spondarthritis in the Triassic
PLoS ONE | www.plosone.org 4 October 2010 | Volume 5 | Issue 10 | e13425
14. Mader R, Sarzi-Puttini P, Atzeni F, Olivieri I, Pappone N, et al. (200 9)
Extraspinal manifestations of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis. Rheuma-
tology 48: 1478–1481. (doi:10.1093/rheumatology/kep308).
15. Resnick D, Niwayama G (1988) Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders.
Philadelphia: WB Saunders. 5600 p.
16. Belanger TA, Rowe DE (2001) Diffuse Idiopathic Skeleta l Hyperostosis:
Musculoskeletal Manifestations. Am Acad Orthop Surg 9: 258–267.
17. Rothschild BM (2009) Scientifically rigorous reptile and amphibian osseous
pathology: Lessons for forensic herpetology from comparative and paleo-
pathology. Appl Herpetol 6: 47–79. (doi:10.1163/157075409X413842).
18. Zochling J, Brandt J, Braun J (2005) The current concept of spondyloarthritis
with special emphasis on undifferentiated spondyloarthritis. Rheumatology 44:
1483–1491. (doi:10.1093/rheumatology/kei047).
19. Kompanje EJO (1999) Considerations on the comparative pathology of the
vertebrae in Mysticeti and Odontoceti; evidence for the occurrence of
discarthrosis, zygarthrosis, infectious spondylitis and spondyloarthritis. Zool
Meded 73: 99–130.
20. Franc¸ois RJ, Eulderink F, Bywaters EGL (1995) Commented glossary for
rheumatic spinal diseases, based on pathology. Ann Rheum Dis 54: 615–625.
(doi:10.1136/ard.54.8.615).
21. Rothschild BM (2010) Macroscopic recognition of nontra umatic osseous
pathology in the postcranial skeletons of crocodilians and lizards. J Herpetol
44: 13–20. (doi:10.1670/08-243.1).
22. Golding DN (1985) Pain and periostitis. J R Soc Med 78: 706–707.
23. Rothschild B, Helbling II M, Miles C (2002) Spondyloarthropathy in the
Jurassic. Lancet 360: 1454. (doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11471-1).
Spondarthritis in the Triassic
PLoS ONE | www.plosone.org 5 October 2010 | Volume 5 | Issue 10 | e13425

Supplementary resources (4)

Video S4
Data
October 2010
Juan Carlos Cisneros · Uiara Gomes Cabral · Frikkie C de Beer · Ross Damiani · Daniel Costa Fortier
Video S3
Data
October 2010
Juan Carlos Cisneros · Uiara Gomes Cabral · Frikkie C de Beer · Ross Damiani · Daniel Costa Fortier
Video S2
Data
October 2010
Juan Carlos Cisneros · Uiara Gomes Cabral · Frikkie C de Beer · Ross Damiani · Daniel Costa Fortier
Video S1
Data
October 2010
Juan Carlos Cisneros · Uiara Gomes Cabral · Frikkie C de Beer · Ross Damiani · Daniel Costa Fortier
... In the case of this paleopathology, the fusion of the vertebrae is asymmetrical, and the articulated surfaces appear unaffected [40]. Moreover, it is recognized by its presence in tomographic images as a "fluid" ossification at the anterolateral margins of the vertebrae [49]. ...
... Spondyloarthropathy encompasses several rheumatic diseases including spondylitis ankylosans, psoriatic arthritis, juvenile spondyloarthropathy, and reactive arthritis [50]. According to Cisneros et al. [49], the diagnostic criteria are as follows: zygapophyseal or sacroiliac joint erosion or ankylosis; asymmetrical arthritis patterns; reactive new bone formation; syndesmophytes (which are either marginal or are calcifications/ossifications within the annulus fibrosus); or peripheral joint ankylosis. One might also add reduced trabecular density, ossification of tendons and ligaments, and calcification of the intervertebral disc [19,40]. ...
... Caution is due since ligamentous ossification can also be produced by diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH; [40]), but in this case, the reaction of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis is located in the lateral sides of the vertebral centrum and not in the area between branches in the haemal arch. Moreover, another criterion for ruling out diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis is that in this case ossification of the annulus fibrosus must occur in combination with typical syndesmophytes [49]. ...
How Common Are Lesions on the Tails of Sauropods? Two New Pathologies in Titanosaurs from the Late Cretaceous of Argentine Patagonia
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2023
  • Diversity
Studies of the paleopathology of the vertebrae provide an interesting, oblique approach to their paleobiology and even paleoethology. They tell us about possible ethological causes such as accidental blows with objects, social interactions within a group, and defense against predators, etc. There are numerous works on the anatomical and phylogenetic aspects of sauropod dinosaurs, and in recent years paleopathological studies have also increased. Here, we describe the injuries recorded in the caudal vertebrae of two indeterminate titanosaurids, and undertake a compilation and analysis of the pathological fossil record worldwide, focusing on the tails of sauropods. Two pathologies have been identified as present in the indeterminate titanosaurids under study: a possible case of spondyloarthropathy in MAU-Pv-LI-601, and a case of suppurative spinal osteomyelitis in MAU-Pv-LJ-472/1. Both titanosaurids are from Gondwana. In the world registry of pathologies associated with the tails of sauropod dinosaurs, it is observed that titanosaurs are the sauropods with the highest percentage of diagnosed pathologies (69% including the two new records from the province of Neuquén) and that all of these have been described in Gondwanan specimens.
View
... Paleopathology has traditionally been constrained by technological limitations on nondestructive sampling of fossils, but the interdisciplinary nature of study has enabled application of cutting edge, non-destructive technologies in recent years: x-ray computed tomography or micro-CT (e.g., Anné et al. 2015), neutron tomography (e.g., Cisneros et al. 2010), and synchrotron X-ray phase contrast tomography (e.g., (Anné et al. 2015;Cisneros et al. 2010;Florian Witzmann et al. 2011). There are therefore not only great prospects but also ample means for exploring paleopathologies in great detail. ...
... Paleopathology has traditionally been constrained by technological limitations on nondestructive sampling of fossils, but the interdisciplinary nature of study has enabled application of cutting edge, non-destructive technologies in recent years: x-ray computed tomography or micro-CT (e.g., Anné et al. 2015), neutron tomography (e.g., Cisneros et al. 2010), and synchrotron X-ray phase contrast tomography (e.g., (Anné et al. 2015;Cisneros et al. 2010;Florian Witzmann et al. 2011). There are therefore not only great prospects but also ample means for exploring paleopathologies in great detail. ...
From Osteocytes to Osseous Pathologies
Thesis
  • Feb 2022
Wirbeltierskelette stehen seit langem im Fokus vieler wissenschaftlicher Disziplinen sowie kultureller Überlieferungen, und dies hängt wahrscheinlich mit der erstaunlichen Fähigkeit des Skeletts zusammen, den Tod zu überdauern und der Zersetzung zu widerstehen. Es ist diese Widerstandsfähigkeit des Knochens, die es uns ermöglicht, Evolution der Wirbeltiere anhand des Fossilberichts zu analysieren. Knochengewebe macht heute den Großteil der Wirbeltierskelette aus, doch über den evolutionären Ursprung von Knochen ist wenig bekannt, insbesondere was seine zelluläre Zusammensetzung angeht. Das übergreifende Thema dieser Arbeit ist es, die Evolution von mineralisiertem Gewebe mit besonderem Schwerpunkt auf Knochengewebe besser zu verstehen. Dies geschieht durch verschiedene Methoden von der traditionellen externen Morphologie über die Histologie bis hin zur Röntgen-Computertomographie und schließlich durch die Entwicklung der neuartigen fokussierten Ionenstrahl-Tomographie-Technik (FIB-SEM). Mit Hilfe dieser Methoden wird versucht, die Mikrostruktur fossilen Knochens zu verstehen und aus ihr abzuleiten, wie die heute erkennbarenMorphologien und Physiologien des Knochens entstanden sind. Die zweite Hälfte dieser Arbeit befasst sich mit Paläopathologien und wie sie unser Verständnis der normalen Physiologie durch die Dokumentation pathologisch veränderter Fossilien erweitern können.
View
... The challenge is also exacerbated by terminology. Spondyloarthropathy also has been referred to as "spondyloarthritis," and even as "spondarthritis" (Cisneros et al., 2010), although the latter term has been applied to spinal osteophytes and even infection (Rothschild, 2008a;Rothschild et al., 2012a,b,c,d). The axial skeletal involvement of spondyloarthropathy is quite unique both in distribution and character. ...
... Vertebral fusion is present in sauropods Apatosaurus and Uberabatitan ribeiroi (Lovelace, 2014;Martinelli et al., 2014); zygapophyseal erosions, in Camarasaurus ; and syndesmophytes in hadrosaurs and ceratopsia Rothschild, 2010, 2014) identifying Mezosoic spondyloarthropathy in dinosaurs, as was recognized in Cretaceous marine lizards, the mosasaurs (Rothschild and Everhart, 2015), and a Lower Triassic reptile (Cisneros et al., 2010). Fusion of caudal vertebrae was noted in the theropod Neovenator and syndesmophytes were noted in the Tyrannosaurus rex, affectionately named Sampson (Tanke and Rothschild, 2002). ...
View
... They include malformations during fracture healing or infections (Rothschild and Martin, 2006;Butler et al., 1990). Fractures on articular surfaces may result in osseous fusions of the articulations following fibrocartilage callus production (Cisneros et al., 2010). Fusions can occur after compressive fractures of one or more vertebral bodies and visible fracture lines are indicators of this process. ...
... There are also a number of human syndromes associated with block vertebrae, such as Kippel-Feil Syndrome arising from the failure of normal segmentation of cervical somites (Turnpenny et al., 2007). Axial skeleton development is very sensitive to somitogenic perturbations, and in humans the conditions are sometimes congenital and sometimes sporadic (Cisneros et al., 2010). At the macroscopic level, mature centra are fused through their intervertebral discs and intervertebral joints, which can lead to the blocking or stretching of the exiting nerve roots from the segments and produce neurological problem or increase stress on intervertebral joints leading to an abnormal angle in the spine (Erdil et al., 2003). ...
View
... 5a) interpreted as a possible healed fracture. An additional instance of Triassic paleopathology is a case of spondyloarthritis in an archosauriform of Early Triassic age from South Africa (Cisneros et al., 2010), although this specimen almost certainly lies outside of crown Archosauria and stemward of the phytosaur described here. ...
A large, pathological skeleton of Smilosuchus gregorii (Archosauriformes: Phytosauria) from the Upper Triassic of Arizona, U.S.A., with discussion of the paleobiological implications of paleopathology in fossil archosauromorphs
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2021
  • PALAEONTOL ELECTRON
Phytosaurs were a widespread clade of Triassic predatory archosauriforms whose skull anatomy is well known, but whose paleobiology is underexplored. Here we report on a well-preserved specimen from Adamanian (early-mid-Norian) strata in Arizona that includes not only the skull and lower jaws but much of the postcranial skeleton, which exhibits extensive evidence of pathologies. This specimen has a complex taxonomic history, and we verify its referral to Smilosuchus gregorii based on multiple cranial characters. The shafts of eight limb bones preserve extensive exostoses—more paleopathological elements than in any other Triassic archosauromorph. These exostoses are often centered on cavitations reminiscent of draining tracts. Extensive, irregular, proliferative lesions have completely engulfed the left deltopectoral crest and thoroughly altered the architecture of both femora. The animal’s presumed low metabolic rate would have allowed several months of lesion progression before it died of either nutritional deficiency or systemic infection. This is the fourth, and by far the most extensive, report of pathology in a phytosaur, and only the eighth in a non-dinosaurian Triassic archosauromorph. The character and location of the lesions evokes aspects of both osteomyelitis and hypertrophic osteopathy—though neither is fully consistent with the changes present, nor are these conditions well-explored in extant reptiles. The most likely cause of the pathologies exhibited here is osteomyelitis; indeed, this specimen bears more osteomyelitis-like paleopathological elements than any other fossil archosaur.
View
... Vertebral ankyloses is a vertebral joint disease commonly described in dinosaurs (Rega, 2012 and references therein), including ornithopods (e.g., Witzmann et al., 2008;Ruiz-Omeñaca, 2011). It involves the co-ossification of two (or more) vertebrae (usually through the fusion of their centra) due to congenital reasons, trauma, or physiological disorders (Cisneros et al., 2010). DS-1 ornithopod has three dorsal vertebrae (MAP-2065, MAP-2064, and MAP-2063 that are united through their zygapophyseal joints but not through their centra. ...
Systematics and paleobiology of a new articulated axial specimen referred to Iguanodon cf. galvensis (Ornithopoda, Iguanodontoidea)
Article
  • Mar 2021
The early Barremian Iberian ornithopod Iguanodon galvensis was described for the first time in 2015. However, much of its anatomy, such as the axial skeleton in mature specimens, remains unknown. Here, the partially articulated presacral vertebrae and ribs belonging to a large adult ornithopod (DS-1 ornithopod) from the lower Barremian (Lower Cretaceous) that were found in Teruel Province (northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, Spain) are investigated by a systematic study and a phylogenetic analysis. The only cervical vertebra preserved is strongly opisthocoelus, as is typical of styracosternans. In fact, the phylogenetic analysis resolves DS-1 ornithopod as an hadrosauriform styracosternan. The assemblage also includes ten anterior-to-posterior dorsal vertebrae that strongly resemble those of the contemporary European iguanodontoid Iguanodon, particularly in having amphiplatyan and higher-than-long centra and dorsal neural spines two times the lateral height of their centra and slightly sigmoid in the posterior vertebrae. In addition, the dorsal centra are moderately compressed between the articular faces and lack a ventral keel, unlike the late Barremian type species I. bernissartensis but resembling the sympatric I. galvensis. For these reasons, DS-1 ornithopod is ascribed here as I. cf. galvensis. Moreover, this specimen has costovertebral ankyloses likely related to the specimen’s maturity. Finally, the fossils of I. galvensis including those referred to it as DS-1 ornithopod, as well as evidence provided by bones and tracks in other places, indicate that the genus Iguanodon frequently occupied areas around rivers, lakes, estuaries, or lagoons.
View
... One of these specimens consists of a dense assortment of elements in a block and was analyzed using neutron tomography (NT) that revealed additional anatomical details (Fig. 1). The integration of NT into paleontology has been limited to date (see Cisneros et al., 2010;Grellet-Tinner et al., 2011;Laaß et al., 2011;Martins et al., 2011;Salvemini et al., 2016;De Beer, 2017;Louys et al., 2017 for examples of previous studies), and the analysis featured in this study provides important data regarding its utility, particularly for material from Richards Spur. These specimens contribute new data regarding the morphology and sutural patterns of some of the less well-preserved regions of the skull roof (e.g., premaxilla), the palate (e.g., parasphenoid, ectopterygoid), the neurocranium (e.g., pleurosphenoid, orbitosphenoid), and the otic capsule (stapes, opisthotic, prootic). ...
New material of the ‘microsaur’ Llistrofus from the cave deposits of Richards Spur, Oklahoma and the paleoecology of the Hapsidopareiidae
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2019
The Hapsidopareiidae is a group of “microsaurs” characterized by a substantial reduction of several elements in the cheek region that results in a prominent, enlarged temporal emargination. The clade comprises two markedly similar taxa from the early Permian of Oklahoma, Hapsidopareion lepton and Llistrofus pricei , which have been suggested to be synonymous by past workers. Llistrofus was previously known solely from the holotype found near Richards Spur, which consists of a dorsoventrally compressed skull in which the internal structures are difficult to characterize. Here, we present data from two new specimens of Llistrofus . This includes data collected through the use of neutron tomography, which revealed important new details of the palate and the neurocranium. Important questions within “Microsauria” related to the evolutionary transformations that likely occurred as part of the acquisition of the highly modified recumbirostran morphology for a fossorial ecology justify detailed reexamination of less well-studied taxa, such as Llistrofus . Although this study eliminates all but one of the previous features that differentiated Llistrofus and Hapsidopareion , the new data and redescription identify new features that justify the maintained separation of the two hapsidopareiids. Llistrofus possesses some of the adaptations for a fossorial lifestyle that have been identified in recumbirostrans but with a lesser degree of modification (e.g., reduced neurocranial ossification and mandibular modification). Incorporating the new data for Llistrofus into an existing phylogenetic matrix maintains the Hapsidopareiidae’s ( Llistrofus + Hapsidopareion ) position as the sister group to Recumbirostra. Given its phylogenetic position, we contextualize Llistrofus within the broader “microsaur” framework. Specifically, we propose that Llistrofus may have been fossorial but was probably incapable of active burrowing in the fashion of recumbirostrans, which had more consolidated and reinforced skulls. Llistrofus may represent an earlier stage in the step-wise acquisition of the derived recumbirostran morphology and paleoecology, furthering our understanding of the evolutionary history of “microsaurs.”
View
... It can prove a useful tool in paleobiological interpretations such as locomotor habit, diet, general behavior and nutritional disorders, also contributing to taphonomic and systematic studies, avoiding misinterpretation (Ferigolo, 2007). Recently, there is a growing interest in paleopathology and several diseases have been described in different vertebrate animals throughout geological time (Rothschild and Martin, 2006;Cisneros et al., 2010;Anné et al., 2015Anné et al., , 2016Barbosa and Oliveira, 2017;Segupta, 2018). ...
Vertebral lesions in a titanosaurian dinosaur from the Early-Late Cretaceous of Brazil
Article
  • Aug 2018
In this paper we describe macroscopically two types of bone lesions on a caudal vertebra of an indeterminate titanosaur recovered from the Lower-Upper Cretaceous (Albian-Cenomanian) Açu Formation in the Potiguar Basin, Brazil. The first type of lesion corresponds to cystic lesions on cranial and caudal joint surfaces of the vertebral body, which are identified as subchondral cysts. The second type of lesion corresponds to an irregular bone overgrowth located on longitudinal ligament insertion points. This ossification can be associated with an axial spondyloarthropathy or diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). Bone overgrowth on vertebrae is well documented in the dinosaur fossil record, whereas this is only the second case recorded of subchondral cysts.
View
Neutron and X-Ray tomography as research tools for applied research in South Africa
Thesis
Full-text available
  • Jul 2018
SUMMARY The use of penetrating radiation for non-destructive investigations, through the use of radiography and tomography, provides for powerful research tools. Development of such experimental facilities, and the establishment of a local core capability to utilise it optimally, can enrich the research scope of many scientific and engineering disciplines significantly. This thesis describes the design and development of such national facilities for both neutrons and X-rays at the South African Nuclear Energy Corporation SOC Ltd. (Necsa) and the subsequent building of capacity for research support to users of a number of disciplines. Aspects of localisation of the technology are described and the value proposition of the facilities and research capacity is demonstrated by three application examples from important South African research areas, namely palaeontology, a vibrant research field in South Africa, hydrogen fuel cell research, a sub-discipline of the field of a hydrogen economy in general, and in nuclear materials. OPSOMMING Die gebruik van deurpriemende straling vir nie-destruktiewe ondersoek deur middel van die tegnieke van radiografie en tomografie, gee toegang tot kragtige navorsingstegnieke. Plaaslike ontwikkeling van sulke eksperimentele fasiliteite en die vestiging van ’n sentrale vermoë om optimaal daarvan gebruik te maak, kan dus die navorsingsmoontlikhede van vele wetenskaplike- en ingenieurs-dissiplines aansienlik verryk. Hierdie tesis beskryf die ontwerp en ontwikkeling van sulke nasionale fasiliteite vir beide neutrone en X-strale by die Suid-Afrikaanse Kernenergiekorporasie (Necsa) asook die daaropvolgende bou van ’n vermoë om kundige navorsingsondersteuning te kan lewer aan gebruikers vanuit verskeie dissiplines. Ontwikkelingsaspekte eie aan plaaslike kondisies word uitgelig en die waardepotensiaal van die fasiliteite met hul navorsingskapasiteit word gedemonstreer deur middel van drie toepassings in belangrike Suid-Afrikaanse navorsingsvelde, naamlik palaeontologie wat ’n ryk Suid Afrikaanse geskiedenis het, navorsing op waterstofbrandstofselle wat van belang is vir ‘n waterstofekonomie en laastens toepassings in die veld van kernmateriale.
View
Neutron scanning reveals unexpected complexity in the enamel thickness of an herbivorous Jurassic reptile
Article
Full-text available
Eilenodontines are one of the oldest radiation of herbivorous lepidosaurs (snakes, lizards and tuatara) characterized by batteries of wide teeth with thick enamel that bear mammal-like wear facets. Unlike most reptiles, eilenodontines have limited tooth replacement, making dental longevity particularly important to them. We use both X-ray and neutron computed tomography to examine a fossil tooth from the eilenodontine Eilenodon (Late Jurassic, USA). Of the two approaches, neutron tomography was more successful and facilitated measurements of enamel thickness and distribution. We find the enamel thickness to be regionally variable, thin near the cusp tip (0.10 mm) but thicker around the base (0.15-0.30 mm) and notably greater than that of other rhynchocephalians such as the extant Sphenodon (0.08-0.14 mm). The thick enamel in Eilenodon would permit greater loading, extend tooth lifespan and facilitate the establishment of wear facets that have sharp edges for orally processing plant material such as horsetails (Equisetum). The shape of the enamel dentine junction indicates that tooth development in Eilenodon and Sphenodon involved similar folding of the epithelium but different ameloblast activity.
View
Spondyloarthropathy in proboscideans
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 1994
  • J ZOO WILDLIFE MED
Noting the common occurrence of arthritis in contemporary elephants, a skeletal study was undertaken to assess the frequency and nature of the affiiction. Spondyloarthropathy was unequivocally diagnosed in mammoths (Mammuthus primigenizs) and contemporary elephants on the basis of fusion of vertebral bodies with marginal syndesmophytes, zygoapophyseal joint fusion, and peripheral erosive arthritis and fusion and was easily distinguished from infectious spondylitis and diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis. Vertebral involvement was limited in distribution, in a pattern characteristic of human psoriatic arthritis and Reiter's syndrome, also referred to as reactive arthritis. Infectious diarrhea or sexually transmitted reactive arthritis are the most likely candidates for this phenomenon, as recognized in elephants and mammoths, which affords a unique opportunity for therapeutic intervention.
View
Considerations on the comparative pathology of the vertebrae in Mysticeti and Odontoceti; evidence for the occurrence of discarthrosis, zygarthrosis, infectious spondylitis and spondyloarthritis
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 1999
Cleaned skeletons of 658 specimen of 47 species of Odontoceti and 44 skeletons of 10 species of Mysticeti were examined for evidence of pathological changes, especially of the vertebrae. Beside the examination of the cleaned skeletons, 132 spinal columns of seven species of Odontoceti were studied during autopsy. Four different pathological conditions were considered to occur: 1. Discarthrosis (spondylosis deformans); 2. Infectious spondylitis; 3. Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis; and 4. Spondyloarthritis. Three cases of spondyloarthritis in cetaceans are described in detail. Spondyloarthritis had never before been recognized in any cetacean species.
View
27th Du Toit Memorial Lecture: Re-uniting lost continents - Fossil reptiles from the ancient Karoo and their wanderlust
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2005
Fossil discoveries from South Africa have greatly expanded knowledge of the development of life on Earth. In particular, the enormous palaeontological wealth of the Karoo, covering a period of almost 100 million years from the Permian to the Jurassic, has enhanced understanding of the evolution of important tetrapod lineages, including mammals and dinosaurs. These fossils provide the best record of continental Permian to Jurassic faunal biodiversity, and have been crucial to studies of the global Permo-Triassic mass extinction in the continental realm, as well as giving insight into other extinction events. Recent collaborative interdisciplinary studies of stratigraphic and geographic distribution patterns of Karoo fossils have enhanced biostratigraphic resolution and global correlation of vertebrate faunas from the Permian to the Jurassic. This in turn has led to a better understanding of the biodiversity across Pangaea, and the places of origin and initial diversity of early tetrapod evolutionary lineages. Many of these originated in the southern African portion of the Gondwanan super-continent. The combination of palaeontological and sedimentological studies has led to new basin development models and solved problems which each discipline in isolation could not have achieved.
View
View
View
View
View
Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains
Article
  • Jan 2003
Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains provides an integrated and comprehensive treatment of pathological conditions that affect the human skeleton. There is much that ancient skeletal remains can reveal to the modern orthopaedist, pathologist, forensic anthropologist, and radiologist about the skeletal manifestations of diseases that are rarely encountered in modern medical practice. Beautifully illustrated with over 1,100 photographs and drawings, this book provides essential text and materials on bone pathology, which will improve the diagnostic ability of those interested in human dry bone pathology. It also provides time depth to our understanding of the effect of disease on past human populations.
View
Identification of Pathological Conditions In Human Skeletal Remains
Article
  • Jan 1985
This reference work is an attempt to provide an integrated and reasonably comprehensive treatnient of pathological conditions that affect the human skeleton. The primary objective is to assist those who conduct research on archeological skeletal remains in interpreting abnormal conditions that they might encounter in the course of their research. However, there is much that ancient skeletal remains can reveal to the modern medical historian, orthopaedist, pathologist, and radiologist about skeletal diseases that are rarely encountered in modern clinical practice. All of the major categories of disease that affect bone are reviewed from the viewpoint of the pathologist. This review is followed by a discussion of the literature on the paleopathology of each condition and the presentation of paleopathological cases thought to represent each of the morbid categories affecting bone. This work is based on extensive individual and collaborative research by both authors on the known parameters of modern skeletal diseases and their expression in antiquity. The monograph provides essential text and illustrative materials on bone pathology, which will improve the diagnostic ability of those interested in human dry bone pathology.
View
Neutron radiography at SAFARI-l in South Africa
Article
  • Jan 2001
The Atomic Energy Corporation of South Africa (AEC) owns and operates a 20MW Materials Testing Reactor (SAFARI-1) on their Pelindaba site near Pretoria. One of the various beam tubes is utilized to perform neutron radiography (NR). This facility was originally a dedicated design for the analysis of spent fuel pins from the Koeberg nuclear power plant, using film detection methods. As part of the commercialisation drive at the AEC, this facility was upgraded to accommodate general industrial samples, supplementing its existing X-ray radiography facility, to provide a better and more comprehensive non-destructive examination (NDE) service to the South African industry. In this paper the upgraded NR facility at SAFARI-1 will be described regarding the collimator features, electronic imaging device and software. Case studies originating from the motor vehicle industry, aircraft industry, general engineering as well as the archaeological and pyrotechnics environment will be presented.
View