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The Prevention of Malaria in the Federated Malay States
... Not in Panama alone in the early 19 th century Malaysia applied environmental sanitation as strategy employed for the elimination of malaria. Watson (1921) demonstrated the importance of environmental modification by showing that selective clearing of the forest around the settlements could control the mosquito, which was result in the elimination of malaria. Bradley (1994) established that in 1901 Klang town and Port Swettenham in present day Malaysia witnessed a high series of malaria episode (Watson 1921). ...
... Watson (1921) demonstrated the importance of environmental modification by showing that selective clearing of the forest around the settlements could control the mosquito, which was result in the elimination of malaria. Bradley (1994) established that in 1901 Klang town and Port Swettenham in present day Malaysia witnessed a high series of malaria episode (Watson 1921). One of the burdens was that 50% of the patient attending hospital and medical services in Malaysia had malaria (Bradley 1994). ...
... The strategy helps greatly in reducing the mortality rate caused by malaria in the country. After witnessed the progress and success of the approach, it was later applied to the other part of Malaysia (Bradley, 1994;Watson, 1921). This presents that successful malaria control have to target the reduction of mosquito. ...
Malaria in Nigeria and Africa remains most important health problem. It remains a vital public health fear of our time. Human behaviour is a tremendous challenge that must be addressed if malaria control and ultimately elimination is to be successful. This study was aimed to measure the validity and reliability of instruments of household behaviour on malaria control. The reliability of each construct is determined using Cronbach’s Alpha statistics. The Cronbach’s Alpha results provide evidence and good acceptable value that indicates the instruments were sufficiently valid and reliable.
DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n3s2p183
... 15 11 Drabble (1967). 12 Watson (1921). 13 Darling, Barber, & Hacker (1920); Watson (1921); Webb (2020b). ...
... 12 Watson (1921). 13 Darling, Barber, & Hacker (1920); Watson (1921); Webb (2020b). 14 Webb (2011;2014); Graboyes (2014). ...
Pre-existing medical conditions and co-infections are common to all human populations, although the natures of the pre-existing conditions and the types of co-infections vary. For these reasons, among others, the arrival of a highly infectious pathogenic agent may differentially affect the disease burden in different sub-populations, as a function of varying combinations of endemic disease, chronic disease, genetic or epigenetic vulnerabilities, compromised immunological status, and socially determined risk exposure. The disease burden may also vary considerably by age cohort and socio-economic status. The social consequences of infection, the medical sequelae, and the paths of recovery from infection may also vary, according to these variables. As a result, different sub-populations may have different experiences of a disease process, including when and how an epidemic comes to an end.
This essay suggests that historians' engagement with path-breaking biological and medical anthropological research will allow new approaches to understanding disease processes that will enrich the study of epidemics and their endings. It is organized in three sections. The first discusses some general approaches to and assumptions about epidemics that are used by many historians. The second introduces new perspectives on the study of historical epidemics opened up by the medical anthropological concept of syndemic disease interactions and by an engagement with biological scientific perspectives. It briefly discusses two rural epidemics-one of anemia caused by the syndemic interaction of hookworm and malaria co-infections in early 20th-century British Malaya, and the other of rebound infections caused by the loss of acquired immunity to falciparum malaria in mid-20th-century Liberia-that illustrate, respectively, the utility of the concept of syndemic disease interactions and the centrality of immunological status in understanding epidemic outbreaks in these discrete populations. The third section addresses some of the research considerations involved in moving beyond the single pathogen model of epidemic disease.
... In the early twentieth century, disease control programmes that targeted malaria-carrying mosquitoes were carried out in many tropical and subtropical regions (Watson 1921, Harrison 1978, Farley 2003. They were most successful when focused on identifying local malarial vectors and on detailed knowledge of their spatial distribution and bionomics, which included their breeding habitats, feeding habits and f light ranges. ...
... This focused approach to local epidemiological intervention was known as species sanitation. It was pioneered by Malcolm Watson in the Federated Malay States during the early years of the twentieth century (Watson 1921). During a visit to the Dutch East Indies, Watson taught the basics of the local epidemiological approach using anopheline bionomics to the Dutch scientist Nicolaas H. Swellengrebel, who would use this method to transform anopheline breeding grounds in both the Dutch East Indies and the Netherlands themselves (Verhave 2011). ...
... Investments in many kinds of production-in mining, agriculture, and manufacturing-can be crippled if the labor force faces a heavy disease burden, or if the presence of malaria raises the cost of attracting needed labor. During the colonial period between 1900 and 1950, malaria control was frequently decisive in attracting the labor force that was essential for extracting minerals in Zambia (formerly Northern Rhodesia) (Utzinger and others 2002;Utzinger, Tozan, and Singer 2001) and for developing rubber and tea plantations in Malaysia (formerly the Malay States) (Watson 1921). Rubber plantations in Southeast Asia still depend on effective malaria control. ...
... Reduced risk of malaria may facilitate development, and this can induce cycles of health and wealth that provide incentives to governments to the point where investment in health initiatives becomes a clear priority. Fostering economic development through simultaneous reduction of malaria risk in rural as well as urban areas has an interesting but limited (Watson 1921). Much opportunity remains for expanding on such development. ...
... Investments in many kinds of production-in mining, agriculture, and manufacturing-can be crippled if the labor force faces a heavy disease burden, or if the presence of malaria raises the cost of attracting needed labor. During the colonial period between 1900 and 1950, malaria control was frequently decisive in attracting the labor force that was essential for extracting minerals in Zambia (formerly Northern Rhodesia) others 2002, Utzinger, Tozan, andSinger 2001) and for developing rubber and tea plantations in the former Malay States (now Malaysia) (Watson 1921). Rubber plantations in Southeast Asia still depend on effective malaria control. ...
... Reduced risk of malaria may facilitate development, and this can induce cycles of health and wealth that provide incentives to governments at a level where investment in health initiatives becomes a clear priority. Fostering economic development through simultaneous reduction of malaria risk in rural as well as urban areas has an interesting but limited history (Watson 1921). Much opportunity remains for expanding on such development. ...
... Total hopane concentrations range between 2600 and 105,000 ng/g TOC with peak concentrations in CO1 (Fig. 3A). Potential sources range from oil spills (e.g., 2017 Ennore oil spill; Han et al., 2018) to oiling of river systems in the present and past (Watson, 1921). The occurrence of oil in Chennai's river systems is supported by the predominance of α,β-hopanes, which indicate petrogenic material of higher maturity, such as crude oil or petroleum products (Nytoft & Bojesen-Koefoed, 2001). ...
Fast growing coastal population centers face an increasing vulnerability to several emission sources of anthropogenic and industrial pollutants. The ongoing industrialization in emerging countries increases the environmental and human risk for people living in coastal megacities, especially in the global south of Asia. Extreme weather events, such as heavy rainfalls and resulting flood events, are projected to increase in frequency in the foreseen future, facing an increasing vulnerability to monsoon-induced floods and the release and distribution of xenobiotics causing harm to communities and the environment along a river’s pathway. To endeavor the unknown risks posed by these toxic floods and to assess the associated contamination distribution, the preserved organic geochemical signature from floodplain sediments is studied.
This investigation evaluates the inorganic and organic pollutant assemblage in ten surface sediments along the Adyar and Cooum river in the urban areas of Chennai (southern India). Potentially toxic elements (Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb) show a continuous concentration decrease downstream. Four main groups of persistent organic pollutants have been detected: petrogenic pollutants (hopanes, PAHs), urban wastewater pollutants (LABs, DEHA, methyl-triclosan, octocrylene), technical compounds (Mesamoll ® , DPE, NBFA), and pesticides (DDX). While most organic compounds show source specific properties, the definite sources for others remain vague based on the multitude of potential sources and diffusiveness of anthropogenic emissions. The chosen approaches have shown that urban wastewater pollutants and several technical compounds are suitable to assess the anthropogenic-induced contamination in floodplain sediments. However, sedimentary archives in fast-growing, urbanized environments are influenced and superimposed by anthropogenic alterations.
... Education of communities about environmental management is also essential to facilitate community participation in such activities. Although environmental management was highly promoted in the control of malaria in developed countries [97][98][99][100], its importance in the control of malaria in Africa significantly reduced when emphasis shifted to LLINs and IRS [101]. ...
Background
Significant progress in malaria prevention during the past two decades has prompted increasing global dialogue on malaria elimination. Recent reviews on malaria strategies have focused mainly on long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS), with little emphasis on other prevention methods. This article is a scoping review of literature on malaria prevention methods beyond LLINs and IRS in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).
Methods
This scoping review found articles published between from 1994 to 2020. Studies were obtained from a search of the PubMed, the Cochrane Library and Social Science abstracts. Grey literature and manual search of secondary references was also done. The search strategy included all study designs but limited only to English. Three independent reviewers performed the selection and characterization of articles, and the data collected were synthesized qualitatively.
Results
A total of 10,112 studies were identified among which 31 met the inclusion criteria. The results were grouped by the 3 emerging themes of: housing design; mosquito repellents; and integrated vector control. Housing design strategies included closing eves, screening of houses including windows, doors and ceilings, while mosquito repellents were mainly spatial repellents, use of repellent plants, and use of plant-based oils. Integrated vector control included larvae source management. Evidence consistently shows that improving housing design reduced mosquito entry and malaria prevalence. Spatial repellents also showed promising results in field experiments, while evidence on repellent plants is limited and still emerging. Recent literature shows that IVM has been largely ignored in recent years in many LMICs. Some malaria prevention methods such as spatial repellents and IVM are shown to have the potential to target both indoor and outdoor transmission of malaria, which are both important aspects to consider to achieve malaria elimination in LMICs.
Conclusion
The scoping review shows that other malaria prevention strategies beyond LLINs and IRS have increasingly become important in LMICs. These methods have a significant role in contributing to malaria elimination in endemic countries if they are adequately promoted alongside other conventional approaches.
... In the early 1920s, although drugs were available to treat malaria cases, attempts were focused on destroying and/or modifying breeding sites to reduce density of the vectors. This environmental modification was successfully achieved by subsoil drainage and bunding (Watson, 1921). It is clear that better understanding of vector ecology (Ferguson et al., 2010;Godfray, 2013) is vital for progress with disease control. ...
Plasmodium knowlesi, a simian malaria parasite of great public health concern has been reported from most countries in Southeast Asia and exported to various countries around the world. Currently P. knowlesi is the predominant species infecting humans in Malaysia. Besides this species, other simian malaria parasites such as P. cynomolgi and P. inui are also infecting humans in the region. The vectors of P. knowlesi and other Asian simian malarias belong to the Leucosphyrus Group of Anopheles mosquitoes which are generally forest dwelling species. Continual deforestation has resulted in these species moving into forest fringes, farms, plantations and human settlements along with their macaque hosts. Limited studies have shown that mosquito vectors are attracted to both humans and macaque hosts, preferring to bite outdoors and in the early part of the night. We here review the current status of simian malaria vectors and their parasites, knowledge of vector competence from experimental infections and discuss possible vector control measures. The challenges encountered in simian malaria elimination are also discussed. We highlight key knowledge gaps on vector distribution and ecology that may impede effective control strategies.
... This material does not develop toxic effects on human population. During 1901During -1903 in India, a concept of naturalistic vector control had emerged which was executed in Malaya against Anopheline mosquito habitat (Watson, 1921). During the early thirties, pyrethrum extract spray was used as a vector control strategy in South Africa. ...
The world has experienced perceptible climate change for the past 100 years. Global warming enhances the rapid spread of mosquito-borne diseases resulting in unknown consequences in the future. The global economic development, increased urbanization, and climate change have significantly increased the mosquito-borne disease transmission pattern and dynamics. In India, mosquito-borne diseases have been a core public issue for decades. Hence, mosquito control is primordial for preventing the transmission of malaria, lymphatic filariasis, dengue fever, Yellow fever, Zika virus infection, West Nile fever, and chikungunya virus infection in the human population. The mosquito control strategies based on ecology have received much more attention during the 1960s, as chemical pesticides induce negative impacts on human health and the ecosystem. Most of the current approaches in mosquito control have several limitations related to the development of insecticide resistance, lack of long-term sustainability, and negative impacts on the ecosystem and the environment. This review offers invaluable insights into severe mosquito-borne diseases, various vector control strategies, and the influence of climate change in mosquito-borne disease transmission.
... A great majority of govemment servants and labourers who were brought in to work at the port were stricken with fever. Watson's strategy of drainage was applied and the number of malaria dropped (Watson 1921). Watson's method of clearing the jungle to remove shade and the draining of water collections were applicable to all districts under similar conditions. ...
... At first this was done with environmental management through the removal or modification of breeding sites. Famous examples of these were the anti-malaria works at the Panama Canal (Dehne 1955) and the environmental management methods in Malaysia and Indonesia (Watson 1921, Takken et al. 1990 where the breeding sites of malaria mosquitoes (swamps) were drained and predatory mosquitoeating fish were released in rice fields. These methods were quite effective and led to strong reductions or even local elimination of malaria. ...
Malaria is a crucial human disease that illustrates the role of the mosquito vector in transmission and epidemiology. The global history of malaria vector control led to the rolling out of bed nets, before exposing the limits to this strategy. The move to insecticide-treated bed nets began a new era of control with significant reductions in malaria-related morbidity and mortality. Of these reductions, 78% were attributable to vector control, highlighting the role of malaria vectors in the occurrence of the disease. Today, rapidly increasing levels of insecticide resistance threaten to jeopardize these successes. From the concept of Integrated Vector Management (IVM), a new Global Vector Control Response was developed by the World Health Organization. This new strategy calls for integration of existing and innovative tools of vector control, illustrated by house improvement, larval source management, chemical and behavioural control, biological and biorational methods and genetic tools. The most successful control programmes will include community engagement, monitoring and surveillance. It is expected that with this novel IVM approach, further reductions in malaria can be achieved.
... A great majority of govemment servants and labourers who were brought in to work at the port were stricken with fever. Watson's strategy of drainage was applied and the number of malaria dropped (Watson 1921). Watson's method of clearing the jungle to remove shade and the draining of water collections were applicable to all districts under similar conditions. ...
... Breeding sites can be natural (leafs retaining water, puddles, etc.) as well as domestic (plant saucers, tires, ornamental bird baths , buckets, clogged gutters, any objects susceptible of retaining water)(Figure 1.7) [122]. Measures consisting in reducing the number of breeding site have been recommended at least since the 1910's in order to prevent transmission of Malaria [249,210]. However, such a method cannot be effective without the awareness and help of the local population to clean there own habitat. ...
Pest insects represent a major threat to public health, to food security as well as to the economy. Constant effort is being made to develop or improve control strategies in the framework of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). IPM aims to maintain pests at low levels that do not represent risks for health or economy, while satisfying environmentally respectful toxicological and ecological requirements. Planningof efficient control strategies requires in-depth knowledge of the pest’s biology and ecology. In particular, it is essential to have accurate estimates of parameters of biological and ecological relevance like population size and distribution, dispersal capacity, as well as good understanding of the underlying processes governing the dynamics of the population in time and space.The aim of this thesis is to provide a mathematical framework for the development of efficient IPM control strategies. This mathematical framework is based on a dynamical system approach and comprises the construction of mathematical models, their theoretical study, the development of adequate schemes for numerical solutions and reliable procedures for parameter identification. The first objective of this thesis is to develop mathematical methods and practical protocols to estimate a pest population size and distribution. The second objective is to predict the impact of a specific control strategy on a pest population and identify how full control of thepopulation can be achieved. Typically, the only data available on the field is trapping data. Further, to increasethe capture of insects, those traps are often combined with a chemical attractant. The first objective of this thesis is addressed by constructing a generic 2-dimensional spatio-temporal Trap-Insect-Model (TIM) based on biological and ecological knowledge of the pest. This model is formulated by Advection-Diffusion-Reaction (ADR) equations which account for the dispersal capacity of the insects, their attractiveness towards the traps and their demography and trapping. The unknown insect population size and distribution is the initial condition of the model. Usually, the dispersal capacity as well as the parameters related to the traps are also unknown and may vary in time. A major outcome of this thesis is a protocol to identify a set of parameters using trap data collected over a short period of time during which the parameters can be assumed constant.To address the second objective, we consider a model for the control of croppest insects via mating disruption, using a female pheromone, and trapping. Here, males are diverted from females compromising their insemination. The model uses compartmental structure taking into account the specific behaviour of the different groups in the population. It is formulated as a system of ODEs. The theoreticalanalysis of the model yields threshold values for the dosage of the pheromone above which extinction of the population is ensured.The practical relevance of the results obtained in this thesis shows that mathematical modelling is an essential supplement to experiments in optimizing control strategies.
... In the first half of the twentieth century engineering solutions to malaria, such as drainage and house screening, were firmly engrained in malaria control operations (Watson 1921, Home 1926, Gilroy 1948), but since then much of this knowledge has been lost, and today, in most vector control programmes, there is little in the way of environmental management (Wilson et al. in press). Cross-over between disciplines should see the concept of healthy housing taught from school age through to professional training of entomology/public health, architecture, and design students. ...
Mosquito-transmitted diseases are a major threat to health in sub-Saharan Africa, but could be reduced through modifications to the built environment. Here we report findings from a major workshop held to identify the research gaps in this area, namely: (1) evidence of the health benefits to changes to the built environment, (2) understanding how mosquitoes enter buildings, (3) novel methods for reducing mosquito-house entry, (4) sustainable approaches for reducing mosquito habitats, (5) case studies of micro-financing for healthy homes and (6) methods for increasing scale-up. Multidisciplinary research is essential to build out mosquito-transmitted diseases, and not build them in.
... It was Malcom Watson, the chief medical officer, who, in 1914, conceived of Singapore's first drainsas a means of malaria prevention. He had observed that Telok Blangah was the 'most malarious district in Singapore' (Watson, 1921), and decided to build drains there to remove stagnant water and eliminate mosquito breeding places. On the completion of the scheme, which consisted of earth drains, brick drains and subsoil pipes, malaria rates dropped dramatically. ...
Problems with drought, floods and public sanitation are commonplace for any developing country. The manner in which Singapore has overcome these difficulties, however, may well be exceptional. Water scarcity was, is, and remains a trial for Singapore’s decision makers. Singapore’s water management method is distinguished by three qualities: integration, circularity and the taking of an uncommonly long view. Thus, despite nature’s poor endowment, today’s Singapore is not short of water. This is possible only because it has been realistic about its circumstances, and has used its intellect and imagination, researching continuously, and continues to muster the will to pursue hard-nosed water policies.
... 71 Kelompok sasaran malaria pula melibatkan kelompok pendatang baru khasnya yang bekerja di kawasan yang baru dibuka untuk penanaman iaitu buruh Tamil yang mempunyai tahap imun yang rendah berbanding dengan kelompok buruh Jawa. 72 Pengawalan penyakit yang dijalankan oleh IMR sangat penting kerana dalam tempoh 19 tahun (1896-1914), pesakit malaria berjumlah 297,075 orang. 73 Kejayaan IMR paling penting dalam mengawal penyakit ini daripada terus menular adalah penggunaan kuinin secara sistematik dan kuarters kalis-nyamuk untuk buruh estet. ...
... The quote prefaces Watson's monograph on malaria control in the British Federated Malay States (modern Malaysia and Singapore) [1]. Ross expresses the power of practical malariology, enabled just 13 years prior by his discovery of the mosquito-borne transmission of malaria. ...
Malaria remains a serious clinical and public health problem, the object of an ongoing technological and humanitarian struggle to abate the very substantial harm done. The manner by which humanity approached malaria control changed abruptly and profoundly after 1945 with the advent of the insecticide DDT. Malariologists in the first half of the twentieth century conceived precise modifications to natural or man-made environments aimed at making those less hospitable to specific anopheline mosquito vector species. This practical malariology achieved very significant reductions in burdens of morbidity and mortality, but the revolutionary insecticide eliminated the need for its specialized knowledge and diverse practices. By 1970 mosquito resistance to DDT and perceived environmental concerns precipitated the collapse of what had been a vigorous global campaign to eradicate malaria. Humanity did not then revitalize practical malariology but turned to another commodity as the foundation of control strategy, the war-spurred suite of synthetic antimalarial drugs developed in the 1940s and 1950s. When those drugs became lost to parasite resistance in the latter twentieth century, malaria resurged globally. Since 2005, tens of billions of dollars mobilized new commodities to control malaria: point-of-care diagnostics, effective artemisinin-based treatments, and longer-lasting insecticide treated bed nets. The know-how of practical malariology is not part of that ongoing commodities-based strategy. This article examines contemporary malaria control in the broad strokes of a strategy mitigating the consequences of infection contrasted to that of the abandoned practical malariology strategy of prevention. The inherent risks and limitations of over-reliance upon commodities in striving to control malaria may prompt consideration of a strategic posture inclusive of the proven methods of practical malariology.
... These man-made forests provide environments for vector mosquitoes. Outbreaks of dengue (Ministry of Health Malaysia 2013, Palaniyandi 2014), malaria (Watson 1921, Singhasivanon et al. 1999 ...
The impact of the rapid expansion of rubber plantations in South-East Asia on mosquito populations is uncertain. We compared the abundance and diversity of adult mosquitoes using human-baited traps in four typical rural habitats in northern Lao PDR: secondary forests, immature rubber plantations, mature rubber plantations, and villages. Generalized estimating equations were used to explore differences in mosquito abundance between habitats, and Simpson's diversity index was used to measure species diversity. Over nine months, 24,927 female mosquitoes were collected, including 51 species newly recorded in Lao PDR. A list of the 114 mosquito species identified is included. More mosquitoes, including vector species, were collected in the secondary forest than immature rubber plantations (rainy season, odds ratio [OR] 0.33, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.31-0.36; dry season, 0.46, 95% CI 0.41-0.51), mature rubber plantations (rainy season, OR 0.25, 95% CI 0.23-0.27; dry season, OR 0.25, 95% CI 0.22-0.28), and villages (rainy season, OR 0.13, 95% CI 0.12-0.14; dry season, 0.20, 95% CI 0.18-0.23). All habitats showed high species diversity (Simpson's indexes between 0.82-0.86) with vectors of dengue, Japanese encephalitis (JE), lymphatic filariasis, and malaria. In the secondary forests and rubber plantations, Aedes albopictus (Skuse), a dengue vector, was the dominant mosquito species, while in the villages, Culex vishnui (Theobald), a JE vector, was most common. This study has increased the overall knowledge of mosquito fauna in Lao PDR. The high abundance of Ae. albopictus in natural and man-made forests warrants concern, with vector control measures currently only implemented in cities and villages.
... LSM has a long history of use in diverse settings with various levels of success in urban, lowtransmission and elimination settings (Watson 1911(Watson , 1953Hopkins 1940;Soper and Wilson 1943;Muirhead-Thomson 1945, 1951Shousha 1948;Holstein 1954;Clyde 1967;Fillinger et al. 2009;Fillinger and Lindsay 2011). Its contributions to recent successes in reductions of malaria burden have not been considered substantial although there has been a significant amount of attention. ...
The rapid spread of mosquito resistance to currently available insecticides, and the current lack of an efficacious malaria vaccine are among many challenges that affect large-scale efforts for malaria control. As goals of malaria elimination and eradication are put forth, new vector-control paradigms and tools and/or further optimization of current vector-control products are required to meet public health demands. Vector control remains the most effective measure to prevent malaria transmission and present gains against malaria mortality and morbidity may be maintained as long as vector-intervention strategies are sustained and adapted to underlying vector-related transmission dynamics. The following provides a brief overview of vector-control strategies and tools either in use or under development and evaluation that are intended to exploit key entomological parameters toward driving down transmission.
... Environmental management was crucial for the elimination of malaria in European countries and in the United States and to reduce the burden of the disease in many other locations (Pomeroy 1920;Boyd 1926;Neiva 1940). Important endeavors, including the construction of the Panama Canal (Gorgas 1915), copper mining in Zambia, former Rhodesia (Watson 1953;Utzinger et al. 2002), and rubber production in Malaysia (Watson 1921), were unlikely to have the same outcome if environmental management was not adopted as part of the package of interventions for malaria control. Malaria transmitted by a bromeliad-breeding mosquito was eliminated from the South of Brazil through removal of bromeliads from urban areas and introduction of eucalyptus trees (on which bromeliads do not grow) in forested areas (Pinotti 1951;Deane 1988). ...
Environmental factors affect the transmission intensity, seasonality, and geographical distribution of malaria, and together with the vector, the human, and the parasite compose the malaria system. Strategies that alter the environment are among the oldest interventions for malaria control, but currently are not the most prominent despite historical evidence of their effectiveness. The importance of environmental factors, the role they play considering the current goals of malaria eradication, the different strategies that can be adopted, and the current challenges for their implementation are discussed. As malaria elimination/eradication takes a prominent place in the health agenda, an integrated action, addressing all elements of the malaria system, which contributes to improved knowledge and to building local capacity and that brings about positive effects to the health of the local population has the greatest chance to produce fast, effective, and sustainable results.
... 25 For articles in the Malayan Medical Journals, see Hariharam (1924), Macaulay (1924) Watson (1932). His main contribution to the study was Watson (1921). 28 Through the publicity of the local newspapers, Watson managed to raise a total of $30,000 from readers in British Malaya for the retirement of Ross who "in spite of a life, or perhaps a life devoted to the welfare of his fellow men, was a poor man, and for ten years before he died, he was seriously worried by the fact his widow would have been very ill provided for in the event of his death." ...
... Before the advent of indoor residual spraying with dichloro-diethyl-trichloro-ethane in the mid-twentieth century, larval source management through environmental interventions was a highly effective malaria control method employed insuch areas as the Panama Canal Zone 85,86 and peninsular Malaysia. 87 These early successes bolstered the concept of species sanitation 87,88 that was widely applied to great effect in other malaria endemic regions including Indonesia (then called Netherlands Indies) between 1920 and 1935. 88,89 The principle of species sanitation is straightforward: identify the dominant vector, identify its preferred larval sites, and eliminate those sites by whatever means possible. ...
Background:
The decline in intensity of malaria transmission in many areas now emphasizes greater importance of understanding the epidemiology of low to moderate transmission settings. Marked heterogeneity in infection risk within these populations creates opportunities to understand transmission and guide resource allocation to greater impact.
Methods:
In this study, we examined spatial patterns of malaria transmission in a hypo- to meso-endemic area of eastern Indonesia using malaria prevalence data collected from a cross-sectional socio-demographic and parasitological survey conducted from August to November 2010. An entomological survey performed in parallel, identified, mapped, and monitored local anopheline larval habitats.
Results:
A single spatial cluster of higher malaria prevalence was detected during the study period (relative risk=2.13; log likelihood ratio=20.7; P<0.001). In hierarchical multivariate regression models, risk of parasitemia was inversely correlated with distance to five Anopheles sundaicus known larval habitats [odds ratio (OR)=0.21; 95% confidence interval (CI)=0.14-0.32; P<0.001], which were located in a geographically restricted band adjacent to the coastline. Increasing distance from these sites predicted increased hemoglobin level across age strata after adjusting for confounders (OR=1.6; 95% CI=1.30-1.98; P<0.001).
Conclusion:
Significant clustering of malaria parasitemia in close proximity to very specific and relatively few An. sundaicus larval habitats has direct implications for local control strategy, policy, and practice. These findings suggest that larval source management could achieve profound if not complete impact in this region.
... Still underlined by Bruce-Chwatt (loc. Cit) " among the early projects one carried out by Malcolm Watson in Malaya deserves special mention, because of the ingenious combination of open and subsoil-drainage with naturalistic methods of control of Anopheles [159]. These measures were adapted to the behavioral characteristics of malaria in a given area and formed the basis for the concept of " species sanitation " [160]. ...
... 25 For articles in the Malayan Medical Journals, see Hariharam (1924), Macaulay (1924) Watson (1932). His main contribution to the study was Watson (1921). 28 Through the publicity of the local newspapers, Watson managed to raise a total of $30,000 from readers in British Malaya for the retirement of Ross who "in spite of a life, or perhaps a life devoted to the welfare of his fellow men, was a poor man, and for ten years before he died, he was seriously worried by the fact his widow would have been very ill provided for in the event of his death." ...
The print and broadcast media are traditionally vital vehicles for both the transmission of information and framing of discussion
on health, medicine, and diseases. However, their roles have been largely peripheral in medical historiography. In this respect,
this paper explores the position of English language newspapers in colonial Malaya in identifying and disseminating epidemiological
data as well as commentaries on public health issues and policies. These discussions provided a crucial platform in linking
public health discourses to a more literate and influential lay public and adding to broader debates on the governance of
the colony. Collectively, the articles and editorials of the print media in British Malaya were not only indicative of the
extent of involvement of colonial civil society in public health. Their narratives also reflected underlying tensions between
state and society in addition to sociocultural anxieties over the fluid labor and capital flows of the colonial political
economy.
Malaria continues to be a global public health problem although it has been eliminated from many countries. Sri Lanka and China are two countries that recently achieved malaria elimination status, and many countries in Southeast Asia are currently in the pipeline for achieving the same goal by 2030. However, Plasmodium knowlesi, a non-human primate malaria parasite continues to pose a threat to public health in this region, infecting many humans in all countries in Southeast Asia except for Timor-Leste. Besides, other non-human primate malaria parasite such as Plasmodium cynomolgi and Plasmodium inui are infecting humans in the region. The non-human primates, the long-tailed and pig-tailed macaques which harbour these parasites are now increasingly prevalent in farms and forest fringes close by to the villages. Additionally, the Anopheles mosquitoes belonging to the Lecuosphyrus Group are also present in these areas which makes them ideal for transmitting the non-human primate malaria parasites. With changing landscape and deforestation, non-human primate malaria parasites will affect more humans in the coming years with the elimination of human malaria. Perhaps due to loss of immunity, more humans will be infected as currently being demonstrated in Malaysia. Thus, control measures need to be instituted rapidly to achieve the malaria elimination status by 2030. However, the zoonotic origin of the parasite and the changes of the vectors behaviour to early biting seems to be the stumbling block to the malaria elimination efforts in this region. In this review, we discuss the challenges faced in malaria elimination due to deforestation and the serious threat posed by non-human primate malaria parasites.
Disease surveillance, including entomological surveillance, serves as the basis for all vector control program activities. How to do this in the most ecologically sensible way, so that the most suitable, naturalistic method, of control for that population can be identified, should be a priority. Here we describe a set of techniques, whose only energy requirement is a torch (flashlight), that can be used to collect both endo and exophagic and endo and exophilic malaria vectors. The data obtained over a number of years from an individual sentinel house in a village in Mozambique and from a village in Cambodia using these kinds of collection techniques, is presented.
With the establishment of the International Health Commission in 1913, the Rockefeller Foundation sought governmental partnerships overseas to combat hookworm disease and improve feces disposal practices. In the Madras Presidency in British India, the India Research Fund Association carried out hookworm surveys but failed in its educational efforts to improve feces disposal practices. In British Malaya, the Uncinariasis [Hookworm] Commission to the Orient discovered a syndemic of anemia among Tamil plantation laborers from the Madras Presidency and Chinese laborers from southern China who suffered from hookworm and malarial co-infections. Confronted with the apparent infeasibility of improving feces disposal practices and the obdurate fact of re-infection with hookworm after purgative treatment, the Rockefeller Foundation ended its hookworm initiative in British Malaya without advocating for programmatic intervention against syndemic anemia.
The essay concludes with a reflection on the engagement of historians with the syndemic paradigm.
The concept of environmental management for mosquito control spans a broad range of measures, designed to reduce mosquito populations or reduce the risk of disease transmission. In 1980, the WHO Expert Committee on Vector Biology and Control defined three basic categories of environmental management for vector control:
Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) such as malaria, dengue, and leishmaniasis exert a huge burden of morbidity and mortality worldwide, particularly affecting the poorest of the poor. The principal method by which these diseases are controlled is through vector control, which has a long and distinguished history. Vector control, to a greater extent than drugs or vaccines, has been responsible for shrinking the map of many VBDs. Here, we describe the history of vector control programmes worldwide from the late 1800s to date. Pre 1940, vector control relied on a thorough understanding of vector ecology and epidemiology, and implementation of environmental management tailored to the ecology and behaviour of local vector species. This complex understanding was replaced by a simplified dependency on a handful of insecticide-based tools, particularly for malaria control, without an adequate understanding of entomology and epidemiology and without proper monitoring and evaluation. With the rising threat from insecticide-resistant vectors, global environmental change, and the need to incorporate more vector control interventions to eliminate these diseases, we advocate for continued investment in evidence-based vector control. There is a need to return to vector control approaches based on a thorough knowledge of the determinants of pathogen transmission, which utilise a range of insecticide and non–insecticide-based approaches in a locally tailored manner for more effective and sustainable vector control.
For the control and elimination of malaria, information on the local vector dynamics is essential. This information provides guidance on appropriate and timely deployment of vector control tools and their subsequent success. The data on the dynamics of local mosquito populations can be collected using many different Anopheles sampling methods. Dependent on the objectives, resources, time, and local environment, different traps and methods can be chosen. This chapter describes the sampling of adult populations, focusing on the important preparatory stages and some of the widely used sampling methods. The trapping methods discussed in this chapter are the human landing catch, human-baited net trap, animal landing catch, animal-baited net trap, CDC miniature light trap, Biogents Suna trap, peripheral net collection, pyrethrum collection, exit/entry trap, and resting shelter. For optimal deployment in the field, a step-by-step description of the sampling methods is given.
Public health strategies for malaria in endemic countries aim to prevent transmission of the disease and control the vector. This historical analysis considers the strategies for vector control developed during the first four decades of the twentieth century. In 1925, policies and technological advances were debated internationally for the first time after the outbreak of malaria in Europe which followed World War I. This dialogue had implications for policies in Europe, Russia and the Middle East, and influenced the broader international control agenda. The analysis draws on the advances made before 1930, and includes the effects of mosquito-proofing of houses; the use of larvicides (Paris Green) and larvivorous fish (Gambusia); the role of large-scale engineering works; and the emergence of biological approaches to malaria. The importance of strong government and civil servant support was outlined. Despite best efforts of public health authorities, it became clear that it was notoriously difficult to interrupt transmission in areas of moderately high transmission. The importance of combining a variety of measures to achieve control became clear and proved successful in Palestine between 1923 and 1925, and improved education, economic circumstances and sustained political commitment emerge as key factors in the longer term control of malaria. The analysis shows that the principles for many of the present public health strategies for malaria have nearly all been defined before 1930, apart from large scale usage of pesticides, which came later at the end of the Second World War. No single intervention provided an effective single answer to preventing transmission, but certainly approaches taken that are locally relevant and applied in combination, are relevant to today’s efforts at elimination.
Climate change could lead to a resurgence of malaria in the Caribbean. A major initiative is currently underway to eliminate malaria in Hispaniola. In order to achieve this goal, and prevent a subsequent resurgence of malaria, the anti-malaria intervention policies implemented in Hispaniola will need to account for the impact of climate change. Lessons learned from the policies implemented in Hispaniola over the next 10–20 years could be highly informative to prevent resurgences of malaria in other parts of the Caribbean that are largely free of malaria today. Current malaria funding to control malaria vectors in Hispaniola is being allocated almost entirely to the implementation of long-lasting insecticidal nets and indoor residual spraying. Urban anti-malaria planning is urban planning that includes the suppression of potential larval habitats of malaria vectors as one of its goals. While long-lasting insecticidal nets and indoor residual spraying may be cost-effective in rural areas, it is unlikely that they will always be more cost-effective than urban anti-malaria planning in urban and urbanizing malarious communities. One explanation for the lack of funding to implement urban anti-malaria planning in Hispaniola, as well as other malarious regions, is that policy makers are unaware of the historical evidence of its use to suppress malaria. This chapter presents a case study of the use of urban anti-malaria planning in the town of Cité Duvalier, Haiti in the early 1970s. Using a multi-disciplinary methodology, the cost and impact of urban anti-malaria planning in Cité Duvalier is compared to the cost and impact of indoor residual spraying, mass drug administration and larviciding. This methodology can be used in future work to continue to examine the extensive historical evidence of urban anti-malaria planning interventions. The results of these future studies will enable policy makers to understand when urban anti-malaria planning should be implemented instead of, or in addition to, other anti-malaria interventions.
Temporary seasonal ponds are ubiquitous and numerous but overlooked habitats found throughout the world’s temperate biomes. They include the natural ponds of grassland and woodland such as prairie potholes and pampas mallines but also anthropogenic subsidence ponds and depressions in intensively managed landscapes. These ponds are hotspots for invertebrates which benefit from the absence of fish, resulting in both high species richness, e.g. beetles, and characteristic rare and endemic taxa, e.g. many larger Crustacea. The invertebrates’ ecology is dominated by hydrology and the interplay of dispersal and species’ interactions, primarily predation. Individual species vary greatly in their traits and behaviours, resulting in complex metacommunity dynamics.
The concept of environmental management for mosquito control spans a broad range of measures, designed to suppress mosquito populations and the risk of disease transmission. In 1980, the WHO Expert Committee on Vector Biology and Control defined three basic categories of environmental management for vector control: Environmental modification: long-lasting physical transformation of vector habitats. Environmental manipulation: temporary changes to vector habitat as a result of planned activity to produce conditions unfavourable to vector breeding. Changes to human habitation or behaviour – efforts to reduce human/vector/pathogen contact.
Unprecedented economic growth in Southeast Asia (SEA) has encouraged the expansion of rubber plantations. This land-use transformation is changing the risk of mosquito-borne diseases. Mature plantations provide ideal habitats for the mosquito vectors of malaria, dengue, and chikungunya. Migrant workers may introduce pathogens into plantation areas, most worryingly artemisinin-resistant malaria parasites. The close proximity of rubber plantations to natural forest also increases the threat from zoonoses, where new vector-borne pathogens spill over from wild animals into humans. There is therefore an urgent need to scale up vector control and access to health care for rubber workers. This requires an intersectoral approach with strong collaboration between the health sector, rubber industry, and local communities.
The evolution of control and eradication of malaria prograrnmers in Argentina and
the men who participated in them are analyzed since 159 years ago till 2000 are
analyzed. Four stages that characterize activities as well as the knowledge of every
age are determined: modemization through hygiene, Plan Alvarado, 46 and 47 Plan
and malaria eradication program and activities carried out were described. Data
presented correspond to scientific publications, administrative actions of Government
(laws, decrees, resolutions and administrative files of the program) and personal
cornmunications to authors. This paper reviews local developments later
applied intemationally, the influence of the foreign expertise in development of
local interventions, political decisions that influenced the results and the actions of
men dedicated to research and public health that impacted on the lives of millions
of people, the development of countries and in the improvement of health in communities.
Key words: Malaria, Geography oi health, regional development, sanitation.
The evolution of control and eradication of malaria programmers in
Argentina and the men who participated in them are analyzed since 150
years ago till 2000. Four stages that characterize activities as well as
the knowledge of every age are determined: modernization through hygiene,
Plan Alvarado, 46 and 47 Plan and malaria eradication program
and activities carried out were described. Data presented correspond to
scientific publications, administrative actions of Government (laws, decrees,
resolutions and administrative files of the program) and personal
communications to authors. This paper reviews local developments later
applied internationally, the influence of the foreign expertise in development
of local interventions, political decisions that influenced the results
and the actions of men dedicated to research and public health that impacted
on the lives of millions of people, the development of countries
and in the improvement of health in communities.
Aktivitas pengendalian penyakit malaria dimulai sejak awal abad ke-20. Beberapa peneliti malaria terkemuka memulai karimya di pulau Jawa, dan banyak pakar lain memperoleh keuntungan dari berbagai pengalaman dalam aktivitas pengendalian malaria di Indonesia. Salah satu peristiwa terpenting yang telah terjadi adalah suksesnya pengendalian di sebagian besar daerah di pulau Jawa, yang merupakan salah satu daerah terpadat penduduknya di dunia. Alasan-alasan yang sebenarnya dari keberhasilan dan kegagalan dalam pengendalian malaria di Jawa sering dikemukakan dalam literatur dan jarang mendapat perhatian sepenuhnya. Informasi yang disajikan di sini mengulas tentang faktor-faktor penting ekologi malaria di sepanjang pantai pulau Jawa, dan terutama menyangkut usaha-usaha pengendalian terhadap vektor utama, yaitu nyamuk Anopheles sundaicus. Penggunaan insektisida secara tepat dan bijaksana, perbaikan lingkungan untuk mengurangi habitat perkembangan larva, dan kebiasaan masyarakat yang menyangkut pengaturan/ pengolahan tanah dan tambak mempakan faktor-faktor penting untuk mencapai keberhasilan yang cukup tinggi. Usaha-usaha pemberantasan terhadap An. sundaicus dapat berhasil dengan adanya pemahaman biologi vektor dan ekologi pantai muara yang dipadukan dengan perubahan cara hidup dan pengendalian populasi dalam masyarakat. Meskipun pengendalian vektor sepanjang pantai utara pulau Jawa telah tercapai, akan tetapi ketidakmampuan untuk mengatasi kendala-kendala teknis dan lingkungan telah menghalangi keberhasilan usaha-usaha pengendalian An. sundaicus di sepanjang pantai selatan pulau Jawa.
The second half of the nineteenth century saw the decline of Klang in its historic role of minor port, but this trend was offset in the 1890s by the emergence of the town as the local centre of agricultural development in the surrounding district, due to the improvement of communications and the drainage of previously unusable swampy land. This paper attempts to analyse and describe how these changes occurred.
Natural resources development projects are – and have been for more than 150years – located in remote rural areas in developing countries, where local level data on community health is notoriously scarce. Health impact assessment (HIA) aims at identifying potential negative health consequences of such projects and providing the initial evidence-base for prevention and mitigation of diseases, injuries and risk factors, as well as promotion of positive effects. An important, but under-systematised early phase of the HIA process is scoping. It aims at organising diverse, often fragmentary, evidence and identifying potential project-related health impacts and underlying data gaps. It is also a key element in defining the terms of reference for the entire assessment. We present novel methodological features for the scoping process, emphasising the evaluation of quality of evidence, and illustrate its use in a contemporary HIA of the Simandou iron ore project in the Republic of Guinea. Assessment of data quality is integrated with specific content information via an analytical framework for the systematic identification of health outcomes and determinants of major concern. A subsequent gap analysis is utilised to assess the need for further baseline data collection and to facilitate the specification of a set of potential key performance indicators and strategies to inform the required evidence-base. We argue that scoping also plays a central role in the design of surveillance systems for longitudinal monitoring of health, equity and wellbeing following project implementation.
It would seem that the reason that hill-land malaria in Malaya, and perhaps India, is so difficult to get, rid of is because it is conveyed by mosquitoes of high infectivity and low prevalence, whereas low-land malaria can be easily allayed because it is conveyed by mosquitoes of low infectivity and high prevalence. It is a corollary to this that if malaria in any community can be easily allayed, it is caused by mosquitoes which possess low infectivity.
Indian labour migration to Burma and Malaya in the late nineteenth century was an important dimension of British colonial rule in Southeast Asia and coincided with the region's greater integration into the international economy. Compared to the Chinese, Indians formed an important minority only in these states where they filled a critical need in the urban manufacturing sector (Burma) and the plantation sector (Malaya). Their importance declined after World War Two, both in absolute and comparative terms. There were fewer millionaires and traders among them and their emigration to these territories was largely regulated by law. Moreover, the specific political and economic relationship between the Colonial Office in London and these territories determined recruitment patterns and influenced employment relations and working conditions. In turn, these impacted on the living conditions and mortality suffered by workers and shaped the structure of health services.
The great discovery of Sir Ronald Ross has not led to the suppression of malaria in the Netherlands' East Indian Colonies, where the disease is still all too prevalent. The failure is partly, if not wholly, due to the mistake that has been made in considering the facts revealed by this discovery as an all sufficient basis for practical sanitary measures, whereas they can only serve as a foundation for further research in which special and local conditions are taken into account, with the object of acquiring information which is essential for the success of a sanitary campaign.
Introduction Malaria: The Disease Malaria Control Malaria and Hydrology Discussion Conclusion References
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This article discusses organism use for management of mosquitoes included are considerations of the introduction and/or manipulation of plants, animals, and microorganisms into breeding habitats in which they act to make conditions less suitable for mosquito production. The importance of foresight and careful planning is stressed with regard to developing mosquito management strategies
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