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Embodying Okhotsk Ethnicity: Human Skeletal
Remains from the Aonae Dune Site,
Okushiri Island, Hokkaido
HIROFUMI MATSUMURA, MARK J. HUDSON,
KENICHIRO KOSHIDA, AND YOICHI MINAKAWA
This article analyzes human skeletal remains from the Aonae Dune
site on Okushiri Island, Hokkaido, in the context of three major areas of debate
in recent archaeology. These areas of debate are renewed interest in the archaeol-
ogy of ethnicity (e.g., Emberling 1997; Jones 1997), growing controversy over
the relationship between biology, language, and culture in prehistory (e.g., Bell-
wood 1996; Bellwood and Renfrew 2003; Hudson 1999; Kirch and Green 2001;
Terrell 2001), and continued interest in the forensic classification of individual
skeletal remains, newly stimulated in the United States by the legal problems
surrounding the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
(NAGPRA) (e.g., Ousley 2001; Rose et al. 1996). The Aonae Dune site, which
is described in more detail below, belongs to the Okhotsk culture that occupied
the northern and eastern coastal fringes of Hokkaido between about a.d. 550 and
1200 (Hudson 2004; Ohyi 1975; Yamaura 1998). In many respects the Hokkaido
Okhotsk appears to come close to the classic definition of an archaeological cul-
ture, its separate and distinctive material remains apparently overlapping with a
biological population that was morphologically di¤erent from the Ainoid popula-
tions that inhabited the rest of Hokkaido (Ishida 1988, 1994). Given their origins
outside Hokkaido, the Okhotsk people presumably also had a separate language
or languages.
1
Despite evidence for contact with neighboring Epi-Jo
¯mon groups
known from harpoon (Maeda 2002) and ceramic technology (Hall et al. 2002), as
an archaeological culture the Hokkaido Okhotsk appears to have remained largely
separate from other groups until its final Tobinitai stage (Table 1).
Attheoutsetofthisarticleitisimportanttoexplainhowweapproachthe
relationship between ethnicity and human biology. Despite our focus here on
human skeletal remains, we are not suggesting that ethnicity can be reduced to
Hirofumi Matsumura is an associate professor in the Department of Anatomy, Sapporo Medical
University. Mark J. Hudson is an associate professor in the Institute of History and Anthropology,
University of Tsukuba. Kenichiro Koshida is an archaeologist with the Hokkaido Prefectural Board
of Education. Yoichi Minakawa is an archaeologist at the Hokkaido Prefectural Archaeological
Operations Center.
Asian Perspectives,Vol.45,No.1(2006 by the University of Hawai‘i Press.
biology. Ethnicity is a constructed, cultural phenomenon. An ethnic group can be
defined as ‘‘a self-perceived group of people who hold in common a set of tradi-
tions not shared by the others with whom they are in contact’’ (DeVos 1982 : 9), a
definition that is useful because it emphasizes the role of contact rather than isola-
tion in the formation of ethnic identities. Furthermore, we do not start with the
assumption that the biological, cultural, and linguistic elements of the Okhotsk
necessarily overlapped. As noted by Evison (2001) and others, the extent of such
overlap is historically contingent and needs to be the focus of study. The broader
theoretical point that we wish to make here, however, is that since biology forms
one important aspect of human identities, the study of human biology can help us
understand the process of ethnic construction in the past. In other words, cases
where we can actually demonstrate that biology and culture did not overlap re-
quire our attention as anthropological archaeologists precisely because they show
the complex, constructed nature of ethnicity.
One example of the interplay between biology and culture in the construction
of ethnicity is the Northern Fujiwara family who ruled over northern Honshu in
the twelfth century a.d. Although in contemporary texts the Northern Fujiwara
followed earlier chieftains in the region in referring to themselves as ‘‘Emishi,’’ or
non-Japanese ‘‘Eastern Barbarians’’ (Batten 2003: 107), analyses of the mummies
of the Northern Fujiwara chiefs has shown that they were biologically similar to
early medieval Japanese populations of the Kyoto region (Hanihara 1998). The
interpretation of such results is, of course, by no means simple. Employing the
definition of ethnicity used by most cultural anthropologists and sociologists, the
Northern Fujiwara chiefs would probably be classified as Emishi on the grounds
that this was how they perceived themselves—although in this case the precise
meaning of the term ‘‘Emishi’’ is unclear (cf. Batten 2003: 102–107). Other simi-
lar examples can be just as complex. Ousley (2001) discusses several cases of dis-
parity between biological and cultural identity discovered during NAGPRA repa-
triation work at the Smithsonian Institution. In one case, a skeleton of a ‘‘Sioux
full-blood’’ acquired by the Smithsonian in 1904 was shown to be a white male
who had participated in Wild West sideshows. In another, an ‘‘Indian’’ skeleton,
which was nicknamed the ‘‘Kiowa Horse Thief,’’ was shown to be a European-
American who had probably been kidnapped by the Kiowa as a child. While
such cases may be legally problematic in terms of NAGPRA, they were probably
not uncommon in the past. Hunter-gatherer ethnographies demonstrate many
situations where individuals from other groups are incorporated into a particular
society. Those situations include resource stress, warfare, and personal disagree-
Table 1. Cultural Phases in Late Prehistoric Hokkaido
approximate dates sea of okhotsk coastline south and west hokkaido
1600–1869 Classic Ainu Classic Ainu
1200–1600 Formative Ainu Formative Ainu
1000–1200 Final Okhotsk (Tobinitai) Late Satsumon
800–1000 Late Okhotsk Middle Satsumon
550–800 Early Okhotsk Epi-Jo
¯mon/Early Satsumon
100 b.c.–a.d. 550 Epi-Jo
¯mon & Susuya Epi-Jo
¯mon
asian perspectives .45(1) .spring 20062
ments. Examples of this process can be seen in Russian ethnographer Lev
Shternberg’s work on the Nivkh (Gilyak) of Sakhalin Island. As Dolukhanov
(2003: 179) notes, ‘‘Shternberg cites numerous cases, when Nivkh individuals
escaping persecution and failure, quit their paternal tribe seeking refuge in neigh-
boring alien groups. They became adopted, and, having married usually a
widowed woman acquired the language and habits of the adoptive tribe.’’ Similar
examples could be quoted from many other regions of the world.
Although, as noted already, Okhotsk archaeological remains in Hokkaido give
the impression of a relatively separate and integrated cultural unit, given the re-
productive and other social demands of a linear, coastal settlement pattern we
would not expect the Okhotsk people to be totally isolated from neighboring
populations. Ishida (1988) has already reported a partially preserved cranium from
the Okhotsk site of Menashi-domari that shares morphological features with the
Ainu. Here we report new skeletal remains that are culturally Okhotsk but mor-
phologically very di¤erent from most Okhotsk individuals. What follows in the
main body of this article is a necessarily technical analysis of the human skeletal
remains from the Aonae Dune site. In the discussion section we then return to
the di‰cult question of how the biological identities of the three Aonae indivi-
duals discussed may have related to the broader context of Okhotsk ethnicity,
and then we touch briefly upon the question of scale in the study of prehistoric
ethnicity.
materials and methods
The Aonae Dune site is located on the southern coast of Okushiri, a small (142.94
km2) island 18 km o¤ the coast of southwestern Hokkaido (Fig. 1). Small-scale
excavations in 2001–2002 to investigate the nature and extent of the site were
conducted by the Hokkaido Prefectural Archaeological Operations Center under
the direction of Koshida (Hokkaido Prefectural Archaeological Operations Cen-
ter 2002, 2003). A total area of 90 m2was opened in several test trenches. The
site is located on a sand dune that has maximum dimensions of 400 m in length,
70 m in width, and 9.8 m in height. Radiocarbon dates from the site are shown in
Table 2.
Three human skeletons were discovered during the excavations at Aonae.
Skeleton No. 1 was an extended adult burial with the head oriented northwest.
Skeletons No. 2 and 3 were found in the north section wall of the excavation
trench; although only the crania were recovered from these individuals, it is not
clear if postcranial materials remain within the unexcavated area.
Skeleton No. 1 is a direct pit inhumation found inside an earlier Okhotsk pit
building, H-2 (Fig. 2). The pit for the burial was cut from Layer XI and thus pre-
dates the tenth-century a.d. Mt. Paektu-Tomakomai tephra identified in Layer
IX. The grave goods comprised an iron knife and a bone disk (Fig. 2). The knife
was found on the right forearm and has a remaining length of 5.65 cm. The disk
is made of whale bone and has a diameter of 4.7 cm. It is perforated by a 0.8-cm
hole in the center. This type of disk was used by the Kuril Ainu until historic
times and is usually termed a kukkurukesh in Hokkaido archaeology. Such disks
are not known from Satsumon contexts but have been found at a number of
Okhotsk sites, although this is only the second example from a burial. Thus, al-
matsumura et al. .okhotsk ethnicity and human skeletal remains 3
though Aonae is located outside of the main area of Okhotsk settlement (see Fig.
1), the stratigraphy, grave goods, and northwest orientation of this burial allow us
to be reasonably certain that this individual belonged to the Okhotsk culture. A
consideration of the overall stratigraphy suggests that the late seventh or eighth
century is the most probable date for this burial.
Skeletons No. 2 and 3 were two subadult skulls found facing each other at the
bottom of the mid-seventh century Okhotsk pit building H-3. There is no evi-
dence for a burial pit and it seems the bodies were placed in the house pit soon
after abandonment, perhaps being covered with a thin layer of sand. Stratigraphi-
cally, it is not clear if these individuals were both buried at the same time. The
Fig. 1. Location of the Aonae Dune Site on Okushiri Island and representative Okhotsk culture sites
(Q) and the Chatsu 4 site (:) discussed in this article.
Table 2. Radiocarbon Dates from the Aonae Dune Site
lab no. location material 14c date (b.p.)
calibrated date
(1sigma)
Beta-164480 Floor of H-1 Charcoal 1770þ40 a.d. 230–330
Beta-164481 Floor of H-1 Carbonized accretion
on pottery
2210þ40 370–200 b.c.
Beta-164482 Grid E14-N13 Charcoal 1780þ40 a.d. 220–260
Beta-174461 Floor of H-2 Carbonized walnut 1580þ40 a.d. 420–540
Beta-174462 Floor of H-3 Charcoal 1590þ40 a.d. 420–530
asian perspectives .45(1) .spring 20064
heads were oriented southeast, 180 degrees opposite to Skeleton No. 1. A pound-
ing stone and a pebble were placed to the left and right of the cranium of Skele-
ton No. 2, an arrangement that is similar to Epi-Jo
¯mon burials of the Hokudai
phase. The base of an Okhotsk pot, a jasper bead, stone flakes, sea lion bones,
and abalone and sea urchin shells were found close to the skulls and are possibly
associated, or at least contemporary, with the burials.
In this article, we first describe the preservation and morphology of the Aonae
Dune skeletons with the results of age estimations and sex identifications, then
analyze the cranial and dental measurement data. Skeletal measurements were
taken following Martin’s definitions (Martin and Saller 1957). Some cranial mea-
surements are estimated by doubling the measurement taken from one side of the
skull because the other side is incomplete. The maximum cranial length of Skele-
ton No. 1 was measured before the glabella region was damaged during recon-
struction. Facial flatness measurements and indices follow Yamaguchi (1973).
Fig. 2. The burial of Aonae Dune skeleton No. 1 with artifacts (iron knife and kukkurukesh bone
disk). N: North.
matsumura et al. .okhotsk ethnicity and human skeletal remains 5
Dental crown measurements comprising mesiodistal (MD) and buccolingual (BL)
diameters were recorded after Moorrees and Reed (1954), which were taken as
the greatest dimensions of crowns. The degree of occlusal wear on the crown sur-
face was recorded according to Broca’s grading system (Martin and Saller 1957).
Nonmetric tooth traits were scored according to the ASU plaques of Turner et al.
(1991) for permanent dentition and those of the ‘‘D’’ series (Hanihara 1961) for
deciduous dentition. The nonmetric as well as metric traits were recorded from
the better-preserved and less worn side. The standard used to estimate dental age
for the child skeletons was Ubelaker (1991). Sex determination is di‰cult for sub-
adult specimens based on skeletal morphology. Therefore, in cases where perma-
nent teeth were present in subadult specimens, discriminant function analysis for
sexing was performed using dental metric data taken from the Hokkido Ainu and
ancient Japanese samples by the first author. To estimate the stature of the adult
skeleton, Fujii’s (1960) formula was adopted, using maximum femoral length.
Next, in order to disclose a‰nities with other prehistoric and historic popula-
tions of Hokkaido, we undertook morphometric analyses using cranial and dental
measurements. Because dental measurements were not recorded from the adult
Skeleton No. 1 due to heavy attrition, only cranial metrics were used for the sta-
tistical analysis. On the other hand, cranial metrics were not used from the two
subadult skeletons, tooth crown measurements recorded from the only slightly
worn permanent dentition of Skeleton No. 2 and the deciduous teeth of Skeleton
No. 3 being used for the analysis. In order to visually display the resemblance or
dissimilarity to group averages of the comparative population samples given be-
low, deviation diagrams were drawn using the standardized cranial or dental mea-
surements and the results compared between the Aonae Dune individuals and the
others. Furthermore, to estimate the morphological a‰nities of these Aonae Dune
skulls and dentition to comparative samples, Penrose’s shape distances (Penrose
1954) and Q-mode correlation coe‰cients (Sneath and Sokal 1973) were calcu-
lated using the measurement data. Both procedures indicate likelihoods of simi-
larity in proportion or shape of the cranial and dental morphology between the
samples, techniques which have been commonly used to assess population a‰nity
in physical anthropology.
In the comparison of dental metrics, only the mesiodistal diameters were uti-
lized because they tend to be more suggestive of phylogenetic relationships than
buccolingual diameters (Matsumura 1989). For comparative cranial metric data,
as contemporary Satsumon remains are extremely rare, we used female averages
of cranial measurements from ancestral Epi-Jo
¯mon populations of Hokkaido
(Dodo and Kawakubo 2002) and their descendants, the Hokkaido Ainu (Koganei
1893; Yamaguchi 1973), as well as Okhotsk samples from the Omisaki site in
northern Hokkaido (Ishida 1988). In order to test similarity to contemporary
Honshu Japanese as well as the above representative Hokkaido samples, data of
the protohistoric Kofun population from the Kanto region in central Honshu
(Yamaguchi 1987), which is chronologically parallel to the Satsumon period in
Hokkaido, were added. The crown measurement data of the permanent teeth
recorded from the above comparative population samples are cited from Matsu-
mura (1990, 1993, 1994). Since data on deciduous tooth size are not recorded for
the Epi-Jo
¯mon series, data from Jo
¯mon samples (Matsumura 1991) were substi-
tuted. For the Okhotsk deciduous teeth, data recorded from the Hamanaka site
asian perspectives .45(1) .spring 20066
on Rebun Island were cited from Ishida and Hanihara (1992). Deciduous tooth
size comparisons were performed using combined data from both sexes since all
recorded comparative data were taken from unknown sex samples. A comparison
using nonmetric dental traits taken from the Aonae Dune individuals was not
made because such comparisons need frequency data based on a large sample size.
skeletal preservation and morphology
Skeleton No. 1
Cranium —Thisskeletonisanadultfemale(Fig.3).Thecraniumwaspoorlypre-
served and the bone very brittle. The right side of the frontal, the right malar
bone, the nasal bone, and both zygomatic arches were missing, but the cranium
couldbereconstructed.Itisclearfromthepelvisthatthiswasafemale(seebe-
low), and this conclusion is supported by cranial features such as the small mastoid
processes, perpendicular frontal bone, the near absence of supraorbital ridges,
weakly defined occipital torus, and smooth nuchal plane. This cranium is small,
gracile, and typically female. The sagittal suture is fused on the outer surface and
the tooth crown surfaces are heavily worn (Broca’s third grade), leading us to
conclude that the age of this individual can be estimated as middle aged (35–49
years).
The facial skeleton is characterized by a quite flat glabella region (observed
before this portion was damaged) and nasal root, rectangular orbital margins,
zygomatic bones that do not project laterally, deeply depressed cheeks around
the zygomaxillary suture, a wide nasal opening, edge-to-edge bite at the incisor
occlusions, and relatively low facial height. These features are shared with Epi-
Jo
¯mon females that are known from Hokkaido and are clearly di¤erent from
other known Okhotsk populations. Only the flat glabella region is unlike that of
Epi-Jo
¯mon crania, which often have prominent glabellae, but when we consider
that this was a female, there is no di‰culty in including this feature within the
range of Epi-Jo
¯mon variability.
In the anterior view, the forehead is narrow and the frontal eminence is weak.
The superciliary arches are flat. The nasal root is not depressed. The tops of the
frontal processes of the maxillae are oriented slightly transversally at the fronto-
maxillary suture. The superior orbital margins are slightly rounded, but the infe-
rior lines are straight. The orbital shape is nearly rectangular and declines slightly
toward the lateral inferior direction. The orbital heights are moderate. The pres-
ence of frontal notches or supraorbital foramina is unknown because these areas of
the frontal bone are missing. The subnasal region is weakly depressed. The lateral
expansion of the malar bones is not prominent and the maxillary alveolar pro-
cesses are small.
In the lateral view, the frontal bone is perpendicularly elevated, and the frontal
medial line is strongly concave. The temporal lines are not distinct, suggesting
weak temporal muscles. The supramastoid crests are also not prominent. The
mastoid processes are quite small. The external acoustic meatus openings have an
elliptical shape. The infratemporal crests are not sharp. The prominence of the
anterior nasal spine is unknown as this portion is broken.
Theexternaloccipitalprotuberanceisweakly developed. The superior nuchal
line is clear, but the inferior line is not distinct. The nuchal plane is smooth. The
matsumura et al. .okhotsk ethnicity and human skeletal remains 7
transverse occipital suture vestige is absent. On the outer surfaces in the superior
view, the coronal and lambdoidal sutures are partially fused, while the sagittal su-
ture is fully fused. The condition of these sutures on the inner surface is unknown
because the fragile inner vault became cemented with soil when applying a chem-
ical binder in the field.
Fig. 3. Various views of the skull of Aonae Dune skeleton No. 1 (adult female).
asian perspectives .45(1) .spring 20068
The mandible is nearly complete. The mental symphysis is quite prominent
and the chin height is also rather high. However, the mental tubercle and mental
spine are not prominent. The width of the ramus is moderate and it is inclined
posteriorly, displaying a rectangular shape. The mandibular notch and pre-angle
incision are shallow. The angle does not bend laterally. The baseline of the body
is flat. The muscle attachment surfaces are also not well developed. The body is
gracile and typically female.
Skeletal measurements and facial flatness measurements and indices are given in
Table 4.
The teeth listed in Table 3 were associated with this individual. The crown
surfaces are very worn. The anterior teeth attrition reaches Broca’s third level.
The posterior teeth are more heavily worn and lack crown surfaces (Broca’s
fourth level). Any third molars are not erupted. There is no room for third molars
in the maxillary alveolar process behind the distal area of the second molars, indi-
cating that the upper third molars are congenitally absent. For the lower third
molars, without X-ray observation it is not clear whether they are also congeni-
tally absent. The absence of enamel contact wear at the distal ends of the second
molars is not consistent with the possibility of antemortem loss of the third
molars. The alveolar sockets of the right maxillary and mandibular molars are se-
verely eroded on both sides by alveolar abscesses that have exposed the lingual
molar roots (Fig. 4). No carious lesions or calculus deposits were observed. Dental
crown measurements comprising mesiodistal (MD) and buccolingual (BL) diam-
eters are presented in Table 5. As given in Table 6, many nonmetric traits were
not scored due to heavy attrition. As far as the scored traits are concerned, no dis-
tinctive characteristics were found.
Postcranial Remains — Postcranial preservation was poor and fragmentary. Al-
though the scapulae, humeri, and forearm bones were observed when the burial
was excavated, they proved extremely brittle upon removal from the ground and
it was not possible to reconstruct any of these bones. As far as could be observed,
no unusual features were present. Some parts of the ilia were preserved but were
Table 3. Preservation for the Permanent and Deciduous Teeth of Three
Individuals from the Aonae Dune Site (I: Incisor, C: Canine, P: Premolar,
M: Molar, D: Deciduous, X: Tooth Not Erupted, O: Tooth Missing But
Socket Present, /: Both Tooth And Socket Missing)
left side right side
Skeleton No. 1
Maxillary X M2 M1 P2 P1 C I2 I1 I1 I2 C P1 P2 M1 M2 X
Mandibular X M2 M1 P2 P1 C I2 I1 O O C P1 O M1 M2 X
Skeleton No. 2
Maxillary M1dm2P1 C I2I1 I1I2 C P1 dm2M1
Mandibular M1 / P1 C I2 I1 I1 I2 C P1 P2 M1
(Maxillary and mandibular M2 and M3 are formed in the jaws)
Skeleton No. 3
Maxillary M1 dm2 dm1 dc / di1 / di2 dc dm1 dm2 M1
Mandibular M1 dm2 / O O O O O O dm1 dm2 M1
matsumura et al. .okhotsk ethnicity and human skeletal remains 9
Table 4. Cranial Measurements and Indices of Aonae Dune Skeleton No. 1
m measurement m measurement
1. Maximum cranial length 176 54. Nasal breadth 28
5. Basion-nasion length (102) 55. Nasal height 46
8. Maximum cranial breadth 142 60. Alveolar length 44
8 : 1 Cranial index 80.7 61. Alveolar breadth 62
10. Maximum frontal breadth (98) 62. Internal palate length 48
17. Basion-bregma height (130) 63. Internal palate breadth 39
23. Horizontal circumference 510 65. Bicondyler breadth 115
24. Transverse arc 334 66. Bigonial breadth 104
25. Sagittal arc 355 68. Mandibular length 75
26. Frontal arc 122 69. Symphyseal height 32
27. Parietal arc 119 69.(3) Mand. body breadth 13
28. Occipital arc 114 70. Ramus height 53
40. Basion-prosthion breadth (98) 71. Ramus breadth 34
43. Upper facial breadth 102 Frontal chord 98.0
45. Bizygomatic breadth (138) Frontal subtense 14.1
46. Bimaxillary breadth 94 Frontal index 14.4
48. Upper facial height 64 Zygomaxillary chord 98.0
48 : 46 Upper facial index (Virchow) 68.1 Zygomaxillary subtense 25.0
51. Orbital breadth 40 Zygomaxillary index 25.5
52. Orbital height 33
M: Martin’s number (Martin and Saller 1957); estimated values by half side in parentheses.
Fig. 4. Dental abscesses observed at the
lingual sides of the right maxillary molars
(A) and mandibular molars (B) of the
Aonae Dune No. 1 skeleton.
Table 5. Mesiodistal (MD) and Buccolingual (BL) Crown Diameters (MM)of
theAonaeDuneDentition
no. 1adult female no. 2child no. 3child
Tooth Side BL Tooth Side MD BL Tooth Side MD BL
Maxillary
I1 left 6.52 I1 left 8.27 7.43 di1 right 6.58
I2 left 5.71 I2 left 7.36 6.21 di2 right 5.57 4.69
C left 6.69 C left 8.00 8.59 dc right 6.64 5.07
P1 left 9.36 P1 left 6.97 9.05 dm1 right 7.01 8.04
P2 P2 dm2 right 8.88 9.80
M1 right 10.85 M1 left 10.90 12.56 M1 right 10.09 11.44
M2 right 10.03 M2 left 9.39 11.37
Mandibular
I1 I1 left 5.70 5.89 di1
I2 right 5.82 I2 left 6.36 6.24 di2
C right 6.20 C left 7.57 8.12 dc
P1 right 7.77 P1 left 7.05 8.04 dm1 left 7.73 6.69
P2 P2 dm2 left 10.64 8.93
M1 M1 left 12.61 11.04 M1 left 11.76 10.49
M2 M2 left 11.37 10.18
Table 6. Scores of Nonmetric Traits for the Aonae Dune Dentition: Criteria of
Classification According to ASU System (Turner et al. 1991)forPermanent
Teeth and ‘‘D’’ Series (Hanihara 1961) for Deciduous Teeth
permanent
teeth
skeleton
no. 1
skeleton
no. 2
deciduous
teeth
skeleton
no. 3
Trait Tooth Side Score Side Score Trait Tooth Side Score
Winging UI1 both 3 — — Shoveling dui1 — —
Shoveling UI1 — — left 3 Shoveling dui2 — —
Shoveling UI2 left 3 right 4 Shoveling duc left 1
Double shoveling UI1 — — left 1 Shoveling dlc — —
Double shoveling UI2 left 0 right 1 Crown pattern dum1 left 2
Peg-shaped incisor UI2 left 0 right 0 Crown pattern dum2 left 4
Root number UP1 right 2 left 0 Carabelli’s trait dum2 left 0
Hypocone UM2 right 2 left 0 Protostylid dlm2 left 3
Cusp5 UM1—— —— Centralridge
of metd.
dlm2 left 1
Carabelli’s trait UM1 — — left 4 7th cusp dlm2 left 0
Enamel extension UM2 right 0 left 0 Distal trigonid
crest
dlm2 left 0
Root number LP1 left 1
Groove pattern LM2 — — left þ
Cusp number LM2 — — left 5
Protostylid LM1 — — left 1
Cusp 5 LM2 — — left 1
Cusp 6 LM1 — — left 3
Cusp 7 LM1 — — left 0
Root number LM1 right 2 — —
Root number LM2 right 2 — —
very fragile. The greater sciatic notch displays an obtuse angle, indicating that this
individual was a female. As with the upper body, the overall outlines of the lower
limbs were observed during excavation, but only parts of the shafts could be
reconstructed in the laboratory. The approximate maximum length of the right
femur was measured at 410 mm before the burial was removed from the trench.
Using this femoral length, the stature was estimated at 152.9 cm. The femoral
and tibial shafts are very slender. The right femoral midshaft sagittal diameter is
21 mm and the transverse diameter 29 mm. The right tibial midshaft sagittal di-
ameter is 26 mm and the transverse diameter 15 mm. However, the femurs have
marked linea aspera, suggesting that this individual had relatively well-developed
hamstring muscles despite the slender lower limbs. The cross-section of the tibia is
quite flat and similar to Ainu and Epi-Jo
¯mon samples.
Skeleton No. 2
Only the cranium was preserved incompletely. This skeleton is of a child of
11 years G30 months, as estimated by the eruption of the deciduous and perma-
nent teeth (Fig. 5a). The calvaria and alveolar processes of the upper and lower
jaws were well preserved, but the facial skeleton had been destroyed. The
remaining teeth are shown in Table 3. All the permanent dentition has erupted
except for the second and third molars. The maxillary second deciduous molars
are still retained. The crown surfaces of these deciduous second molars are heavily
worn (Broca’s third grade). As for the permanent dentition, the crown surfaces of
the central incisors and first molars are slightly worn (Broca’s first grade), but
none of the other crowns display any wear.
For the permanent dentition of this individual, 18 nonmetric traits are scored
as given in Table 6. The maxillary incisors and canines show a semi-shovel
shape. The maxillary first molars have slightly developed Carabelli’s traits, form-
ing large Y-shaped depressions. The distal lingual hypocone cusp is absent on the
maxillary second molars. The sixth cusp is present in the mandibular first molars.
Fig. 5. The cranium and dentition of the Aonae Dune No. 2 (A) and No. 3 (B) children.
asian perspectives .45(1) .spring 200612
The lower second molars have hypoconulid distal cusps and plus-type groove
patterns.
Neither dental caries nor calculus is observed on any tooth. Linear enamel
hypoplasia is visible on the canines and first premolars. The lines on the mandibu-
lar teeth are not particularly clear, but single, wide, linear grooves are present in
the maxillary teeth (groove width of 0.8 mm located 2.5 mm above the cervical
lines of the canines, groove width of 0.5 mm located 1.9 mm above the cervical
lines of the first premolars). It is generally argued that enamel hypoplasia is caused
by malnutrition or illness in childhood (Goodman and Armelagos 1988). Taking
the development timings of these tooth crowns into consideration, this individual
might have experienced specific nutritional deficiency between four and five
years of age.
The crown diameters of all the teeth (see Table 5) are large and, whatever the
population a‰nity of this skeleton, there is a high probability that it is a male. A
sex discrimination analysis performed using crown measurements of Hokkaido
Ainu and protohistoric Kofun Japanese resulted in a more than 98 percent proba-
bility that Skeleton No. 2 is a male (Table 7).
Skeleton No. 3
The dental age estimates suggest this individual is a child of about 6 years G24
months. Only the cranium was preserved (Fig. 5a). The calvaria and facial skele-
ton were well preserved, but the mandible was crushed into small fragments. The
Table 7. Discriminant Function Analysis Based on Dental Crown Diameters of
Ainu and Kofun Japanese for Sexing the Aonae Dune Skeleton No. 2
based on ainu data based on kofun data
Tooth diameter Coe‰cient Tooth diameter Coe‰cient
BL LC 2.689 BL LP1 2.426
BL LP1 5.483 MD LM1 1.463
MD UM1 3.156 MD UC 3.015
MD LC 5.841 MD LC 1.140
BL UC 1.264 MD UM2 1.321
BL LM1 2.910 BL UM2 0.955
BL UP1 2.917
MD UP1 2.097
MD UC 1.922
Constant 24.382 Constant 18.903
Sample size Sample size
Males 24 Males 30
Females 17 Females 22
Rate of Correction 97.6% Rate of Correction 84.6%
For Aonae Dune No. 2 For Aonae Dune No. 2
Function score 7.12 Function score 2.01
Sexing result Male Sexing result Male
(Accuracy 99.9%) (Accuracy 98.9%)
MD: mesiodistal, BL: buccolingual, U: upper, L: lower.
matsumura et al. .okhotsk ethnicity and human skeletal remains 13
orbital openings show a round shape, but the orbital height is relatively low. The
teeth shown in Table 3 were preserved in the jaws. All deciduous teeth are pres-
ent and both the maxillary and mandibularpermanentfirstmolarsareerupted.
From this dentition, age was estimated at about 6 years. Sex discrimination is dif-
ficult using only the deciduous teeth, and since the first molars are the only per-
manent teeth present, it was not possible to estimate the sex of this skeleton. The
crown diameters of both the deciduous and permanent dentition are given in
Table 5. Eight nonmetric dental traits were scored as shown in Table 6. In the
mandibular second deciduous molars, the protostylid is weakly developed, form-
ing a faint secondary groove.
biodistance analysis
Cranial Measurements
Figure 6 is a deviation diagram from 17 cranial measurements of modern Japanese
females (Morita 1950). The diagram confirms our initial observations regarding
the small size of the Aonae Dune No. 1 skull; the cranium is, in fact, smaller than
the Ainu and Epi-Jo
¯mon samples. Okhotsk people are characterized by high nasal
openings and extremely flat faces as estimated by low facial flatness indices,
including the frontal index (frontal subtense/chord) and the zygomaxillary index
(zygomaxillary subtense/chord). From these points, it is clear that Aonae Dune
No. 1 di¤ers from other known Hokkaido Okhotsk populations and is similar
to the Epi-Jo
¯mon and Ainu, who have low nasal heights and rugged faces. This
finding is consistent with the gross morphological observations described above
suggesting that this skull has few Okhotsk features.
Fig. 6. Deviation diagram from modern Japanese females based on 18 cranial measurements of Skel-
eton No. 1.
asian perspectives .45(1) .spring 200614
Next, the cranial a‰nities between Aonae Dune No. 1 and the comparative
samples were evaluated by calculating biological distances based on the above
metric data. Penrose’s shape distances and Q-mode correlation coe‰cients were
computed between the samples, using the 15 cranial measurements (maximum
cranial length, basion-nasion length, maximum cranial breadth, basion-bregma
height, basion-prosthion breadth, bizygomatic breadth, upper facial height, or-
bital breadth, orbital height, nasal breadth, nasal height, frontal chord, frontal sub-
tense, zygomaxillary chord, and zygomaxillary subtense). The results are given in
Table 8. Both the Penrose’s shape distances and distances (1 r) transformed
from the Q-mode correlation coe‰cients (r) indicate that the Hokkaido Ainu are
the closest to Aonae Dune No. 1, followed next by the Epi-Jo
¯mon people. The
Okhotsk and Kanto Kofun Japanese are clearly distant from the Aonae Dune
specimen.
Tooth Crown Measurements
For comparison of the Aonae Dune No. 2 child, 12 mesiodistal crown diameters
of permanent teeth were used. Figure 7 is a deviation diagram of these measure-
Table 8. Penrose’sShapeDistance(C
z2) and Distance (1r) Transformed from
Q-Mode Correlation Coefficient (r) from the Aonae Dune Skeleton No. 1,
Based on 15 Cranial Measurements
Cz21r
Ainu 0.478 0.388
Epi-Jo
¯mon 0.656 0.443
Okhotsk 1.046 0.821
Kofun 0.812 1.414
Fig. 7. Deviation diagram from modern Japanese males based on 12 mesiodistal crown diameters of
the permanent teeth of Skeleton No. 2 (U: upper, L: lower).
matsumura et al. .okhotsk ethnicity and human skeletal remains 15
ment data, using modern Japanese males as the basis of comparison. Overall tooth
size is smaller than any comparative population sample, and the deviation pattern
of Aonae Dune No. 2 is similar to that of Epi-Jo
¯mon populations.
The results of the Penrose’s shape distance analysis and distance estimations
by Q-mode correlation coe‰cients using the same 12 measurements are given in
Table 9. These distance computations demonstrate that the Epi-Jo
¯mon people are
the closest to Aonae Dune No. 2, followed by the Ainu; the Okhotsk and Kanto
Kofun populations are distant.
Figure 8 is a deviation diagram of sevenmesiodistalcrowndiametersofthe
deciduous teeth of the Aonae Dune No. 3 child. The deviation pattern of Aonae
Dune No. 3 shows apparent dissimilarity with the Okhotsk sample as compared
with the Jo
¯mon people, although the deviation pattern is not identical to that of
the Jo
¯mon sample.
In the distance analyses, data from Kofun populations (Kitagawa et al. 2002)
were added for comparison. The results of computation of Penrose’s shape dis-
tances and distances of Q-mode correlation coe‰cients, using the same seven de-
ciduous diameters, are given in Table 10. The Penrose’s shape distances indicate
that Aonae Dune No. 3 is closest to the Jo
¯mon sample and is far distant from the
Table 9. Penrose’s Shape Distance (Cz2)andDistance(1r) Transformed from
Q-Mode Correlation Coefficient (r) from the Aonae Dune Skeleton No. 2,
Based on 12 Mesiodistal Crown Diameters
Cz21r
Ainu 0.656 0.672
Epi-Jo
¯mon 0.376 0.318
Okhotsk 1.138 0.908
Kofun 0.918 1.523
Fig. 8. Deviation diagram from modern Japanese males based on seven mesiodistal crown diameters
of deciduous teeth of Skeleton No. 3 (U: upper, L: lower).
asian perspectives .45(1) .spring 200616
Okhotsk sample. The Q-mode correlation distances place Aonae Dune No. 3
closest to the Jo
¯mon sample, although the distance to the Okhotsk sample is
similar to that from the Jo
¯mon people. The di¤erence from the Kofun population
is evident in both the Penrose’s shape distances and the Q-mode correlation
coe‰cients.
discussion
All three skeletons from the Aonae Dune site analyzed here display few morpho-
logical features characteristic of the people of the Okhotsk culture, and they are
also di¤erent from contemporary Kofun-period populations of Honshu. Similari-
ties with Epi-Jo
¯mon and Ainu populations of Hokkaido are, however, clearer.
The scarcity of human skeletal remains from the Satsumon period means that it
is not possible to compare the Aonae Dune skeletons directly with Satsumon
samples.AstheSatsumonpeoplearewidelythoughttobeanintermediatestage
between the Epi-Jo
¯mon and Ainu, however, the similarity of the Aonae Dune re-
mains to Epi-Jo
¯mon samples suggests that they were indeed close to the Satsumon
people. The grave goods associated with Aonae Dune No. 1 imply that the social
identity of that female had become associated with what we know archaeologi-
cally as the Okhotsk culture. The interpretation of the Aonae Dune No. 2 and
No. 3 children is more di‰cult since, as noted, the arrangement of pounding
stones in this burial appears to be related to an Epi-Jo
¯mon custom. At the same
time, however, the fact that these children were buried in an Okhotsk pit build-
ing suggests a mortuary ritual within the context of Okhotsk culture.
Two interpretations of the results of the biodistance analyses conducted here
are possible. Since at present all of the human remains from Aonae appear to be
of Epi-Jo
¯mon/Satsumon ancestry, one possibility is that the inhabitants of this site
were individuals from that tradition who had adopted many aspects of Okhotsk
culture. Such an interpretation might be consistent with the unusual location of
the Aonae Dune site outside of the main area of Okhotsk settlement. As the site
has so far only produced three individuals, however, we can only speculate as to
the biological identity of the other inhabitants. We therefore regard it as more
likely that the skeletons analyzed here represent three Epi-Jo
¯mon/Satsumon indi-
viduals who were adopted—whether voluntarily or otherwise—into Okhotsk so-
ciety and that other more typically Okhotsk skeletal remains will be discovered at
Aonae in the future.
As mentioned, the Aonae Dune site is located outside the main area of Okhotsk
settlement in Hokkaido, which was the northern and eastern coastal fringes of
Table 10. Penrose’s Shape Distance (Cz2)andDistance(1r) Transformed from
Q-Mode Correlation Coefficient (r) from the Aonae Dune Skeleton No. 3,
Based on 7Mesiodistal Crown Diameters of Deciduous Teeth
Cz21r
Okhotsk 1.574 1.076
Jo
¯mon 0.508 1.015
Kofun 0.785 1.679
matsumura et al. .okhotsk ethnicity and human skeletal remains 17
that island (see Fig. 1). The Japan Sea coastline of Hokkaido and northern Hon-
shu would no doubt have been an attractive environment for intrusive Okhotsk
populations from Sakhalin, but extensive settlement by Epi-Jo
¯mon and Satsumon
groups probably made it harder to exploit than the sparsely settled northeastern
Sea of Okhotsk coastline. At the same time, however, Aonae is one of a number
of sites on the Sea of Japan coast of Hokkaido that have produced Okhotsk re-
mains. At Aonae, the presence of pit houses, Haji and Satsumon pottery, a jasper
bead, and Hokkaido obsidian suggests that the site was inhabited for a significant
length of time, perhaps for the purpose of trade. Twenty-nine bird, fish, and
mammal taxa have been reported from Aonae (Kaneko and Doi 2003 : 60), a
number that is close to the average of ten other Okhotsk sites (31.5 taxa, range
19–38, SD 5.8) tabulated by Hudson (2005). Seasonal indicators suggest the site
was occupied from the spring to late autumn, but there is little evidence for win-
ter occupation (Table 11). A contrastive case with the Aonae Dune site is found at
Chatsu 4, located on the Shakotan Peninsula of mainland Hokkaido (see Fig. 1),
approximately 100 km north of Aonae, where morphologically Okhotsk skele-
tons were unearthed despite association with Epi-Jo
¯mon cultural remains (Matsu-
mura 2001). This finding suggests that interaction between the Okhotsk and sur-
rounding cultures had already begun by the Epi-Jo
¯mon period.
Documentary evidence from Japan indicates that Northeast Asian groups were
exploiting the islands of the Sea of Japan on a seasonal basis. In the entry for Kim-
mei 6/12 (a.d. 544), for example, the Nihon Shoki records: ‘‘The following report
was received from the province of Koshi: ‘At Cape Minabe [Sado Island], there
arrivedmenofSu-sheninaboat,andstaid [sic] there. During the spring and
summer they caught fish, which they used for food. The men of that island . . .
called them devils, and did not dare go near them’’’ (Aston 1972: II, 58).
‘‘Su-shen’’ is an anachronistic term for the Mohe, a Tungusic people of the
Amur. Although many scholars link the Okhotsk with non-Tungusic groups
suchasthelaterNivkh(e.g.,Kikuchi1978),intheNihon Shoki ‘‘Su-shen’’ may
have been used as a literary term for Manchurian peoples, and it is by no means
impossible that it refers to the people of the Okhotsk culture. Although no
Okhotsk sites are known as far south as Sado, there is no archaeological evidence
for the settlement of a Northeast Asian people other than the Okhotsk down the
northern Sea of Japan coast. Whatever the exact relationship between the
Table 11. Seasonal Indicators from Aonae
(Identifications from Kaneko and Doi 2003)
season resource presence/quantity (nisp/fragments)
Early spring Herring (Clupeidae), Akta mackerel
(Pleurogrammus ozonus)
Herring: Very rare (25); Akta
mackerel: absent
Spring–autumn Abalone (Haliotidae discus), sea
urchin (Echnoidea)
Abalone: Common (374); sea urchin:
common (9973)
Autumn Salmonidae Rare (125) (accumulation as winter
food unlikely)
Midwinter Cod (Gadidae) Very rare (24)
NISP: Number of identified specimens.
asian perspectives .45(1) .spring 200618
Okhotsk and the ‘‘Su-shen,’’ the exploitation of the Aonae Dune site probably
followed a similar pattern to that described in the Nihon Shoki—but with the
major di¤erence that close interaction and possibly intermarriage had already
occurred between the Okhotsk people and their neighbors.
Adoption, Reticulation, and Ethnogenesis
The ethnogenesis of non-Japanese peoples in medieval Hokkaido is enormously
complex.Inasense,thisarticlehasincreasedthatcomplexitywithoutappreciably
furthering our understanding of its causes. In this context, however, we wish to
make some final points regarding the nature of this ethnic complexity. For some
anthropologists, the type of ethnic complexity or ‘‘reticulation’’ described here is
not just normal—it is regarded as the most important aspect of the process of
ethnogenesis (Moore 1994a, 1994b, 2001). John Moore’s (1987) work on inter-
marriage and ‘‘hybrid bands’’ amongst the Cheyenne certainly provides possible
comparative material for understanding the Okushiri Okhotsk. At the same time,
however, this does not mean that cladistic processes can be ‘‘rejected’’ as Moore
(2001 : 52) suggests. As noted a decade ago by Peter Bellwood (1996), the ques-
tion of scale is crucial: At the micro level of the individual, reticulate models are
often the most appropriate, but branching processes can still be important at the
macro scale—although such branches never evolve completely independently for
very long. The use of the term ‘‘cladistic’’ in debates over ethnogenesis is thus
confusing, but the Okhotsk shows the importance of both branching and reticu-
late processes.
The origins of the Okhotsk appear to lie in the Amur region of the Russian Far
East, from where the culture spread to Sakhalin and then Hokkaido and the Kuril
Islands. Iron Age groups from the Amur branched both north and south into the
circum–Sea of Okhostk region. Archaeologically, Yamaura (1998) associates these
movements with the Tokarev and Okhotsk cultures respectively, although some
controversy remains over the dating of the Tokarev culture. The end of the
Okhotsk culture in Hokkaido was very di¤erent in the northern and eastern parts
of that island (Ohyi 1975). The Okhotsk population of the Tobinitai phase of
eastern Hokkaido was gradually incorporated into Satsumon culture (Onishi
2003), but in northern Hokkaido the Okhotsk people appear to have moved
back to Sakhalin.
We do not doubt that reticulate processes of adoption and intermarriage were
important in prehistoric societies, but the complexity of ethnic constructions does
not make such ethnic units any less real to their members. As noted above, Nivkh
clan organization appears to have been quite flexible in embracing adopted new-
comers (Shternberg 1999 : 156), but the broad ethnic identity of the Nivkh con-
tinued in spite of—or perhaps because of—such flexibility. In her monograph on
the complex formation of the Choctaw people, Galloway (1995: 4) similarly
notes that ‘‘the Choctaws have undergone as much change from prehistory to the
present as any other native group of the Southeast [United States] but have simul-
taneously retained the Choctaw language and cultural practices with a success that
cannot be explained if their culture had no particular substance of its own.’’ Hav-
ing written two books on the Cheyenne, even John Moore (1987, 1996) appears
not to doubt that such a tribe exists! Much recent work on ethnogenesis has
matsumura et al. .okhotsk ethnicity and human skeletal remains 19
stressed the role of identity formation within changing structures of economic and
political domination (e.g., Hill 1996; Hudson 1999: 175–232; Patterson 1987).
Moore’s fascinating work on the Cheyenne has also shown that their flexible
marriage patterns developed within quite specific historical contexts. Future work
on the Okhotsk and medieval Hokkaido needs to consider further the connec-
tions between ethnic and historical change with the same degree of sophistication
shown in Moore’s work on the ethnogenesis of the Plains Indians.
conclusion
Excavations at the Aonae Dune site on Okushiri Island, Hokkaido, produced
human skeletal remains from three individuals. Although these individuals appar-
ently derive from Okhotsk culture contexts, their skeletal morphology is rather
di¤erent from most other known Okhotsk culture skeletal remains. One possible
interpretation of these remains is that they were people of Epi-Jo
¯mon/Satsumon
ancestry who were adopted into Okhotsk society. The research reported here
provides further support for the point made by Hudson (1999) that detailed bio-
distance analyses of prehistoric human skeletons are an invaluable component of
the archaeology of ethnicity since they enable us to compare the biological and
cultural components of human identities. This does not mean, however, that eth-
nicity can be ‘‘reduced’’ to biology. Cases such as that described here, where biol-
ogy and culture clearly do not overlap, call for a nuanced explanation that takes
full account of the complex historical processes of cultural reticulation that occur
in all societies.
acknowledgments
We wish to thank Miriam Stark and the three anonymous reviewers for their
detailed comments on an earlier version of this article.
note
1. We have no information regarding the language(s) spoken by the people of the Okhotsk culture.
Given that the Okhotsk was intrusive in Hokkaido and remained largely separate from other cul-
tures there, it seems a reasonable assumption that it possessed a language or languages that were
di¤erent from those spoken by the people of the Epi-Jo
¯mon and Satsumon traditions. These lat-
ter groups probably spoke languages ancestral or closely related to Ainu. That Ainu appears to
contain few borrowings from languages other than Japanese (Vovin 1993) suggests that the
Okhotsk people had little linguistic influence on the Epi-Jo
¯mon or Satsumon traditions.
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abstract
This article describes human skeletal remains from the Aonae Dune site, Okushiri
Island, Hokkaido, Japan. Skeletal remains of an adult female and two subadults were
excavated in 2002. Although these remains derived from Okhotsk culture contexts,
analyses of cranial and tooth crown measurements demonstrated that Aonae Dune
No. 1 (the adult female), Aonae Dune No. 2 (a child of about 11 years), and Aonae
Dune No. 3 (a child of about 6 years) are morphologically closer to Epi-Jo
¯mon or
Jo
¯mon and Ainu populations and significantly di¤erent from other Okhotsk samples
in Hokkaido. It is argued that these three skeletons probably represent individuals
from a di¤erent culture who were adopted into Okhotsk society. Keywords:Hok-
kaido, Okhotsk culture, Aonae Dune site, osteological analyses, ethnicity.
matsumura et al. .okhotsk ethnicity and human skeletal remains 23
