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INT’L. J. AGING AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT, Vol. 71(1) 43-68, 2010
OPTIMISM AND WELL-BEING IN OLDER ADULTS:
THE MEDIATING ROLE OF SOCIAL SUPPORT
AND PERCEIVED CONTROL
SUSAN JEANNE FERGUSON, BA HONS,MCLINPSYCH
ANDREA D. GOODWIN BA, PGDIP PSYCH
Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
ABSTRACT
To investigate how psychosocial resources may improve well-being for older
adults, this study explored the relationship among questionnaire measures
of optimism, social support and perceptions of control in predicting subjective
well-being (measured with the positive affect subscale of the Affect Balance
Scale) (Bradburn, 1969) and psychological well-being (measured with the
purpose in life scale of the Ryff Psychological Well-being scales) (Ryff,
Lee, Essex, & Schmutte, 1994) among older adults. The potential mediating
roles of perceived social support and perception of control were also explored.
Participants were 225 adults aged from 65 to 94 years. Optimism was
found to be a predictor of both subjective and psychological well-being,
and perceived social support was found to mediate the relationship between
optimism and subjective well-being, but not psychological well-being.
In contrast, perception of control was found to mediate the relationship
between optimism and psychological well-being, but not subjective well-
being. Longitudinal research is needed to confirm these pathways.
Understanding and promoting positive aspects of well-being in older adults is
important given the growing number of older adults, particularly in Western
industrialized countries such as Australia where, for example, the over 65s were
43
Ó2010, Baywood Publishing Co., Inc.
doi: 10.2190/AG.71.1.c
http://baywood.com
9% of the population in 1976, yet are projected to be 26% of the population
by 2050 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2008). Most studies in this age group
have focused on depression, stress, and distress, rather than the positive aspects
of well-being. Positive well-being has been conceptualized according to Ryff
and colleagues (Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002; Ryff, Singer, & Love, 2004)
and others (Ryan & Deci, 2001; Waterman, Schwartz & Conti, 2008) as subjective
(hedonic) well-being, which emphasizes happiness and pleasure; and psycho-
logical (eudaimonic) well-being, which focuses on the fulfillment of human
potential. Most recently an entire issue of the Journal of Happiness Studies (2008,
volume 9, issue 1) has been devoted to eudaimonic approaches to well-being,
beginning with Deci and Ryan discussing its distinction from hedonic well-being.
There is also growing empirical evidence for these two aspects of well-being being
related but distinct (e.g., Compton, Smith, Cornish, & Qualls, 1996; Ryff & Keyes,
1995). Keyes et al. (2002), for example, in both exploratory and confirmatory
factor analyses supported a higher order well-being factor with two distinct
oblique factors: psychological and subjective well-being. The highest loading for
subjective well-being (SWB) was positive affect and the highest for psychological
well-being (PWB) was purpose in life. Similarly, McGregor and Little (1998)
found two factors: subjective well-being (which included positive affect) and
psychological well-being (which included purpose in life). Ryff et al. (2004) have
even found different biological correlates for these two aspects of well-being.
Further to this argument for focusing on positive aspects of well-being,
Salsman, Brown, Brechting, and Carlson (2005) have suggested that although
many studies have examined relationships between individual positive psychology
variables and outcomes, there are few studies that have examined the relationships
among multiple positive psychology variables. A greater understanding of the
role of multiple positive psychological influences and outcomes would enable
the development of programs to improve well-being in older adults.
In this study, positive affect is used as a measure of subjective well-being
because it is comparatively modifiable and has a present orientation to life experi-
ences (compared with a past orientation of life satisfaction). While several studies
(e.g., Diener & Suh, 1998) and a meta-analytic review (Pinquart, 2001) found
that positive affect decreases with age, a longitudinal study over 23 years found
that positive affect tends to remain fairly stable with age (Charles, Reynolds,
& Gatz, 2001), but with a slight decrease in the oldest ages. Thus maintenance
of positive affect in older adults is of particular interest. While there is no agreed
definition for psychological well-being, which makes comparison of studies
difficult, discussions of this concept uniformly assert that well-being is more
than just happiness and focuses on the realization of a person’s true potential:
on growth and purpose in life (Ryff, 1989). Ryff and Singer (1998) identified
purpose in life as a proactive and intentional aspect of well-being and a central
component of positive mental health, so this construct will be used as a measure
of psychological well-being in this study. Pinquart’s (2002) meta-analysis of
44 / FERGUSON AND GOODWIN
purpose in life in old age found a small age-associated decline in purpose in life,
as did Ryff and Keyes (1995).
Given the clear distinction between the two types of well-being, it is important
to determine whether the psychosocial variables included in the current study
differentially relate to psychological well-being and subjective well-being. If
differences are found, then this will facilitate the development of more specific
goals for interventions and strategies to improve well-being in older adults.
Predictors of Well-Being
(1) Optimism
Dispositional optimism has been defined as the generalized expectation that
a person will obtain good outcomes in life (Carver & Scheier, 2001). It is
construed as a stable personality characteristic. The positive effects of optimism
have been demonstrated across diverse stressful situations (see Lightsey, 1996;
Scheier & Carver, 1985; & Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994 , for reviews).
Positive effects of optimism could either be mediated through positive coping
strategies, for example, optimists use more problem-focused strategies, infor-
mation seeking and positive reframing (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 2001), or
through psychosocial variables such as perceived social support and perception
of control. It is these potential mediating relationships that are the focus of the
current study.
(2) Social Support
In older adults perceived social support is associated with greater positive
affect (Jones, Rapport, Hanks, Lichtenberg, & Telmet, 2003; Stephens, Druley,
& Zautra, 2002) and life satisfaction (Jones et al., 2003; Newsom & Schultz,
1996). In addition, Kahn, Hessling, and Russell (2003) found that in older adults,
social support predicted 57% of the variance in life satisfaction after controlling
for dispositional negative affectivity (neuroticism). Therefore, the social support
and subjective well-being relationship does not appear to be spurious and applies
to various dimensions of subjective well-being in older adults. The relationship
between social support and psychological well-being has not been explored as
thoroughly. While Pinquart’s (2002) meta-analytic review concluded that high-
quality social relationships promote purpose in life, he did not find any studies
specifically using perceived social network support measures. He argued high-
quality relationships motivate people to do positive things for others, which
then give them a sense of being useful and respected. Thus we would expect
social support to also be associated with purpose in life.
Social support has been found to mediate the relationship between optimism
and distress in breast cancer survivors (Trunzo & Pinto, 2003), in disaster workers
(Dougall, Hyman, Hayward, McFeeley, & Baum, 2001) and in college students
OPTIMISM AND WELL-BEING / 45
(Brissette, Scheier, & Carver, 2002). To our knowledge, the current study will
be the first to explore the potential mediating role of social support between
optimism and well-being in older adults, particularly with positive aspects of
well-being, though there has been suggestive evidence using the construct
of relationship harmony in predicting life satisfaction in Hong Kong Chinese
older adults (Leung, Moneta, & McBride-Chang, 2005).
(3) Perceived Control
The degree to which people believe they can bring about desired outcomes
in their environment and avoid undesirable ones has been conceptualized as
generalized control (Skinner, 1996). Control is related to positive aspects of
subjective well-being, for example, happy people typically feel that they have
personal control over their own lives (see reviews by Cummins & Nistico,
2002, and Myers & Diener, 1995). A sense of control has been repeatedly
identified as an important factor in the well-being of older adults in particular
(see Thompson & Spacapan, 1991 for a review). For example, Kunzmann, Little,
and Smith (2002) found perceived control was related to positive and negative
affect in older adults. Although the degree of control is lower in older ages
(Heckhausen & Schultz, 1995; McConatha, McConatha, Jackson, & Bergen,
1998), the need for control has an increasing contribution to happiness with
increased age (Cummins & Nistico, 2002).
It could be argued that individuals need to have a sense of control in their
lives to enable them to set and pursue goals in a purposeful and meaningful
way, and hence achieve high psychological well-being, though few studies have
explored this. Sinha, Nayyar, and Sinha (2002) found that perception of control
was related to existential meaning and purpose in life in older adults in India;
and social support enhanced perceived control and purpose in life. The related
concept of internal locus of control predicted purpose in life in an African-
American sample aged 18-68 years (Thompson, Kaslow, Short, & Wyckoff,
2002). Additionally, Ahrens and Ryff (2006) found perceived control moder-
ates some of the relationships between role stress in midlife and well-being
measures, though not purpose in life. They do not, however, report tests for
direct relationships between perceived control and purpose in life.
One possibility, based on Taylor and colleagues’ cognitive adaptation theory
(Taylor, Kemeny, Reed, Bower, & Gruenewald, 2000), is that optimism and
perceived control are largely independent personal resources, or cognitive illu-
sions, which have protective psychological effects and hence contribute to well-
being, particularly under conditions of stress (for empirical support see Ratelle,
Vallerand, Chantal, & Provencher, 2004; Taylor et al., 2000; Wanberg & Banas,
2000). Similarly, Cummins and Nistico (2002), argue that cognitive schemata
result in “positive cognitive biases” (e.g., control and optimism), which homeo-
staticly maintain life satisfaction. A second possibility (Cozzarelli, 1993; Maher
46 / FERGUSON AND GOODWIN
& Cummins, 2001) is that these two resources may reflect overlapping con-
structs, but Christensen, Stephens, and Townsend (1998) found mastery (which
overlaps with perceived control) predicted life satisfaction even after controlling
for dispositional optimism.
This study explores an interesting third possibility: that optimism contributes
to control beliefs and strategies. The positive mental set which is part of an
optimistic personality may also contribute to high perceptions of control over
the environment and, through those perceptions, may lead to well-being. To
date, neither research nor theory has explored the potential relationship between
optimism and perception of control: a condition necessary to develop a hypothesis
for a potential mediating relationship. This study explores whether perceptions
of control mediate the relationship between optimism and subjective well-being;
and/or between optimism and psychological well-being.
Aims of the Study
In summary, the research literature has not yet explored the relationship
between psychosocial variables and multiple positive aspects of well-being in
relation to older adults. Although studies have examined relationships between
optimism, well-being and perceived social support and between optimism, well-
being and perception of control, it appears that none have examined these con-
structs together. Additionally, research has not yet explored the relationships
among these psychosocial variables with a view to examining potentially differen-
tial outcomes for subjective well-being and psychological well-being. Therefore,
the first aim of the study was to extend the positive psychology and gerontology
literature by examining the relationships among optimism, social support, per-
ceptions of control and both subjective well-being and psychological well-being.
A further aim was to explore social support and perceptions of control as potential
mediators of the beneficial effects of optimism on well-being in older adults.
As an exploratory step, it was proposed to include both potential mediators in
the analyses for each type of well-being separately to determine if relationships
between variables are robust. These posited models, with both social support and
perception of control partially mediating the effects of optimism on each type
of well-being (purpose in life and positive affect), are shown in Figure 1. Note,
however that while each measure of well-being will be examined separately,
they have been amalgamated into a single diagram here for illustrative purposes
as the proposed paths to well-being in these initially posited models are the same.
Finally, alternate models of the relationships between these variables will also
be explored. Specifically, the possibility that positive affect may lead to higher
perceptions of social support as suggested by Cummins and Nistico (2002),
and Myers and Diener (1995) will be tested. Also, in the same alternate model,
whether positive affect leads to higher perceptions of control will also be tested
based on McAvay, Seeman, and Rodin’s (1996) finding that negative affect led
OPTIMISM AND WELL-BEING / 47
to lower control perceptions. Finally, to see if these effects (if they occur) are
unique to affect or generalize to other aspects of well-being, whether having a
sense of purpose in life may also contribute to higher perceived support and
higher perceived control will also be explored.
METHOD
Participants
A total of 225 participants (145 women; 80 men), aged from 65 to 94 years
(mean of 73 years), were recruited in Sydney from retirement villages, volun-
teer, and other community organizations. Most were married (52.4%), followed
by widowed (24.4%), never married (14.2%), and divorced (8.9%). Sixty-one
percent had someone living with them. Participants’ education ranged from
3 years up (mean 12.95 years). Seventy-six percent were born in Australia;
48 / FERGUSON AND GOODWIN
Figure 1. Posited model with hypothesized mediating roles of
perception of control and social support on the relation between
optimism and both purpose in life (psychological well-being) and
positive affect (subjective well-being).
other birthplaces included United Kingdom or Ireland (12.9%), New Zealand
(2.2%), China (.5%), India (.5%). Whilst only 34% of participants belonged to
a formal volunteer organization, 74% undertook volunteer work of some type.
Eighty percent of participants rated their health as good or better (excellent:
8.9%, very good: 27.6%, good: 43.6%); the remainder rated their health as fair
(16%) or poor (4%). Fifty-seven percent rated their income as adequate; quite
good: 24%, very good: 14%, and insufficient: 12%.
Questionnaires
All measures used are existing published scales. Alpha reliabilities from the
current study are reported for each scale in Table 1. All scales were scored so
that higher scores represented higher levels of that variable.
Two outcome variables were used to measure well-being: psychological well-
being and subjective well-being.
Psychological Well-Being (PWB)
The Purpose in Life sub-scale from Ryff’s (1989) psychological well-being
measure was used as the measure of PWB. It has a mix of positively (e.g., “I
enjoy making plans for the future and working to make them a reality”) and
negatively worded items (e.g., “I used to set goals for myself, but now that seems
a waste of time”). The 14-item version was used, which has an internal con-
sistency alpha of .88 and demonstrated correlations with other positive well-being
measures (Ryff et al., 1994). According to Ryff and Singer (2006) the subscales
show good discriminant validity.
OPTIMISM AND WELL-BEING / 49
Table 1. Ranges, Means, Standard Deviations, and
Reliabilities of Major Variables
Variable N
Possible
range
Obtained
range Mean
Standard
deviation
Scale
alpha
Purpose in Life (OV)
Positive Affect (OV)
Optimism (PV)
Social Support (MV)
Perception of Control (MV)
223
212
226
210
225
6-84
0-5
0-12
1-6
3-15
39-84
0-5
3-12
2-6
5-15
66.56
3.86
8.38
5.19
11.71
10.51
1.19
2.00
.75
2.05
.85
.57
.76
.92
.71
OV = Outcome variable, PV = Predictor variable, MV = Mediator variable.
Note: Scales were scored so that higher means represent high Purpose in Life
(psychological well-being), Positive Affect (subjective well-being), Optimism, Social Support
and Perception of Control.
Subjective Well-Being (SWB)
The Affect Balance Scales (ABS) (Bradburn, 1969) five-item subscale of
Positive Affect was used as the measure of subjective well-being. Respondents
indicated yes or no about feelings during the “past few weeks.” An example item
is: “did you ever feel particularly excited and interested in something?” In older
adults reliabilities ranging from .65 to .70 have been found (Himmelfarb &
Murrell, 1983). Bradburn (1969) provided evidence of correlations with other
well-being measures and social participation.
Dispositional Optimism
The predictor variable, dispositional optimism, was measured using the Life
Orientation Test – Revised (LOT-R) (Scheier et al., 1994). The LOT-R consists
of 10 items (four of which are fillers). Three items reflect an optimistic dispo-
sition, for example: “In uncertain times I usually expect the best.” Only the
optimistic item total was used in this study, as previous studies have indicated
optimism and pessimism load on separate factors (e.g., Chang, Maydeu-Olivares,
& D’Zurilla, 1997).
Social Support
The Social Support Questionnaire – Short Form (SSQ-R) (Sarason, Sarason,
Shearin, & Pierce, 1987) support satisfaction subscale was used to measure
social support. Participants were asked to state how many people they could count
on in a given situation and how satisfied they were with the level of support they
received. For the latter, participants indicated on a scale from 1 to 6 whether they
were very dissatisfied (1) or very satisfied (6) about the support they received
(for example, “Whom can you really count on to be dependable when you need
help?”). The participant’s support satisfaction score (SSQ-SR) was the sum of
his or her satisfaction responses divided by the number of items (6). Sarason et al.
(1987) found internal consistency alphas of between .90 and .93 for the satis-
faction scale, and demonstrated good scale validity (through relationships with
other measures of support and with loneliness, depression and anxiety).
Perceived Control
A scale with three questions was used to measure perceived control (McConatha
et al., 1998), with each question rated on a 5-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree)
to 5 (strongly agree). Items were: (1) “I often feel that most situations are out
of my control”; (2) “Usually I feel that I have control over what is going on
in my life” and (3) “Life is complicated; a person like me can’t understand
what is going on.” The scale internal-consistency alpha was .60 in McConatha
and colleagues’ (1998) study, and .71 in the current study. These researchers
also demonstrated the control scale’s validity through its relationship to life
50 / FERGUSON AND GOODWIN
satisfaction, health and fitness. A later study (McConatha & Huber, 1999) also
showed discriminant validity for the perceived control scale showing different age
changes compared to those found with a measure of control over emotions.
Procedure
After receiving institutional ethics approval, approval from the community
and volunteer organizations and retirement villages was obtained. Then several
strategies were used to contact potential participants, distribute and collect ques-
tionnaires. These included: (i) leaving bulk questionnaires at drop-off points with
a secure collection box and collecting completed questionnaires at a later date; and
(ii) researchers attending meetings of members/residents to explain the purpose of
the study and answer questions: interested members could collect a questionnaire
from the researcher, with the researcher who returned to the next scheduled
meeting to collect completed questionnaires. Stamped addressed envelopes were
also given to members/residents to return completed questionnaires to the project
supervisor by mail if they preferred. Confidentiality was assured, as was the
voluntary nature of participation. Participants had to be 65 years of age or more.
The questionnaire took approximately 45 minutes to complete.
RESULTS
Descriptive statistics and correlations were first obtained using SPSS 16.
Path analyses were then carried out with Amos 7 (Arbuckle, 2006) in order to test
a series of potentially mediating relationships, using the maximum-likelihood
method. The significance of indirect effects was tested using bootstrapped
standard errors in Amos and in Mplus 5 (Muthen, & Muthen, 1998-2007).
Initial mediations were tested with two types of well-being as outcome variables
(psychological well-being and subjective well-being), one predictor variable
(optimism) and two potentially mediating variables (social support and perception
of control). For all tests the type I error rate was set at a= .05.
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics for the two outcome variables, psychological well-being
(Purpose in Life) and subjective well-being (Positive Affect); the predictor
variable, optimism; and the two mediator variables, social support and perception
of control are presented in Table 1. Participants reported high scores for each
variable. For example, for psychological well-being with a possible range of
6-84, the obtained range was 39-84 with a mean score of 66.56 (SD = 10.51).
Correlational Analyses
Correlations among the two measures of well-being, optimism, social support
and perception of control are presented in Table 2. Optimism (OPT) showed a
OPTIMISM AND WELL-BEING / 51
significant moderately positive association with Purpose in Life (PIL), Positive
Affect (PA) and the two mediator variables—social support (SS) and perception
of control (POC). Age was not correlated significantly with any of the variables,
so it was not considered in further analyses.
Mediational Analyses
The following four conditions must be met to establish mediation (Baron &
Kenny, 1986); variables in the current study are included in brackets. Step 1: the
predictor variable (optimism) is related to the outcome variable (purpose in life
and positive affect). Step 2: the predictor variable (optimism) is related to the
potential mediator (social support and perception of control). Step 3: the mediator
(social support and perception of control) is related to the outcome variable
(purpose in life and positive affect), and this relation remains once the predictor
variable (optimism) is included in the model. Step 4: the relation between the
predictor variable and the outcome variable significantly decreases once the
mediator is included in the model.
All analyses were carried out with cases with missing data on any of the key
variables removed, leaving a sample size of 197 for model testing. Comparisons
of those included in the final models with those excluded due to missing data
found no differences between the groups on age, perceived health, marital status
or volunteering. There was, however a trend for slightly more females than
males to be excluded from the model testing due to missing data c2(224) = 3.792,
p= .067. There was also a borderline difference between groups on education
t(217) = 1.959, p= .051, with those excluded having slightly fewer years of
education (M= 11.58, SD = 3.711) than those included in model testing
(M= 13.15, SD = 3.847). Those excluded were also significantly slightly more
likely to have insufficient income c2(224) = 8.235, p= .040. Thus there is a
52 / FERGUSON AND GOODWIN
Table 2. Correlations among Variables
Variable 12345
1 Purpose in Life (OV)
2 Positive Affect (OV)
3 Optimism (PV)
4 Social Support (MV)
5 Perception of Control (MV)
—
.39**
.46**
.30**
.58**
—
.44**
.37**
.29**
—
.33**
.45**
—
.28** —
OV = Outcome variable, PV = Predictor variable, MV = Mediator variable.
**p< .01
slightly disproportionate loss of data from those with lower socioeconomic status,
but not from those of greater age or poorer health, which might have affected
the models’ wellbeing outcomes.
The posited models above (separately for PIL and PA) were fitted first.
Tests of alternate models were then carried out. The pvalues for the path
coefficients for all models fitted were checked against bootstrapped estimates
and found to be consistent; therefore any slight variations from normality in
distributions did not make a difference to the results. The majority of remain-
ing direct paths are significant in all models, the exceptions are marked “ns” in
Figures 2 and 3.
As suggested by Kline (2005), the model c2was used as a “badness-of-fit
index, as the higher its value, the worse the model’s correspondence to the data”
(p. 135). Kline also recommends the use of the Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation (RMSEA; Browne, & Cudeck, 1993), as a further test of model
fit because it is does not assume the researcher’s model is perfect. Higher
values again indicate worse model fit (RMSEA of >.1 suggests poor fit). Thirdly,
Kline (2005) recommends the use of the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) (Bentler,
1990), and suggests that values >.9 may indicate good fit of the researcher’s
model. Finally, the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) is also reported for each model
as it is a fit index relatively unaffected by sample size (Marsh, Balla, &
McDonald, 1988), values closer to 1 indicating better model fit. Each of these
fit indices is reported for all models in Figures 2 and 3.
In all models with acceptable fit, bootstrapping was then used to test the
significance of indirect paths (and therefore if mediation was occurring), that
is, testing step 4 in Baron and Kenny’s (1986) procedure. When models con-
tained only one indirect path to any variable from the same origin, p-values
were provided by AMOS. When more than one indirect path was found to any
terminating variable from the same originating variable in a model, the specific
indirect paths were checked for significance with the Mplus program (Muthen
& Muthen, 1998-2007), which also bootstraps to provide tests of significance.
Results of these AMOS, and where appropriate, Mplus bootstrap analyses of
indirect effects are presented in Figures 2 and 3 (for PIL and PA respectively),
in the form of standardised coefficients for the indirect paths and ztests of
significance with resulting pvalues of significance.
Optimism was retained in all models as an exogenous variable, as it is measured
in this study as a stable personality trait. All models for Purpose in Life are
presented in Figure 2, and all models for Positive Affect are presented in Figure 3.
Testing Models of Purpose in Life
Looking first at the models for purpose in life, Figure 2 shows the estimates
for model fit. The posited model (Model 1) was not a good fit and there was
no significant path from SS to PIL; this path was therefore dropped from all
OPTIMISM AND WELL-BEING / 53
54 / FERGUSON AND GOODWIN
Figure 2. Models of Purpose in Life.
Each model shows standardized path coefficients for optimism, perception
of control, social support, and purpose in life (psychological well-being).
All path coefficients in each model are significant except those labeled ns.
Arrows showing paths that differ between models are highlighted.
Under each model are the Model Fit Indices, and where there is acceptable
model fit, then standardized coefficients are presented for each indirect path.
Note: OPT = Optimism, SS = Social Support, POC = Perceptions of Control,
PIL = Purpose in Life.
OPTIMISM AND WELL-BEING / 55
Figure 3. Models for Positive Affect.
Each model shows standardized path coefficients for optimism, perception
of control, social support, and positive affect (subjective well-being).
All path coefficients in each model are significant except those labeled ns.
Arrows showing paths that differ between models are highlighted.
Under each model are the Model Fit Indices, and where there is acceptable
model fit, then standardized coefficients are presented for each indirect path.
Note: OPT = Optimism, SS = Social Support, POC = Perceptions of Control,
PIL = Purpose in Life.
subsequent model tests. A replacement path was required to proceed with the
path analysis. The model clearly requires a link between SS and POC, as these
two variables are significantly correlated. Given both directions of this new
path were plausible; models were constructed separately for each. Hence
models 2 and 3, were added to those originally proposed (see Figure 2). Next,
models were constructed to test the possibility, mentioned in the introduction,
that well-being may contribute to perceptions of control, rather than the other
way around. The unexpected need for the additional pathway between SS and
POC (see above) necessitated two models here as well. Thus Models 4 and 5
were also constructed and tested. The paths that vary between models are shown
in bold in Figure 2.
Model 4 does not have acceptable fit so it was rejected. Models 2, 3, and 5
showed equivalent acceptable fit. Models 2 and 3 both have the best statistical
fit for the data and best predictive value for PIL; they differ only in the direction
of the path between SS and POC. Following rejection of Models 1 and 4,
in the remaining mediational models tested, Steps 1 to 3 requirements for
mediation (as outlined above) were met for all remaining paths as illustrated
in Figure 2, with all required direct path coefficients reaching statistical sig-
nificance. Further testing within these models for mediation effects (Step 4)
was then done by examining specific indirect effects (see Figure 2).
In Model 2 for PIL, the indirect path from OPT to POC to PIL is highly
significant; but the path from OPT via both SS and POC to PIL is also significant,
but at a lower level. Thus, the significant mediation in Model 2 is predomi-
nantly the path originally posited, where POC partially mediates the relationship
between OPT and PIL, but with a small contribution to PIL also coming from
the second indirect path from OPT through first SS and then POC. In Model 3
for PIL, there are two indirect paths, one from OPT to POC to PIL, as originally
posited, this was again highly significant; and the second indirect path was
from OPT to POC to SS, this was also significant. Model 5 had no indirect paths
to PIL, but two indirect paths to SS and one to POC. The first specific indirect
path was from PIL to POC to SS and was significant; the second indirect path
was from OPT to POC to SS and was also significant. The third indirect path
in Model 5 is from OPT to PIL to POC and was highly significant.
In summary, for purpose in life, Models 2 and 3 explain the most variance
in PIL (38%, compared to 21% for Model 5), and both show the simple
partial mediation of the OPT to PIL relationship via POC, and they differ
only in the proposed direction of the relationship between SS and POC.
Model 3 (Figure 3) was chosen as the final model for purpose in life as it is
the most parsimonious (with only one indirect path to PIL), yet still explains
38% of the variance in PIL; it also has good model fit, and all direct and
indirect paths are significant. This final model has a highly significant
indirect path showing partial mediation of the effects of OPT on PIL by POC, as
originally posited.
56 / FERGUSON AND GOODWIN
Testing Models of Positive Affect
Now turning to models for positive affect, Figure 3 shows the estimates for
model fit. Here also, as with the model of PIL, the posited model (Model 1) was
not a good fit Additionally, there was no significant path from POC to PA,
necessitating the removal of this path from subsequent models. As with the PIL
models, in predicting PA the model clearly does require a link between SS
and POC. Models 2 and 3 for PA were thus constructed in the same manner as
for PIL and can be seen in Figure 3. Next models were constructed to test the
possibility mentioned in the introduction that positive affect may contribute
to social support, rather than the other way around. Again the addition of the
two alternate directions of the pathway between SS and POC necessitated 2
models for this, Models 4 and 5. All models for PA are shown in Figure 3,
again with the paths that vary between models bolded.
Model 5 for PA does have acceptable statistical fit (see Figure 3). However,
Models 2, 3, and 4 all have identical excellent fit indices. In summary, for the
prediction of Positive Affect, Models 2, 3, 4, and 5 all had acceptable fit. Thus
mediation effects were tested for each of these models (in the same manner
as for the PIL models). Following the rejection of Model 1 (the posited model),
in the remaining mediational models tested, Steps 1 to 3 requirements for media-
tion (as outlined above) were met for all remaining direct paths as illustrated
in Figure 3, with all required path coefficients reaching statistical significance.
As with the models of PIL above, further testing within these PA models for
mediation effects (Step 4) was then done by examining specific indirect effects
(see Figure 3).
Model 2 has two indirect paths, one from OPT to SS to PA, which was highly
significant. Thus the relationship between OPT and PA was partially mediated
by social support as originally posited. The second indirect path from OPT to SS
to POC was also significant, but only at the p< .05 level. Model 3 had two
indirect paths to PA, and one to SS. The first specific indirect path is from OPT
to SS to PA and it was significant here, as it was in Model 2. Indirect path 2 in
Model 3, from OPT to POC to SS to PA was not significant. The third indirect
path from OPT to POC to SS was significant. Due to the non-significant indirect
path Model 3 was rejected. Model 4 has three indirect paths, path 1 is from PA
to SS to POC, and it was significant but only at the .05 level. Indirect path 2 was
from OPT to SS to POC and it was highly significant. The third indirect path
for Model 4 was from OPT to PA to SS to POC and this was also significant,
but only at the .05 level. Finally, Model 5 has two indirect paths, both from OPT
to SS. The first path is from OPT to POC to SS, this was not significant; the second
path was from OPT to PA to SS and it was significant. Given the presence of a
non-significant indirect path, Model 5 was rejected.
While there is some evidence for a role of PA in affecting SS rather than the
other way around (Model 4), Models 2 and 3 explain the most variance in positive
OPTIMISM AND WELL-BEING / 57
affect (24% compared to 19%). Model 3 contains one indirect path that is, in
fact, not significant (see Figure 3), so it was rejected. Model 2 was thus chosen
as the final model for positive affect, as it seems to be the best explanation for
the data, given the good model fit, significance of all direct and indirect paths,
and that the aim was to predict positive affect. This final model has a highly
significant indirect path from OPT to SS to PA. Thus the relationship between
OPT and PA was partially mediated by SS as originally posited.
DISCUSSION
Optimism was a strong predictor of both types of well-being. Its effects
were, however, predominantly mediated by different variables, depending on the
outcome being tested. When multiple mediators were entered into the same model,
social support, but not perceived control, mediated the effects of optimism on
positive affect, our measure of subjective well-being; however, while perceived
control mediated optimism in predicting purpose in life, our measure of psycho-
logical well-being, social support was not a significant mediator for psychological
well-being. Thus, this study provides conditional evidence for the mediating
role of social support and perception of control in the relation between optimism
and well-being because the significance of the mediating role is conditional
upon the type of well-being measured: subjective well-being or psychological
well-being. Findings regarding different mediators for subjective well-being and
psychological well-being, while not supporting the original posited models shown
in Figure 1, do provide support for previous findings that hedonic (subjective)
and eudaimonic (psychological) views of well-being represent two separate
dimensions and theoretical positions (Keyes et al., 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2001;
Ryff et al., 2004; van Dierendonck, 2004) and have different, though over-
lapping predictors.
Finding for Subjective Well-Being
(Measured as Positive Affect)
While not supporting the full posited model, this study did find evidence for
the posited mediating role of social support between optimism and subjective
well-being in the final model (Model 2) for Positive Affect. Although research
had not yet explored these relationships with older adults, this result is consistent
with findings of other studies in a range of populations (Brissette et al., 2002,
Trunzo & Pinto, 2003). Further, the relationship between perceived social support
and subjective well-being implicit in the mediation results is consistent with
the findings of studies with older adults in a range of settings (Jones et al., 2003;
Newsom & Schultz, 1996; Stephens et al., 2002).
Note that interestingly, this final model also includes two additional paths.
The first was from optimism to perceptions of control consistent with predictions
that positive views of the future would contribute to a sense of being able to
58 / FERGUSON AND GOODWIN
control aspects of one’s life. The second additional path supported in the final
model is from social support to perceptions of control. This finding is consistent
with Bandura’s (1997) conceptualization in which having support from others
maintains perceptions of domain specific efficacy, and is consistent with research
findings of Sinha et al. (2002), Krause (2007), and McAvay et al. (1996). The
results of the present study suggest that this effect of social support on efficacy
generalizes to broader perceptions of control.
What factors underlie the optimism to perceived social support to subjective
well-being mediational pathway demonstrated in the final model (Model 2) for
positive affect? People with a more optimistic disposition may be more attractive
to others as they have a positive outlook. Thus they may attract more people,
develop more friendships and maintain closer relationships with their family,
whereas people may feel uncomfortable and perhaps overwhelmed in the com-
pany of pessimistic people and avoid being with them (Brissette et al., 2002;
Dougall et al., 2001). By attracting more people, optimists may increase the
size of their support network, which could potentially increase the number of
people who are available and willing to help them (Dougall et al., 2001; Trunzo
& Pinto, 2003), and thus they may be more likely to express satisfaction with
their level of social support. Older adults who are more optimistic therefore tend
to have greater perceived social support (Brissette et al., 2002; Dougall et al.,
2001). Through perceiving friends and family as supportive, it is more likely
that optimistic older adults, in contrast to pessimistic older adults, will feel
more satisfied with their lives and experience more positive affect, as found
in the current study, because as previous research has shown (Jones et al.,
2003; Stephens et al., 2002), higher social support is associated with higher
positive affect.
Finding for Psychological Well-Being
(Measured as Purpose in Life)
This study also, while not supporting the posited model for purpose in life,
did find evidence for a mediating role of perception of control between optimism
and psychological well-being as seen in Models 2 and 3 for Purpose in Life.
Although previous studies have not explicitly examined multiple mediators,
our results are consistent with findings of associations between optimism and
well-being (e.g., Chang et al., 1997) in younger samples, and perception of control
and well-being (e.g., Lu, Shih, Lin, & Ju, 1997; Sinha et al., 2002) in various
age groups, including between control and purpose in life specifically (Jackson
& Coursey, 1988).
Note Model 3 was chosen as the Final model for PIL as it is the most
parsimonious, yet it still also includes a second indirect path, in this case from
optimism to perception of control and then to social support. Thus while social
support is not predicting purpose in life, optimism is having multiple impacts on
OPTIMISM AND WELL-BEING / 59
older individuals in this sample, being associated both directly and indirectly
with not just purpose in life but also perceptions of control and social support
(which is also true in Model 2). This path from perception of control to social
support (as seen in Models 3 and 5 for both forms of well-being) is consistent
with Thompson et al. (2002) who suggested that self-efficacy beliefs are pre-
dictive of social support, however, their study was cross-sectional & did not
test alternative models. Additionally, there are as yet no longitudinal studies
supporting this direction of the relationship between support and control, whereas
several studies have found the reverse, that is, social support leading to
measures of efficacy or role specific control (Krause, 2007; McAvay et al., 1996;
Sinha et al., 2002). This contradiction implicit in previous findings regarding
the direction of this effect informed our approach of testing both directions of
effect in the present study. While statistically significant in models of both types
of well-being, the relationship is small (.15 to .17), however, and the direction
remains inconclusive.
What factors underlie the optimism to perception of control to psychological
well-being mediational pathway found in both Models 2 and 3 for purpose in
life? It could also be argued that the present study’s findings of effects for
optimism and perceived control on well-being partially support Taylor et al.’s
(2000) cognitive adaptation theory and research on positive illusions which
posit that both optimism and perception of control act as protective resources
to promote well-being and contribute to an individual’s ability to find meaning
from adverse experiences (Taylor et al., 2000). Meaning is a key aspect of
psychological well-being and is part of the purpose in life construct, so this model
would predict purpose in life from optimism and control. This study’s findings
could also be argued to support an expansion of Cummins and Nistico’s (2002)
homeostatic model of life satisfaction to include the prediction of other positive
aspects of subjective well-being (such as positive affect).
There are, however, several problems with interpreting the current results as
supportive of these theories. First, the lack of support for control acting either
directly or as a mediator in predicting positive affect goes against this argument.
Secondly, neither of these theoretical models can account for the mediating
pathways found in the present study, as both consider optimism and control
perceptions separately, assuming that each makes an independent contribution
to well-being. Now, while it is possible that both control and optimism act as
positive illusions and bias the processing of incoming information, as these
theories both suggest, they would need to be modified to take into account the
path from dispositional optimism to perceived control to well-being found in
the current study. Thirdly, neither theory can explain the role of social support
in well-being, though perhaps they could be extended to argue that perceptions
of social support may also be a product of positively biased interpretations of
incoming information. Fourthly, neither theory allows for the possibility of poten-
tial reversing of their proposed causal direction, or for bidirectional influences.
60 / FERGUSON AND GOODWIN
Finally, neither theory takes into account the differences between subjective and
psychological well-being and thus cannot account for the discrepant findings
between these two outcomes.
Tentatively one could argue instead that optimistic older adults, rather than
just having control perceptions distorted through an interpretative positivity bias,
may adopt active coping strategies to achieve their goals or to reengage with
alternative goals, which in turn would bolster, develop and enhance their sense
of personal control. They may subsequently reevaluate their goals and priorities,
which would enable them to find a sense of meaning from their experiences and
a sense of purpose for the future. This process is similar to Baltes’ Selective
Optimization with Compensation theory (Baltes & Baltes, 1990) and could
perhaps be further explored in that context. Each aspect of this proposed pathway
needs to be explored and validated in future research, though there is evidence
for the first step, that is, optimistic adults do tend to use more active, problem-
focused coping strategies (Scheier et al., 2001); and the current study provides
evidence that perceived control is linked to a sense of purpose in life, though
the processes by which this occurs remain to be explored.
Tests of Alternate Direction of Effects
(from Well-Being to Social Support and/or Control)
Several of the models statistically supported in the current study (Model 5
for purpose in life and Models 4 and 5 for positive affect) suggest that the causal
direction may be the reverse of what was predicted. Well-being, particularly
positive affect, may contribute to perceptions of social support; or in the case of
purpose in life, to perceptions of control over outcomes. Given the cross-sectional
nature of these findings, what evidence is there from previous longitudinal studies
to suggest that this or the originally posited causal direction is more plausible?
While Myers and Diener (1995) suggested the causal direction from traits to
subjective well-being may be reversed, they provided no evidence for this.
Diener, Oishi, and Lucas (2003) again make this claim, but the only evidence they
cited are Cunningham (1988) and Isen (1987) that inducing positive moods
leads to greater sociability, which they equate with extraversion. While this could
potentially contribute to greater perceptions of social support, the link is rather
tenuous at this stage. Indeed, longitudinal studies such as Russell and Cutrona
(1991) found in older adults that social support predicted levels of depression
12 months later. Similarly, Stephens and colleagues (2002) linked prior levels
of social support to later improvements in knee pain and positive affect in
osteoarthritis patients. Results of longitudinal studies also suggest that percep-
tions of control (mastery) precede well-being (Martire, Stephens, & Franks, 1997;
Townsend, Noelker, Deimling, & Bass, 1989). Thus, despite quite good statistical
model fit for some models with pathways from well-being to other variables
(Models 5 for both and Model 4 for positive affect only), these models are less
OPTIMISM AND WELL-BEING / 61
plausible than the remaining models as prior evidence does not support them.
Additional longitudinal studies need to be conducted to confirm this conclusion.
Overall Findings
Overall, this study provides consistent evidence of, and further support for,
the beneficial effects of optimism on both types of well-being in older adults,
both directly and when mediated through perceived social support or perception
of control. For example, the direct effect of optimism on purpose in life accounts
for 21% of the variance (in Models 4 and 5 where there is no indirect path to
optimism); and the direct effect of optimism on positive affect accounts for
19% (in corresponding models). When indirect paths are included, the variance
explained by optimism is raised to 38% for purpose in life, and to 24%
for positive affect. Optimism, then, appears to be quite a strong contributor
to well-being in older adults, and to have its effect at least partially through
its influence on positive perceptions (e.g., of the provision of social support)
and expectations (e.g., of control over outcomes). This explanation is supported
by Leung et al.’s (2005) finding that the effects of optimism on life satisfaction
(a measure of subjective well-being) were mediated by expectations (of rela-
tionship harmony) and perceptions (of financial status) in Chinese older adults
in Hong Kong.
Limitations and Future Research
Some limitations of this study should be noted. First, the research is limited
by the exclusive use of self-report measures, thus the potential constraints of
shared method variance is potentially problematic. Further studies using multiple
informants would enhance the validity of these findings.
The use of single aspects of both subjective well-being and psychological
well-being may have limited the extent to which these concepts were examined
and the generalizability of the conclusions. A positive affect scale with greater
reliability such as the Positive and Negative Affect Scales (PANAS) (Watson,
Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) could be used in future research. Also, additional dimen-
sions of psychological well-being (e.g., personal growth) and of subjective
well-being (e.g., negative affect or life satisfaction) could be included to see if
the same mediational relations hold for each type of well-being. Also, another
measure of perceptions of control could be used to clarify whether the current
findings have been influenced by two of the three items used being negatively
worded. Future research could include a wider range of variables and their
relations with each other and with the two types of well-being. In particular,
self-esteem could be included, as it is mentioned in both theoretical models
discussed previously (Cummins & Nistico, 2002; Taylor et al., 2000). Optimism
may be mediated through self-esteem for some aspects of well-being. Revisions to
62 / FERGUSON AND GOODWIN
these models could be proposed following additional confirmation of the media-
tional pathways found in the current study.
A further limitation to the generalizability of the findings is that the sample
was not representative of all older adults, as the majority of participants were
community dwelling, engaged in volunteer activities, rated their health as good
(or better) and were highly educated for their age group. Future research could
explore the generalizability of these findings, not only to frail older adults,
but also to older adults who are not involved in volunteer work and those from
non-Western cultures.
While the model choice following rejection of the original models was not
haphazard, each model being based on either past empirical relations or theoretical
propositions, there is still a danger that fitting the models could capitalize on the
peculiarities of this sample rather than being generalizable. Thus the final models
need to be confirmed in an independent sample.
As the study was cross-sectional, there is more than one way to interpret
the data, since the direction of the relation is not known. Longitudinal studies
that examine changes in relationships among variables over time would help to
define more clearly issues of direction. There was minimal guidance from theory
regarding the relationships among the variables. Further exploration of theoretical
bases for relationships, such as social cognition models would be useful in
future research.
Finally, given the plethora of terms used, researchers need to define clearly
the type of social support (Barrera, 1986; Thoits, 1995) and the type of control
(Haidt & Rodin, 1999; Skinner, 1996; Thompson & Spacapan, 1991) they include
in their future studies to ensure that the correct construct is being examined.
CONCLUSION
The results of this study indicate that optimism is a powerful predictor of
well-being in older adults, and that both perceived social support and perception
of control are powerful predictors of well-being, but importantly that they dif-
ferentially relate to psychological well-being and subjective well-being. One
implication is that it is important to consider different psychosocial variables
and different processes in the context of, the specific type of “well-being.”
Optimism seems to work in part by increasing older adults’ perceptions of support
from friends and family and this then makes them happy; but to feel a sense
of purpose and meaning in life optimism works in part through fostering a sense
that they have some control over their environment. This may be because of the
different focus of the resource, with social support as a “social” resource and
optimism and perception of control as “personal” resources, but further research
is required to explore these relations in domain-specific contexts, for example,
when older adults relocate to a retirement village or a nursing home, so that
appropriate resources may be provided to maintain and enhance levels of both
OPTIMISM AND WELL-BEING / 63
subjective and psychological well-being. This distinction between types of well-
being and their predictors is important for research and also when developing
policies and designing and implementing interventions aimed at promoting
enhanced quality of life for older adults.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Dr. Alan Taylor for his analysis of the data and for his
invaluable statistical advice. We also thank Doone Richmond and Tanya Gebbie
for their involvement in the selection of measures and collection of data and
Dr. Catherine McMahon, Associate Professor Kay Bussey, Dr. John Cunningham,
and the anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on drafts of this article.
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Direct reprint requests to:
Susan J. Ferguson
Department of Psychology
Macquarie University
Sydney, NSW, Australia, 2019
e-mail: Sue.Ferguson@mq.edu.au
68 / FERGUSON AND GOODWIN
