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Self-Determination Theory: A Case Study of Evidence-Based Coaching
Abstract
The coach is central to the development of expertise in sport (Bloom, 1985) and is subsequently key to facilitating adaptive forms of motivation to enhance the quality of sport performance (Mallett & Hanrahan, 2004). In designing optimal training environments that are sensitive to the underlying motives of athletes, the coach requires an in-depth understanding of motivation. This paper reports on the application of self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000) to coaching elite athletes. Specifically, the application of SDT to designing an autonomy-supportive motivational climate is outlined, which was used in preparing Australia's two men's relay teams for the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens.
... The coach, whilst giving some freedom to the athletes, should seek to provide some potential outcomes and points of consideration to guide athlete thinking. For example, Mallett (2005) first chose who would compete in relay teams, but then allowed his relay athletes to choose the order. However, he also gave them the pros and cons of the two possible running orders, allowing them some agency within a set of rules. ...
... This could be done at the start of the session, allowing space for athlete input and suggestion. Both the choices provided and the informal meeting structure is something that has been explored at elite levels of sport, with some reported benefits to both coach and athlete (Mallett, 2005). ...
... The tone of one's voice can also be deemed to convey control or autonomy-support (Weinstein et al., 2018). Athlete self-determination can be enhanced by the use of constructive or informational feedback (Mallett, 2005). Carpentier and Mageau (2013) listed the following eight characteristics as important when providing autonomy-supportive feedback: it should be empathic; paired with choices of solutions; based on clear and attainable objectives that are known to the athletes; avoid person-related statements; be paired with tips; prompt; private; and delivered in a considerate tone of voice. ...
IBO World Schools are guided in their day-to-day practices by a robust set of standards and practices, and approaches to teaching and learning. Sports programmes in the same domain would benefit from a similar set of guiding principles, underpinned by the IBO vision of education and contemporary research into sports coaching. Encouraging students to learn how to learn and become lifelong learners are broad goals within an IB program. Inspiring higher levels of intrinsic motivation in students is key in achieving these goals, as explicitly stated in the IBO literature. In attempting to align practices in the sports programme with those in the school, adopting approaches to improve student-athlete motivation, well-being, increased participation and improved performance is the overriding goal of this coaching framework. Drawing on self-determination theory and basic psychological needs theory, I will pull together research and best practice that will help to promote needs-supportive behaviours in coaches working in this domain. Theories and empirical evidence supporting autonomous, competence and relatedness-supportive behaviours will be used to build the framework. In keeping with the IBO approaches to teaching and learning, I also propose using a constraints-led approach to skill acquisition, underpinned by nonlinear pedagogy, as a way of providing structure (important for competence support) and complementing the approaches to education in this domain. The framework is a first step in improving and standardising coaching practices in line with best practice in this context.
... Leading a team of athletes entails unique complexities compared to other business and organizational contexts, and there has been an increased interest in research about the effectiveness of coaching leadership styles in recent years (Castillo and Espinosa, 2014;Jowett, 2017). A successful sports team will need coaches to properly guide their athletes to maintain healthy relationships with fellow team members while also fostering a high level of performance (Mallett, 2005). Numerous studies have found that coaches' leadership behaviors can play a crucial role in athletes' psychological development and satisfaction (Weiss and Friedrichs, 1986), training efficiency and game outcomes (Becker and Wrisberg, 2008), and team cohesion (Jowett and Chaundy, 2004;Vincer and Loughead, 2010). ...
... They discovered that, despite the limitations of the authoritarian approach, it set clear goals for achievement to lessen students' loss of concentration during the learning process, which in turn led to a more efficient improvement in performance. However, due to the lack of encouragement associated with autocratic coaching behavior, autocratic leaders often impede athlete's motivation from the psychological level, which may negatively impact the coachathlete relationship (Mallett, 2005). Autocratic coaching style may also have a negative impact on athletes' intrinsic motivation and feelings of relatedness (Hollembeak and Amorose, 2005). ...
... Motivation has been extensively studied as a crucial factor influencing athletic success (Vallerand, 2007). Understanding and promoting athlete motivation has been demonstrated to have a significant influence on athletes' performance (Mallett, 2005), cognition (Ryan and Deci, 2000), and behaviors . Due to the importance of motivation in sports performance, much research has investigated the ways in which coaches' behaviors, such as decision-making style, reward distribution, and feedback methods, are essential factors affecting athletes' motivation (Mageau and Vallerand, 2003). ...
Introduction
The current study investigated the impacts of autocratic and democratic leadership styles on the coach-athlete relationship, athletes’ motivations, and athlete satisfaction.
Methods
Survey data were collected from 298 student-athletes (male = 157; 52.7%, female = 141; 47.3%) from 20 different Chinese collegiate sports. The Structural Equation Model was used to test the hypothesized model.
Results
The results indicated democratic leadership had a direct positive influence on the coach-athlete relationship, while autocratic leadership had no direct effect. Both leadership styles did not influence autonomous motivation. The coach-athlete relationship, meanwhile, had a full mediation effect between democratic leadership and athletes’ motivation and satisfaction. In addition, autonomous motivation had a partial mediation effect between the coach-athlete relationship and athlete satisfaction.
Discussion
Ultimately, the findings of the current study underscore the need for coaches and administrators to understand the impact of different leadership styles and highlight the importance of democratic leadership in improving athletes’ psychological outcomes.
... Moving beyond the Big Five, a high task orientation was identified in seven studies (Chroni et al., 2016;Din et al., 2015;Dixon et al., 2012;Lyons et al., 2012;Mallett, 2005;Pensgaard & Roberts, 2000;Pensgaard & Roberts, 2002). For example, Chroni et al. (2016) reported a coach stating that 'I do not get hung up on results … I am not bothered whether an athlete comes in sixth or tenth or twelfth place … I focus more on their development, and if they have developed, this is very positive for me' (p. ...
... 193). Seven of the included studies reported that coaches had high coaching-efficacy and believed that they had the ability to positively affect athletes' learning and performance (Chroni et al., 2016;Currie & Oates-Wilding, 2012;Din et al., 2015;Jowett, 2003;Jowett & Cockerill, 2003;Mallett, 2005), with Din et al. (2015) quoting an athlete stating that their coach had '100% confidence with little or no ego … They have to be very confident in what they are doing ' (pp. 595-596). ...
... In terms of motivational states, six studies identified high task involvement (Chroni et al., 2016;Din et al., 2015;Dixon et al., 2012;Lyons et al., 2012;Mallett, 2005;Pensgaard & Roberts, 2000;Pensgaard & Roberts, 2002). This can be exemplified by Pensgaard and Roberts (2002) who reported that the 'athletes perceived a high mastery climate' (p. ...
Effective coaching facilitates athletes’ success in reaching their potential in sport. Coaches possess a range of knowledge, skills and attributes that influence athletes’ performance, including various intrapersonal and interpersonal qualities. The purpose of this study is to systematically review the research investigating the psychosocial functioning of Olympic coaches and its perceived effect on athlete performance. The review was conducted and reported in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. The following databases were searched: SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Web of Knowledge, and Medline. The literature search identified 2873 studies which were screened and assessed for eligibility, with the resultant 25 eligible studies being assessed for quality of evidence using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. Convergent meta-integration with thematic analysis was performed by converting quantitative and qualitative data from 207 Olympic coaches and 925 Olympic athletes into relevant themes and patterns. Three core themes of traits, states, and behaviors were identified. Within these themes, 18 traits, 28 states, and 38 behaviors were identified that were perceived to have either a facilitative, debilitative, or non-categorized effect on athlete performance. Future research will help national governing bodies and practitioners develop coach education to enhance Olympic coaching effectiveness.
... It seems reasonable to suggest that additional insight into tangible behaviors can support the development of such research. While not conducted as a controlled intervention, one exception is the work of Mallett (2005) who provided a comprehensive overview of the self-determination theory-based approach he used in coaching two Australian 8 relay teams for the 2004 Olympic Games. In this case study, which depicts the team's twoyear preparation period, Mallet (2005) describes fostering a need-supportive climate in which athletes were, for example, provided choice with respect to various training aspects (content, time, venue, uniforms, etc.). ...
... In this case study, which depicts the team's twoyear preparation period, Mallet (2005) describes fostering a need-supportive climate in which athletes were, for example, provided choice with respect to various training aspects (content, time, venue, uniforms, etc.). Yet, Mallett (2005) also acknowledged that "there is some difficulty in verbally expressing the tone of the environment that was created in this case study" (p. 423) and additional empirical investigations of need-supportive coaching appear warranted. ...
... In sum, with few exceptions (e.g., Mallett, 2005), "there has been a paucity of literature that has reported the real-world implementation of an autonomy-supportive pedagogical approach to coaching" (Occhino et al., 2014, p. 407). Accordingly, the purpose of the current research was to investigate specific strategies elite youth soccer coaches use that they believe nurture athletes' perceptions of competence, autonomy, and relatedness. ...
An optimal coaching style can result in the simultaneous fulfillment of individuals’ basic psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness. According to self-determination theory, such need fulfillment increases the likelihood that athletes will experience self-determined motivation, which, in turn, has been found to positively affect their cognition, affect, and behavior. The purpose of the current research was to investigate specific strategies elite youth soccer coaches use that they believe nurture athletes’ perceptions of competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 16 coaches from the German Soccer Association’s (Deutscher Fußball-Bund) talent identification and development program. Using thematic analysis, five themes were constructed: (a) Design task-oriented practices, (b) transfer tasks and responsibilities to players within boundaries, (c) support players in the development and implementation of optimal goals, (d) promote positive interactions within the team, and (e) show players appreciation independent of their performance. The present findings allow for a more nuanced understanding of need-supportive coaching and its application in the coach–athlete relationship.
... Within their conceptual framework for life skills development, Hodge et al. (2012Hodge et al. ( , 2016 proposed that two key aspects of SDT are thought to be related to young people's life skills development in sport: coach autonomy support and basic needs satisfaction (i.e., autonomy, competence, and relatedness satisfaction). Coach autonomy support refers to the coach providing sufficient freedom of choice for athletes, acknowledging their feelings and perspectives, creating opportunities for initiative and independence, and providing competency-based feedback (Mallett, 2005). Satisfaction of the three basic needs involves satisfying the need for autonomy (i.e., feeling in control of your actions), competence (i.e., feeling effective), and relatedness (i.e., feeling connected to others) (Ryan & Deci, 2017;Rigby & Ryan, 2018). ...
... These findings corroborate previous research demonstrating that coach or teacher autonomy support are positively associated with participants development of life skills in sport Cronin et al., 2022;Cronin & Allen, 2018) and physical education Cronin et al., 2020). Thus, the evidence from the present study indicates that coaches should offer participants meaningful choices during practice, try to understand their perspectives, provide justification for any instructions given, encourage autonomy during decisionmaking, and create opportunities for self-initiated behavior (Mallett, 2005) in order to help young people to develop their life skills through sport. ...
Past self-determination theory-based studies in English-speaking countries have investigated life skills development in youth sport. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the role of basic needs satisfaction in mediating the potential associations between coach autonomy support and participant's life skills development in Brazilian youth sport. A total of 817 participants (572 boys, 245 girls, Mage = 14.10, SD = 1.37) took part in the study. These participants completed measures assessing their perceptions of coach autonomy support, basic need satisfaction (autonomy, competence, and relatedness satisfaction), and life skill development (teamwork, goal setting, interpersonal communication, problem solving and decision making, time management, emotional skills, leadership, and social skills). Mediation analyses revealed that satisfaction of the three basic needs combined (i.e., total need satisfaction) and autonomy, competence, and relatedness satisfaction individually mediated the positive associations between coach autonomy support and participant's total life skills development (i.e., all eight life skills combined). In practice, these findings indicate that when trying to promote participant's total life skills development through sport, coaches should seek to satisfy participant's three basic psychological needs by displaying autonomy-supportive behaviors.
... Özerk spor ortamlarında sporcuların aşabilecekleri fiziksel ve psikolojik yükler ile karşılaşması ve ayrıca gelişimlerini kendi parametrelerine göre değerlendiren bir gelişim bakış açısıyla yetişmesi gerekir. Çocuk ve gençlere kendi katılımları üzerinde karar verme fırsatı yaratılması onların uzun vadeli içsel motivasyon geliştirmesinde (Mallett, 2005) ve karmaşık problem çözme becerisi geliştirmesinde (Kılıç ve İnce, 2019) önemlidir. ...
... In autonomy-supportive sports environments, athletes must face physical and psychological challenges that they can overcome and grow from a developmental perspective that evaluates their development according to their parameters. Providing children and young people with the opportunity to make decisions about their participation is critical in developing long-term intrinsic motivation (Mallett, 2005) and complex problem-solving skills (Kılıç and İnce, 2019). ...
This study aimed to examine the quality of a competitive gymnastics training setting from the perspective of the "eight setting features" (Eccles and Gootman, 2002). These are 1) physical and psychological safety, 2) appropriate structure, 3) supportive relationships, 4) opportunities to belong, 5) positive social norms, 6) support of efficacy and mattering, 7) opportunities for skill building, and 8) integration of family, school, and community. As practitioners of sports programs, coaches play a primary role in ensuring the physical, psychological, emotional, and social development of children and young people in sports settings. Accordingly, the coaches in the competitive context are responsible for creating opportunities to improve their athletes' physical competence and life skills. The study data consists of semi-structured interviews with six gymnastics coaches working in a competitive context and participant observations in the coaches' workplace. The data were analyzed through Thematic Analysis. The findings indicate critical needs to improve the program's quality in the youth sport setting examined. These were discussed in the context of facilitating the optimum development of gymnasts in the competitive youth sport context under the headings of a) providing a suitable and safe training/competition environment, b) providing life skills development opportunities, and c) support of all stakeholders related to the sports setting. The programmatic suggestions were also made for future studies.
Bu çalışmanın amacı yarışmacı cimnastik antrenman ortamının niteliğini "sekiz ortam özelliği" (Eight setting features; Eccles ve Gootman, 2002) bakış açısıyla incelemektir. Bunlar, a) fiziksel ve psikolojik olarak güvenli bir ortam, b) uygun yapılanmış antrenman veya yarışma ortamı, c) destekleyen etkileşim ortamı, d) aidiyet geliştirme fırsatları sunan bir ortam, e) olumlu sosyal normları destekleyen bir ortam, f) özerkliği destekleyen bir ortam, g) beceri geliştirme fırsatları sunan bir ortam ve h) aile, okul ve toplumun çaba ve girişimlerinin bütünleştiği bir ortamdır. Spor ortamlarında çocuk ve gençlerin fiziksel, psikolojik, duygusal ve sosyal gelişiminin sağlamasında spor programlarının uygulayıcıları olarak antrenörler birincil rol üstlenmektedir. Dolayısıyla yarışmacı spor ortamındaki antrenörlerin, sporcularının fiziksel yetkinliğini ve yaşam becerilerini geliştirmeyi sağlayacak olanaklar yaratma sorumluluğu bulunmaktadır. Çalışma verilerini yarışmacı ortamda çalışan altı cimnastik antrenörü ile yapılan yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmeler ve antrenörlerin çalışma ortamında yapılan katılımcı gözlemleri oluşturmaktadır. Veriler Tematik Analiz yoluyla analiz edilmiştir. Bulgular, incelenen gençlik spor ortamında program niteliğinin artırılmasında kritik ihtiyaçların olduğuna işaret etmektedir. Bunlar, a) uygun ve güvenli antrenman/yarışma ortamı sunma, b) yaşam becerileri gelişimi olanakları sunma ve c) spor ortamıyla ilgili tüm paydaşların desteği başlıkları altında yarışmacı gençlik spor ortamında sporcuların optimum gelişimini kolaylaştırma bağlamında tartışılmıştır. Program niteliği bağlamında sonraki çalışmalar için önerilerde bulunulmuştur.
... All 18 of the studies included in this review that utilise SDT in coaching practices found that it could positively influence athletes' sporting experience, aid in improving their performance or promote both. 37,51,52 When an autonomysupportive environment is created by the coach, as outlined in SDT, three fundamental needs are met: (1) autonomy, (2) competence and (3) relatedness. 15,53 All but 3 of the 18 selected studies used a questionnaire to measure at least one of the three SDT fundamental needs. ...
... 51,56 This trend was particularly evident in youth sport. 57,60 Furthermore, all three of the studies that examined coach-athlete interactions in elite sport, 52,54,59 highlight the performance benefits and increased self-perceived group connectedness that athletes reaped as a result of improved social relationships with both their coaches and team-mates alike. 54 ...
Coaching behaviours often derive from sporting traditions, instinct and previous experiences. Practitioners tend to follow traditional, inherited methods rather than adopt new evidence-based approaches associated with athlete development. This article reviews literature relating to theoretical constructs of a novel coach education framework (CEF) developed by the Irish Rugby Football Union. The three constructs included are: self-determination theory (SDT), explicit learning theories (ELT) and implicit learning theories (ILT). A total of 82 publications met the inclusion criteria (SDT: n = 18, ELT: n = 28, ILT: n = 36). This review supports the efficacy of these constructs in isolation for promoting effective coaching practices and provides a justification for future implementation of the framework and its evaluation. This framework may have the potential to address a shortfall in current coach education formats, which have traditionally focused on What content should be used for athlete development as opposed to How practitioners can coach more effectively.
... Motivational climate has been found to significantly influence basic need satisfaction across a range of life domains (e.g. Adie et al., 2012;Cheon et al., 2012Cheon et al., , 2019Mallett, 2005;Ryan & Deci, 2017), including adventure activities (e.g. Scarf et al., 2018). ...
... A need-supportive motivational climate is created when adventure sport tourists are provided with choices and rationales for tasks; their feelings are acknowledged (particularly those related to fear or anxiety in relation to risk); opportunities for personal initiative, independence and connection to others are provided; and expressions of overt control are avoided by event organisers and/or destination managers (see Mallett, 2005 for practical examples). Team members or fellow participants can also influence the creation of need-supportive motivational climates through similar means. ...
Sport tourism literature has paid limited attention to the psychological well-being benefits derived from participating in this form of tourism. This is especially the case for adventure sport tourism, which is characterised by travel to a destination to participate in an adventure sport event, such as competitive surfing or mountain biking. Through an analysis of the contemporary literature regarding adventure sport, tourism, and psychological well-being, we propose a conceptual model of the psychological processes underlying well-being outcomes for adventure sport tourists. The conceptual model explains how adventure sport tourism participation affects hedonic and eudaimonic psychological well-being via the satisfaction of basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness) and nature connectedness. We argue that this conceptual model has the potential to advance knowledge in relation to the theory, practice, and design of adventure sport tourism. We outline research propositions emanating from the conceptual model and directions for future research on adventure sport tourism and psychological well-being.
... They suggested that people attain these innate psychological needs that when satisfied facilitate personality integration, social development and persona well-being resulting in optimal function (Ryan & Deci, 2000) [21] . In another vein, Mallett (2005) [12] investigated the effect of a motivational climate, attempting to enhance it through Deci and Ryan's SDT. Motivation is an essential element of human personality. ...
... They suggested that people attain these innate psychological needs that when satisfied facilitate personality integration, social development and persona well-being resulting in optimal function (Ryan & Deci, 2000) [21] . In another vein, Mallett (2005) [12] investigated the effect of a motivational climate, attempting to enhance it through Deci and Ryan's SDT. Motivation is an essential element of human personality. ...
... Results also revealed that coaches were keen on creating a dialogue with players as it is becoming a commonly accepted practice of Finnish sports coaches (Hämäläinen & Blomqvist, 2016) that is rooted in the integration of athletes' perspectives into performance preparation to promote an autonomy-or needsupportive motivational climate (Mallett, 2005). Finnish coaches have utilized different tools to integrate athletes into the coaching process. ...
Sport coaching has become globalized. Finnish ice hockey is an example of this globalization of a coaching workforce. Indeed, the success of Finnish ice hockey teams in the international arena has been fueling the demand for coaches and players from this country worldwide. Yet, despite the increasing trends of migration of the workforce in sports, there is limited research that is conducted on the experiences of foreign coaches. Thus, in this study, we aimed to expand our understanding of the work of high-performance coaches in the globalized sports context. A case study design was adopted. The participants were 14 Finnish high-performance head coaches with transnational career experiences across 11 nations. Qualitative data were collected via semistructured interviews. Reflexive thematic analysis guided how the authors made sense of these data. Three major themes were (a) preparation practices, (b) acculturation, and (c) emerging learning experiences. The findings provide helpful insights for (a) coach developers when preparing practitioners to work in different cultural settings, (b) club administrators to further inform their decisions when recruiting and working with foreign coaches, and (c) sports’ governing bodies to develop policies to support coaches’ acculturation in the new country.
... In addition, the study conducted Mallett, C. J., & Lara-Bercial, S. (2016); Khan A &Khan S (2014) by stated that supportive coaching plays vital role in the successful performance of a player. Such finding is supported by Mallett (2005); Ryan & Deci (2000) by stating that motivation on part of coach is important for athlete performance. Likewise, it is also necessary for a coach to provide conducive environment to athlete for learning. ...
Coaching play's important role in the uplifting of player performance. Success and failure of player totally concerns with coach and his/her attitude in term of coaching style. The current study was initiated for the purpose to assess the influence of different coaching styles on athletic performance participants of the study was comprised of all hockey players of registered clubs of Distt Bannu, Kp, Pakistan. There are 15 registered hockey clubs in Distt Bannu, Kp Pakistan thus each club is comprised of 15 payers. The total number of registered players were 240. Similarly, one hundred and twenty-eight (128) hockey players were taken as sample of the study by applying available sampling procedure. A self-made Likert type was used for the collection of relevant data. The developed scale was processed through the procedures of validity and reliability before application for data collection. The reliability measures were assessed through Cronbach's Alpha and found .875 which were highly significant. The gathered data about the various parameters of the study administered through statistical package for social science (SPSS, version 26). Based on data analysis the researcher highlighted that coaching styles have a significant influence upon field hockey player's performance. In addition, the researcher also concluded that supportive coaching styles has more positive influence upon field hockey player's performance
... While examples of psychological need satisfaction in our study are described as contributing to autonomy, competence or relatedness, scenarios are not limited to satisfying a single need (Mallett, 2005). It is important to note the saliency of self-determined competence; that is, children want to be competent in something they enjoy doing or choose to do (Deci & Ryan, 1985). ...
In this research, we show how a quality teaching framework can be used with psychology, specifically self-determination theory (SDT), and a Game Sense Approach (GSA) to plan and teach a unit of work as a context-specific version of quality Physical Education. This unit of work using Buroinjin, an Australian Aboriginal traditional game, was taught to two Year 5 classes (49 students in total aged 10–11 years) at a government school in Australia’s capital city, Canberra. Following unit completion, a qualitative research design was adopted to answer our research question: To what extent do Year 5 students experience basic psychological need satisfaction by playing Buroinjin taught using a GSA? Four semi-structured interviews were used to collect data from 26 of the original students who were taught the unit. Findings suggest the unit was effective in satisfying the participants’ SDT basic needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness.
... Extrinsic motivation concerns behaviors conducted other than for their inherent satisfaction as spoken of earlier (Deci & Ryan, 1985aRyan & Deci, 2020). This can be categorized into two broad types: self-determined extrinsic motivation (SDEM) and non-self-determined extrinsic motivation (N-SDEM) (Lee & Reeve, 2013;Mallett, 2005;Ryan & Deci, 2000a). Selfdetermined extrinsic motivation, or autonomous extrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020), includes integrated regulation and identified regulation. ...
This study researched how different sequences of two types of cooperative learning (CL),
informal (e.g. tasks) and formal (e.g. projects), affect Japanese first-year university EFL students’ motivation and basic psychological need (BPN) satisfaction. Research questions (RQs) for this study are as follows.
RQ1. How does student motivation change over an academic year in different sequential
arrangements of informal and formal CL?
RQ2. How do students’ basic psychological needs change over an academic year in
different sequential arrangements of informal and formal CL?
The results suggest that informal followed by formal CL activities appear to make students focus on important aspects of working cooperatively in groups and positively affect their motivation and feelings toward BPNs. Formal CL followed by informal CL seems to positively affect identified regulation and competence over the year. It also appears to make some students focus on their English skills more than on their interpersonal connections.
... Informal sports activities constituted a multisport philosophy of invented hybrid games with friends, such as playing football on ice with felt boots or, in the summer, with different types of balls on varying surfaces. These self-motivating, self-organized activities, designed to be enjoyable and fun and associated with intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985;Lidor et al., 2009;Mallett, 2005), suggest a form of early diversification where children get the opportunity to sample a wide range of diversified activities (Côté & Erickson, 2015). Examples of this were the street/backyard games, a feature of Pavel's neighborhood community. ...
Magic Man for a reason. He does things out there with the puck that no one else can do." This statement begs the questions: When, where, and how did Pavel learn those creative skills? To gain insight into how the "Magic Man," Pavel Datsyuk, acquired such sophisticated yet unorthodox skills, we endeavored to investigate the preprofessional years of Pavel's development. Utilizing a case study methodology and leaning on the theoretical framework of ecological dynamics, we sought to examine the ecological niche that helped shape Pavel's learning in development. Our case study highlights the ecological nature of the development of expertise and the nonlinear impact ecological constraints had on the development of Pavel's expertise.
... Coaches, through their words and actions, influence athletes' performance, and well-being, for which it is relevant to delve into the knowledge of the behaviours and cognitions that mediate this relationship. [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8] Fletcher et al. 9,10 proposed a meta-model of stress, emotions, and performance, which can help us understand the relationship between what the coach does and the behavioural and affective consequences in his athletes. The model describes the theoretical relationships between key processes, moderators, and consequences of the stress process. ...
In this study we analysed the differences in verbal behaviour of coaches during matches. A total of 9739 verbal behaviours issued by 26 male handball coaches in 26 matches, 1 for each coach, were classified into the categories established by the Coach Analysis and Intervention System (CAIS). These behaviours in turn were grouped according to the type of coping expressed by the coach (task-oriented, emotional positive and emotional negative). Coaches were then classified into high or low emotional intelligence, and high or low self-determined motivation, using the mean of these scores. Differences in verbal behaviour percentages were analysed by Chi-square based on coach membership in groups of emotional intelligence and self-determined motivation. Coaches with greater self-determined motivation and emotional intelligence used more verbal behaviours showing positive emotional coping. Results are discussed based on the impact on the health and performance of athletes, as well as possible interventions to improve the leadership of the coach in a match situation.
... Coaches are the chief initiators and organizers of preparations for competitions. They also affect the atmosphere in the club and are primarily responsible for fostering players' development in a holistic and healthy manner (Mallett, 2005(Mallett, , 2013. The beliefs held by a given sports community, especially among coaches and team members, influence the attitudes of each player, including practices related to health and development (Wattie & Baker, 2018). ...
Health, injury, and pain within the social contexts of sports remain relevant. Sociologists have repeatedly pointed out a set of factors that shape the sociocultural background of sports and aim to normalize the high risk of injury, pain, and negative impacts on health. The literature contains inspiring studies with valuable guidelines for conceptualizing this issue. Some researchers have focused on the social factors shaping athletes’ experiences with health-related risks and have proven that it is possible to oppose the deeply rooted “culture of risk.” The fact that most studies on the subject involve men’s sports increases the importance of those that address health-related risks in women’s sports. The literature includes few works concerning the sociocultural contexts of injury, pain, or health issues in handball. The aim of this study was to learn about the opinions and experiences of professional female handball players related to health in their discipline. Three main directions of research were followed: 1) health as a value; 2) significance of injury and pain; and 3) effect of health-related risks on a career in sports. The data were collected before the COVID-19 pandemic. The results do not reflect the opinions or experiences of the participants during the period of heightened epidemiological risk. The sample comprised female athletes (n=52) who participated in the Polish First League of women’s handball and represented the highest competitive level in their category in Poland.
... This environment fosters autonomy, relatedness, and competence, which increases self-determined motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Self-determined motivation has been reported to increase persistence, effort, and performance (Mallett, 2005), which may lead to greater participant engagement to complete a research project (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003). To overcome the barriers to successful collaboration, and to facilitate engagement of coaches and athletes in perceptual-cognitive-motor research projects, skill acquisition specialists might consider using some of the strategies implemented in this study to create an autonomy-supportive environment. ...
Perceptual-cognitive-motor skills, such as visual anticipation, are pivotal for superior performance in sport. However, there are only a limited number of skill acquisition specialists working with coaches to develop these skills in athletes. The purpose of this paper is to present a brief reflection on the use of psychological strategies to create an autonomy-supportive environment to embed a skill acquisition research project in high-performance sport. The research project was conducted with the Australian national field hockey high-performance unit and investigated individual differences in expert goalkeepers’ visual anticipation. The paper first discusses the role of a skill acquisition specialist, how they collaborate with coaches and athletes, and barriers to collaboration. The paper then outlines how psychological strategies can be used to create an autonomy-supportive environment to build a relationship and establish a research collaboration with a team. Further, the paper discusses the importance of continually involving coaches and athletes in the research process to facilitate their engagement and self-determined motivation to complete the project. By applying psychological strategies to create an autonomy-supportive environment, sports scientists may have greater success in overcoming the many barriers to conduct research in an elite sport setting, with the outcomes highly valuable for athlete development.
... D'autres travaux ont également mis en avant l'importance de l'adaptabilité de l'entraîneur à leur perception du comportement et de la motivation de leurs athlètes (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003). Leur capacité à développer la motivation personnelle des athlètes est considérée par Mallett (2005) indispensable pour l'amélioration des performances sportives (Butler, 1997 ;Vealey et al., 1998). Ryan & Deci (2000), par exemple, ont montré que le développement d'un climat motivationnel a des conséquences positives et primordiales dans le développement d'une relation entraîneur-athlète. ...
Qu’est-ce qu’un entraîneur expert ? Le manque de consensus autour de cette question impacte régulièrement le recrutement des entraîneurs de Haut Niveau souvent plébiscités pour leur succès en tant qu’athlète et non par la qualité de leurs formations (Gilbert et al., 2006). Le choix de la Fédération Française de Badminton en avril 2015 de renouveler la quasi-totalité des entraîneurs nationaux de l’INSEP par une nouvelle équipe avec à sa tête, le Danois Peter Gade, ancien n°1 mondial, en est un parfait exemple. Ce manque de critères objectifs (Abraham et al., 2006) amène aussi régulièrement à évaluer les entraîneurs experts à travers la performance de leurs athlètes, elle-même fréquemment résumée aux résultats de ces derniers en compétition. En effet, il est difficile de rendre compte de l’activité des entraîneurs experts, tant elle paraît guidée par des connaissances tacites (Saury & Sève, 2004), amenant même à les considérer comme des alchimistes de la performance (Ripoll, 2012). Pour alimenter les travaux visant à délimiter les contours de l’expertise, cette recherche vise tout d’abord à analyser l’activité des entraîneurs dits experts in situ à travers un programme de recherche en anthropologie culturaliste (Bertone & Chaliès, 2015). Ce programme permet de comprendre les fondements de l’activité des entraîneurs (i) en conceptualisant les significations que les acteurs associent aux expériences qu’ils vivent et (ii) en appréciant les accords de significations entre les acteurs. Le premier volet de cette étude a été mené en collaboration avec trois badistes masculins de l’équipe de France sénior et deux entraîneurs dits experts (un entraîneur national de l’INSEP et un ancien entraîneur national bulgare). Les données ont été recueillies à partir d’enregistrements audio-vidéo (EAV) de chaque séance d’entraînement suivi d’entretiens d’auto-confrontation (EAC) avec l’entraîneur et le badiste. Les premiers résultats ont montré que les interactions entraîneur-athlète étaient régulièrement le lieu de désaccords entre les acteurs amenant une collaboration improductive et desservant par conséquent l’objectif de performance poursuivie. Ces premiers résultats nous ont amené à prolonger cette étude par un second volet visant à offrir aux entraîneurs experts un espace de développement professionnel. À cet effet, un dispositif de recherche transformatif a été construit afin de leur donner accès au vécu de l’athlète et ainsi leur permettre de prendre conscience de certains aspects de leur activité et de ses effets sur celle du badiste. Menées en collaboration avec les badistes et les entraîneurs nationaux des Pôles France Relève de Bordeaux et Strasbourg, les données ont de nouveau été recueillies à partir des EAV de séances d’entraînements individuels suivis d’EAC menés avec l’entraîneur et le badiste. Un entretien aménagé a ensuite été mené avec l’entraîneur afin de le confronter aux propos tenus par le badiste lors de son EAC. Il lui était alors demandé d’interpréter le désaccord observé et de s’engager dans d’éventuelles pistes de transformation de son activité. Un EAV de la séance d’entraînement suivante a ensuite été réalisé pour observer de possibles traces de développement professionnel chez l’entraîneur. Les résultats ont montré qu’un tel dispositif consistant à donner accès à l’entraîneur au vécu de l’athlète peut permettre à la dyade de tendre vers un plus haut niveau d’intersubjectivité (Jowett, 2006). En tentant de rendre accessible les schémas d’expériences et d’actions habituellement non-conscientisés (Alheit & Dausien, 2005) en vue d’accompagner une dynamique de développement professionnel, ce dispositif s’inscrit dans la problématique de l’articulation entre les situations de formation et les situations de travail (Durand & Fillietaz, 2009) dans la perspective d’un apprentissage tout au long de la vie.
... Three key aspects of SDT that are thought to be related to young people's life skills development in sport are coach autonomy support, satisfaction of participants' three basic psychological needs, and the forms of motivation athletes adopt for their sport (Hodge et al., 2016). Coach autonomy support refers to the coach providing sufficient freedom of choice for athletes, acknowledging their feelings and perspectives, creating opportunities for initiative and independence, and providing competence-based feedback (Mallett, 2005). According to Ryan and Deci (2017), satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs in any domain involves satisfying the need for autonomy (feeling in control of ones' actions), competence (feeling effective in a particular domain), and relatedness (feeling connected to others). ...
This study investigated whether a large sample of youth participants’ life skills development through sport was impacted by demographic variables and/or variables based on self-determination theory. Participants were 461 Brazilian youth sport (325 boys; 136 girls) aged 10–17 years ( M age = 15.12, SD = 1.44). Participants completed a self-report research survey to assess demographic variables, coach autonomy support, basic need satisfaction, and sport motivation. We analyzed data using cluster analysis, a chi-square test and multivariate analysis of variance. We found that sport participants in the high life skills development cluster were older ( p = .007) and had more years of sport experience ( p = .032). Compared to the low life skills development cluster, sports participants in the high life skills development cluster displayed higher scores for coach’s autonomy support ( p = .001), autonomy satisfaction ( p = .002), competence satisfaction ( p = .001), relatedness satisfaction ( p = .001), and identified regulation ( p = .023). In practice, these findings indicate that coaches should seek to satisfy participants’ three basic psychological needs and encourage an identified regulation form of motivation when trying to promote participants’ life skills development through sport.
... El Modelo Jerárquico de Motivación Intrínseca y Extrínseca de Robert Vallerand (1997), dentro de la teoría de la autodeterminación (TAD; Deci y Ryan, 1985, 2000Ryan y Deci, 2002, 2007, ha mostrado su eficacia para explicar las conductas de los seres humanos en el contexto de la actividad física y deportiva (Edmunds, Ntoumanis, y Duda 2007;Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Barkoukis, Wang, y Baranouski, 2005;Kwan, Caldwell, Magnan, y Bryan, 2011;Smith, Ntoumanis, y Duda, 2010). Algunos estudios han reflejado la importancia que tienen los factores sociales en las motivaciones de los deportistas (Ntoumanis y Biddle, 1999;Wang y Biddle, 2001), y cómo el hecho de que los deportistas se sientan competentes, bien relacionados con los demás y capaces de tomar decisiones contribuye a alcanzar motivaciones más autodeterminadas (Ahmadi, Namazizadeh, y Mokhtari, 2012) las cuales se han relacionado con el rendimiento deportivo (Guillet, Vallerand, Amoura, y Baldes, 2010;Mallet, 2005), el flow y la autoconfianza (Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Mpoumpaki, y Theorodakis, 2009;Hodge, Lonsdale, y Jackson, 2009). Teniendo en cuenta el modelo de Vallerand (1997), indagar sobre los antecedentes de la experiencia autotélica y de la autoconfianza precompetitiva en deportistas puede ayudar a los especialistas a conocer algunos de los posibles caminos en la optimización del rendimiento deportivo. ...
Antecedentes: La ciencia viene mostrando la importancia que el clima de los iguales parece tener en la comprensión de la motivación y la conducta de los deportistas.Objetivos: El objetivo de este estudio fue comprobar la capacidad predictiva del clima motivacional de los iguales, las necesidades psicológicas básicas y la motivación intrínseca sobre la autoconfianza precompetitiva y la experiencia autotélica en deportistas de salvamento y socorrismo.Método: La muestra se compuso de un total de 142 deportistas, a los que se midió el clima motivacional de los iguales, las necesidades psicológicas básicas, la motivación intrínseca, la autoconfianza precompetitiva y la experiencia autotélica experimentada durante una competición.Resultados: Tras un análisis de regresión lineal, la autoconfianza y la experiencia autotélica fueron predichas positivamente por el clima tarea, las necesidades psicológicas básicas y la motivación intrínseca, mientras el clima ego predijo de forma negativa.Conclusiones: Los resultados son discutidos en pro de una mejora de los climas de entrenamiento.Palabras clave: flow, clima motivacional, necesidades psicológicas, motivación autodeterminada, deporte.
... Three key aspects of SDT that are thought to be related to young people's life skills development in sport are coach autonomy support, satisfaction of participants' three basic psychological needs, and the forms of motivation athletes adopt for their sport (Hodge et al., 2016). Coach autonomy support refers to the coach providing sufficient freedom of choice for athletes, acknowledging their feelings and perspectives, creating opportunities for initiative and independence, and providing competence-based feedback (Mallett, 2005). According to Ryan and Deci (2017), satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs in any domain involves satisfying the need for autonomy (feeling in control of ones' actions), competence (feeling effective in a particular domain), and relatedness (feeling connected to others). ...
This study investigated whether participants’ life skills development through sport was impacted by demographic and self-determination theory-based variables in a large sample of youth sport participants. Participants included 461 Brazilian sport participants (325 boys and 136 girls) aged between 10–17 years (Mage = 15.12, SD = 1.44). The research survey used assessed demographic variables, coach autonomy support, basic need satisfaction, and motivation in sport. The data were analyzed using cluster analysis, a chi-square test and multivariate analysis of variance (p < .05). Results revealed that sport participants in the high life skills development cluster were of a higher age (p = .007) and had more years of experience in their sport (p = .032). As compared to the low life skills development cluster, youth sport participants in the high life skills development cluster displayed higher scores for coach autonomy support (p = .001), autonomy satisfaction (p = .002), competence satisfaction (p = .001), relatedness satisfaction (p = .001), and identified regulation (p = .023). Such findings suggest that coaches should look to satisfy participants’ three basic psychological needs and encourage an identified regulation form of motivation when trying to promote participants’ life skills development through sport.
... The above sketched out coach behavior patterns are coherent with, what is described within the sport psy-chology, characteristics of a mastery-oriented motivational climate [Ntoumanis & Biddle 1999;Kłodecka-Różalska 2003], or with widely explored characteristic of the influence of autonomy supportive environments [Conroy & Coatsworth 2007;Gagné;Ryan & Bargman 2003;Malett 2005;Reiboth & Duda 2006]. Secondly, one of the repeated correlates of the above-described strategies for coaching both individuals and teams is an effective relationship between a coach and an athlete. ...
Professional philosophy in sport coaching directly impacts coach behavior in practice and competitions. The coaching effectiveness in enhancing athlete performance, stimulating the individual and team potential, and supporting athlete personal growth changes across coaches' professional careers. Such changes are frequently grounded in information from other sister disciplines that support the world of sport, such as, sport psychology. In this article, we discuss the perspective of positive sport (PS) and present a number of practical principles for coaches' consideration. These principles were grouped together into catchy phrases as follows: inspire (inspiruj), explain (wyjaśniaj), expect (wymagaj), support (wspieraj), reward (wynagradzaj), appreciate (wyróżniaj), grow (wzrastam) and win (wygrywam) (in short: i7W). These recommendations deal with four time perspectives: one task, one training session/competition, one season, and an entire athletic career. For the development of the perspective of PS among coaches, there is a need for sound theoretical foundations that are supported in reliable basic and applied research which we review in this present report. We aspire for this content to be used by sport psychologists, coaches, and professionals in sport social sciences to increase professional qualifications among sport coaches and to enhance the social status of this important profession.
... After Deci, Ryan, Vallerand, & Pelletier (1991), the author conceptualized work environment inspiration as responders' view of authoritative support of self-sufficiency, capability, and relatedness at university and estimated it by means of the Basic Needs Satisfaction at Work Scale (Mallett, 2005). This instrument comprises of three things for every psychological need evaluated along a 5-point scale (1 = not true by any means, 5 = very true); every statement comprised of an announcement, for example, "Most days I get a feeling of achievement from work." ...
Purpose: The reason for this investigation was to check the notability of intrapreneurship for business education faculty members and look at how its credits and practices identify with faculty's' work inspiration and socioeconomics. • Design/methodology/approach: From a sample frame of 851 university business education faculty members in KPK region, Pakistan, 376 faculty members finished an online poll for a reaction rate of 44.1%. Results demonstrated statistically substantial contrasts in faculty members' intrapreneurial introduction relying upon background, level and specialization of position, and university. • Findings: Greater trust in and relevant help for intrapreneurship enhanced faculty encouragement. Responders who self-recognized as ambitious innovators encouraged coordinated efforts between their students and active businesspeople, directed new methodologies for showing inventiveness and designed creative educational programs. While responders for the most part felt a sense of freedom, they didn't feel they had satisfactory skills and resources for propelling new enterprises, and they saw less resilience for hazard and risks inside their universities. • Originality/value: Discoveries of this examination may help separate explicit intrapreneurial characteristics and authoritative components that could strengthen faculty driven instructional method and lessen faculty motivation
... 20,21 Coaches' personal orientation concerns the internalised behaviours that they are likely to exhibit based on their background and attitude towards coaching. 22 To date, researchers have not directly examined the proposed relationship between coaches' personal orientation and autonomy-supportive and controlling coaching behaviours. Using an action research process, Ahlberg et al. 23 attempted to help a rugby coach create a training environment that offered athletes more choice and provided rationales for requested tasks (i.e., autonomy support). ...
Grounded in self-determination theory and the motivational model of the coach-athlete relationship, the purpose of this study was to explore the antecedents of youth sport coaches’ autonomy-supportive and controlling behaviours using a multimethod approach. Recreational level youth swimming and football coaches (N = 12) participated in semi-structured interviews and were observed leading a coaching session. Interviews were thematically analysed and coaching sessions were analysed using the multidimensional motivational climate observation system. Analysis of the triangulated data revealed that the coaches were both autonomy-supportive and controlling in their interactions with athletes, but predominantly autonomy-supportive. Coaches reported that they coached in this way due to factors associated with their personal orientation (significant others’ influence, learning experiences, and beliefs about the role of the coach), the coaching context (time pressure), and perceptions of athletes’ characteristics (readiness for autonomy, gender, and quality of motivation). The findings are discussed in relation to personal and social processes that may determine coaching behaviours, and suggestions for coach development and future research are noted.
... Athletes under the supervision of an autonomy-supportive coach have been shown to experience autonomous motivation for participation, an increase in athletic performance, and basic psychological need satisfaction (Occhino, Mallett, Rynne, & Carlisle, 2014). Using these behavior definitions, a variety of research has begun the task of identifying specific application examples in coaching (Beauchamp, Halliwell, Fournier, & Koestner, 1996;Berntsen & Kristiansen, 2019;Fraser-Thomas & Côté, 2009;Mallett, 2005;Sheldon &Watson, 2011). Further, Zougkou, Weinstein, andPaulmann (2017) suggested that autonomy supportive or controlling directives can be distinguished by the characteristics of the wording and tone of voice. ...
As part of a coach's informal learning process, previous athletic experience is a foundational element of an athlete's future coaching career, determining the perspectives, beliefs, and behaviors the coach will use in their interactions with athletes. Although it is investigated more generally, previous athletic experience is rarely considered in understanding specific coaching behaviors related to supporting athletes' needs and motivation. This study investigated 15 novice coaches' personal athletic and coaching experiences to determine how these experiences influenced their own coaching practice with regard to the engagement in autonomy-supportive and/or controlling behaviors. The interview data revealed that novice coaches used their past experiences to inform their practice in the following three ways: (a) experienced controlling behaviors as an athlete, which transferred to a desire to be more autonomy supportive in coaching; (b) experienced controlling behaviors as an athlete, which transferred to a desire to be more controlling in coaching; and (c) experienced autonomy-supportive behaviors as an athlete, which transferred to a desire to be more autonomy supportive in coaching. These results suggest the importance of considering previous athletic experience as an antecedent to coaches' engagement in autonomy-supportive behaviors.
... Expanding on this, empowerment was facilitated by a dualmanagement model in which the leadership responsibilities were shared between the coaches and players to enhance the players' feelings of ownership with the team's goals. Moreover, Henry and Smith created an autonomy-supportive environment that promoted players showing initiative and independence by providing feedback in a noncontrolling manner (e.g., Mallett, 2005). Furthermore, their vision incorporated an expectation of excellence that provided players a daily challenge to add to the team's legacy of being the best in the world. ...
The purpose of this study was to explore the development, articulation, and implementation of a coaching vision and how this created and sustained a culture of excellence. Six multiple championship–winning men’s university ice hockey head coaches were interviewed. Their combined experience consisted of 20 national titles and over 4,100 wins at the university level. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis. The results indicated that these coaches established a vision that could be separated into three phases: development, articulation, and implementation. Notably, development included the life experiences, personal characteristics, and habits that assisted the development of the coaches’ vision, including apprenticing as an assistant coach. Articulation and implementation involved clearly communicating their vision to athletes, coaches, and personnel who then enacted the vision. Overall, these findings contribute to a better understanding of how championship-winning coaches organize, teach, and articulate their goals through their coaching vision.
... Collegiate CARs are unique and important to examine due to the significant role that collegiate coaches play in the everyday lives and overall development of their student-athletes (LaVoi, 2007). The importance of a strong collegiate CAR for athlete development is also supported by Felton and Jowett (2013a) and Mallett (2005), who added that CARs are marked by significant reciprocal interpersonal influences, changes in mental well-being, and motivational influence. These characteristics underscore the influence that coaches have on their athletes. ...
This study investigated whether gratitude predicted burnout directly and indirectly through coach–athlete relationships. National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Divisions I ( n = 305), II ( n = 202), and III ( n = 89) student-athletes ( N = 596, 76.5% women) completed a survey regarding athlete burnout, coach–athlete relationships, trait gratitude, and state gratitude (sport and general). Structural equation modeling revealed that gratitude predicted athletes’ burnout. Sport state gratitude was the most accurate negative predictor of burnout. In addition, indirect associations between sport state gratitude and burnout emerged through coach–athlete relationships, suggesting that sport state gratitude was positively associated with coach–athlete relationships, which in turn, negatively predicted burnout. Coach–athlete relationships were positively predicted by sport state gratitude. These findings suggest that grateful student-athletes may experience less burnout, and athletes who have strong coach–athlete relationships may experience more gratitude.
... El Modelo Jerárquico de Motivación Intrínseca y Extrínseca de Robert Vallerand (1997), dentro de la teoría de la autodeterminación (TAD; Deci y Ryan, 1985, 2000Ryan y Deci, 2002, 2007, ha mostrado su eficacia para explicar las conductas de los seres humanos en el contexto de la actividad física y deportiva (Edmunds, Ntoumanis, y Duda 2007;Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Barkoukis, Wang, y Baranouski, 2005;Kwan, Caldwell, Magnan, y Bryan, 2011;Smith, Ntoumanis, y Duda, 2010). Algunos estudios han reflejado la importancia que tienen los factores sociales en las motivaciones de los deportistas (Ntoumanis y Biddle, 1999;Wang y Biddle, 2001), y cómo el hecho de que los deportistas se sientan competentes, bien relacionados con los demás y capaces de tomar decisiones contribuye a alcanzar motivaciones más autodeterminadas (Ahmadi, Namazizadeh, y Mokhtari, 2012) las cuales se han relacionado con el rendimiento deportivo (Guillet, Vallerand, Amoura, y Baldes, 2010;Mallet, 2005), el flow y la autoconfianza (Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Mpoumpaki, y Theorodakis, 2009;Hodge, Lonsdale, y Jackson, 2009). Teniendo en cuenta el modelo de Vallerand (1997), indagar sobre los antecedentes de la experiencia autotélica y de la autoconfianza precompetitiva en deportistas puede ayudar a los especialistas a conocer algunos de los posibles caminos en la optimización del rendimiento deportivo. ...
... Moreover, an autonomy-supportive coaching style can facilitate the relationship between coaches and their athletes (e.g., Gilchrist & Mallett, 2016;Occhino, Mallett, Rynne, & Carlisle, 2014). Additionally, such a coaching style also benefits the overall performance environment (e.g., Hodge, Henry, & Smith, 2014;Mallett, 2005). Creating a positive, supportive, and engaging working environment in which athletes and coaches feel a sense of belonging also helps to prevent dysfunctional conflict from taking place. ...
... The finding that the athletes' concerns regarding a health complaint were predictive of whether the complaint would influence performance implies that continuous communication with athletes regarding their health beliefs and concerns during championship preparations is desirable. Although such an athlete-centred build-up may be seen to reflect a theoretical position leaning towards athlete self-determination, 25 this build-up approach may from another perspective plainly represent the most effective way to support athletics athletes achieve optimal performance at major competitions. 26 In the athlete-centred build-up, coaches and clinical staff still play key roles, engaging in monitoring and analysis of the athletes' physical and psychological condition, and providing feedback and interventions when needed. ...
Objectives:
To investigate whether self-reported health complaints and choice of heat stress prevention strategies during the taper predicted peaking at an athletics championship in hot conditions.
Design:
Cohort study.
Methods:
Data on health and heat stress prevention were collected before the 2015 World Athletics Championship in Beijing, China. Peaking was defined using the athlete's pre-competition ranking and final competition rank. Baseline and endpoint data were fitted into multiple logic regression models.
Results:
Two hundred forty-five (29%) of 841 eligible athletes participated. Both sprint/power (Odds ratio (OR) 0.33 (95% Confidence interval (CI) 0.11 to 0.94), P=0.038) and endurance/combined events (OR 0.38 (95% CI 0.14 to 1.00), P=0.049) athletes having sustained concern-causing health complaints during the taper were less likely to peak. Endurance/combined events athletes who chose pre-cooling to mitigate heat stress were less likely to peak (OR 0.35 (95% CI 0.15 to 0.80), P=0.013), while sprint/power athletes reporting a sudden-onset injury complaint during the taper displayed increased peaking (OR 4.47 (95% CI 1.28 to 15.59), P=0.019).
Conclusions:
Health complaints that caused the athlete concern during the taper were predictive of failure to peak at a major athletics competition. Sprint/power athletes who experienced an acute injury symptom during the taper appeared to benefit from rest. Pre-cooling strategies seem to require further validation during real-world endurance/combined events. It appears that athletics athletes' self-reported health should be monitored during the taper, concerns addressed, and heat stress prevention strategies individually tested before championships in hot conditions.
... Specifically, it appears clear from the quantitative and qualitative evidence presented that teachers wanting to nurture creativity should support their students' autonomy, competence, and relatedness. To do so, recommendations derived from a combination of the findings reported here and previous literature are offered next (for more detail and underlying principles, see, e.g., Koestner et al. 1984;Ryan and Deci 2000;Assor, Kaplan, and Roth 2002;Mallett 2005;Quested and Duda 2010). ...
The extent to which creativity and perfection can be considered compatible aims for dancers was investigated. Also investigated were how creativity and perfectionism are (1) nurtured versus inhibited, and (2) related to basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness). Seventy-seven ballet students (12–19 years old) in Stockholm, Sweden completed standardized questionnaires, and eight were recruited for interviews. Additionally, five teachers were interviewed. It was found that flexible perfectionistic strivings (PS) were seen to support creativity, whereas rigid PS and perfectionistic concerns (PC) were seen as inhibiting. Creative work was proposed to reduce PC. Creativity appeared to be nurtured when basic needs were met via inspiration and imagery; this was experienced more in contemporary dance. Perfectionism appeared to be nurtured when basic needs were thwarted or unsupported, and when teachers were perfectionistic. This was experienced more in ballet. In conclusion, dance teachers who support basic needs likely support dancers’ creativity and aid in perfectionism management.
... örn. Jowett ve Cockerill, 2003; Loughead ve Hardy, 2005; Mageau ve Vallerand, 2003;Mallett, 2005; Gould ve diğ., 2002).Myers ve diğ. (2005), antrenörlük yeterliliğinin takımlardaki antrenörlük davranışları ve takım değişkenleri üzerindeki etkisini incelemişlerdir. ...
Bu çalışma; sporcuların duygusal zekâsını olumlu yönde etkileyebilmeleri amacıyla
antrenörlere ve bu yönde, ileride yapılacak olan çalışmalara duygusal zekâ kullanımının
nitelikleri ve değerleri hakkında yararlı olacak önerilerde bulunmak üzere hazırlanmıştır.
Araştırma betimsel tarama modeli olarak tasarlanmış olup, doküman analizi yöntemi
kullanılarak ilgili mevcut kaynakların derinlemesine incelenmesi yoluyla veriler elde
edilmiştir. İlgili literatür incelemeleri sonucunda edinilen bilgilere göre; duygusal zekânın,
performans, psikolojik beceriler, bazı diğer olumlu faktörler, fizyolojik unsurlar ve etkili
antrenörlük ile ilişkisinin olduğu söylenebilir. Sporcuların, bireysel anlamda duygusal zekâ
düzeylerinin arttırılması sâyesinde takım içerisinde meydana getirilen sinerji ve olumlu
güdü, takımdaki negatif duyguların pozitif duygulara dönüşmesine yardımcı olacaktır.
Sporda anksiyete, öfke ve depresyon gibi olumsuz duygular performansı büyük oranda
bozabilir. Öte yandan duygusal zekânın etkin kullanımı; sporcuların rekabet gücünü ve
takıma bağlılıklarını arttırarak onları daha donanımlı bir konuma getirecektir.
... É possível destacar a importância dos professores de Educação Física e treinadores através dos discursos dos atletas investigados, esse motivo é apontado por 95% (n=19) dos atletas como o principal motivo para continuar no Atletismo e Natação. Em estudo, Martin e Mushett (1996) destacam que: atletas que receberam forte suporte de seus treinadores e foram desafiados, tanto emocional como tecnicamente, a expressaram maior eficácia na capacidade de treinamento para alcançar o seu potencial máximo.Ainda Mallett (2005) afirma que os treinadores são importantes para a passagem de conhecimento sobre a técnica do esporte para seus atletas, com foco no desenvolvimento das habilidades e conhecimentos que são necessários para o sucesso nos treinamentos e competições. ...
RESUMO: O objetivo deste estudo é identificar os motivos que levam o atleta paralímpico brasileiro a continuar praticando sua modalidade esportiva. O estudo caracteriza-se como descritivo e abordagem qualitativa. A coleta de informações foi realizada através de entrevista semiestruturada. Participaram 20 atletas paralímpicos das modalidades Atletismo e Natação, contemplados pela Bolsa-Pódio do Programa Bolsa Atleta do Ministério do Esporte. Após a análise das informações, o estudo evidenciou as razões consideradas mais importantes para a continuidade dos atletas. Incentivo de Professores de Educação Física e Treinadores n=19 (95%); Participação em competições n=14 (70%); e ainda, Suporte emocional n=13 (65%) são os principais motivos para se manterem no esporte. Dessa forma, conhecendo as razões que levam atletas de alto rendimento a permanecer na prática esportiva, é possível fornecer informações importantes a treinadores e gestores, a fim de evitar possíveis abandonos no esporte, como também, aprimorar seu desempenho na modalidade paralímpica. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Esporte paralímpico, Atleta paralímpico, Continuidade no esporte.
The purpose of this research was to evaluate the implementation of the novel Irish Rugby Football Union Coach Education Framework (CEF) on coach–athlete interactions and perceptions. Participants were coaches (n = 4) and athletes (n = 54) from two rugby union teams. Coaches were observed pre-intervention and post-intervention of an education workshop based on the CEF and had nine training sessions video-recorded and analysed using the Coach Analysis and Intervention System (CAIS). Their perceptions of their relationship with their athletes were measured using the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q). Athlete perceptions of their coaches’ behaviours were measured using the Coaching Behaviour Scale for Sport (CBS-S). CAIS results revealed coaches increased the use of ‘Management’ and ‘Feedback’ behaviours ( p < 0.05) post-CEF, without altering prominent high-volume behaviours (e.g. ‘Instruction’). Coaches utilised similar time proportions for CAIS ‘Practice’, ‘Playing’ and ‘Management’ states, respectively, with no significant change post-CEF. CART-Q and CBS-S results revealed predominantly positive perceptions between coaches and athletes for both pre-CEF and post-CEF. Coach education is a non-linear learning process requiring consistent application over long periods of time, however, the alteration in coach behaviours post-CEF, coupled with the largely positive perceptions of both agents of the coach–athlete dyad, is an encouraging step forward for the further implementation of the CEF.
هدف البَحْث الحالي الى تعرف المناخ الدافعي المدرك لدى طلبة الصف الرابع الاعدادي، وتعرف دلالة الفرق الاحصائي في المناخ الدافعي المدرك لمناخ الاداء على وفق النوع الاجتماعي (ذكور، إناث)، وايضا تعرف دلالة الفرق الاحصائي في المناخ الدافعي المدرك لمناخ الاتقان على وفق النوع الاجتماعي (ذكور، إناث). وقد آعْـتَمدَ الباحثان المنـهجَ الوصفي، لملاءمته اهداف البحث. وتكَوَّنَ مجتمع البَحْث الحالي مِنْ طلبة الصف الرابع الاعدادي في المَـدَارِس الإِعْـدادية الصباحية والتي تَقَــعُ ضِـمْن مَرْكَـز مدينة الحِلَّة والبالغ عددهم (4388) طالبا وطالبة للعام الدراسي (2019- 2020). آخـتارَ الباحثان من مجتمع البحث عينة عشوائية قوامها (260) طالبا وطالبة من طلبة الصف الرابع الاعدادي مقسمة بواقع (130) طالبا، و(130) طالبة وبنسبة بلغت حوالي (6%) من مجتمع البحث. ولتحقيق أهداف البحث، تبنى الباحثان مقياس لوري ومارثا (2013) Lori & Martha لقياس المناخ الدافعي المدرك، وبعد التحقق من صدق المقياس وثباته، طبق الباحثان المقياس على عينة البحث وقام بتفريغ البيانات ومعالجتها احصائيا باستعمال الاختبار التائي لعينة واحدة، والاختبار التائي لعينتين مستقلتين، وتم التَوَصَّـلُ إلى النتائج الآتية: 1- يوجد لدى افراد عينة الدراسة مدركات عن المناخ الدافعي المدرك (مناخ اداء). 2- يوجد فرق دال احصائيا عند مستوى دلالة (0,05) بين الذكور والاناث في مناخ الاداء، ولمصلحة الاناث، اي ان النوع الاجتماعي يؤثر في مستوى مناخ الاداء لدى عينة الدراسة. 3- يوجد فرق دال احصائيا عند مستوى دلالة (0,05) بين الذكور والاناث في مناخ الاتقان، ولمصلحة الذكور، اي ان النوع الاجتماعي يؤثر في مستوى مناخ الاتقان. وفي ضوء تلك النتائج، استنتج الباحثان عدداً من الاستنتاجات منها: 1- سيادة مناخ الاداء على بيئة التعلم لدى عينة البحث الحالي. 2- يؤثر النوع الاجتماعي (الاناث) في مناخ الاداء. 3- يؤثر النوع الاجتماعي (الذكور) في مناخ الاتقان. وفي ضوء تلك النتائج ايضا، وضع الباحثان عددا من المقترحات اهمها: تدريب المدرسين من خلال اقامة الدورات وورش العمل على استعمال طرائق التدريس الحديثة والخروج عن الطريقة التقليدية في التدريس لما لذلك من أثر كبير في خلق مناخ دافعي قائم على الاداء والاتقان معا لدى كلا الفرعين الدراسيين. ضرورة توفیر مناخ دافعي مناسب يعمل على زیادة الدافعیة للتعلم وتقویتھا عند الطلبة من خلال عدد الطلبة المناسب في كل صف (من 15- 20 طالباً لكل صف)، والاھتمام بالقاعات الدراسیة، وتوفیر المستلزمات العلمیة، وتحسين الأداء الفردي والمثابرة والإبداع. القيام بدراسات لتقديم تفسيرات معمقة أكثر لتعرف سبب اقتصار مدركات مناخ الاتقان على الطلاب الذكور عموماً، دون الطالبات الإناث.
In this empirical case study, we examine one of Finland’s most successful and respected coaches, Erkka Westerlund. Specifically, we adopted a career-focussed approach that traces his growth as an ice hockey coach through an in-depth understanding of his journey, including his early foray into coaching at 12 years of age, his eventual dismissal as a coach at 42 years of age, his hiatus from coaching, and then his return to national and international honours. The case is comprised of multiple data sources such as semistructured interviews and a raft of secondary sources such as media publications about the participant, his autobiography, and video recordings of him speaking at various conferences and events. Data were analysed through indwelling and reflexive thematic analysis. The pivotal turning point in Erkka Westerlund’s coaching journey was a 6-year sabbatical from coaching (1991–1997). This sabbatical was transformative for him as a person and coach. Specifically, this transformation clarified and aligned his coaching and personal identities, who he was as a person (core values), and the subsequent transformation of his coaching practices that led to national and international success.
The coach–athlete dyad is complex where both parties can often have contrasting perceptions of each other. The purpose of this research was to examine coaching behaviors and perceptions of the coach–athlete relationship across different age grades of rugby football union. Coaches ( n = 5) and athletes ( n = 78) from three separate rugby union teams (Child, Adolescent, and Adult) had their training sessions ( n = 3) analyzed using the Coach Analysis and Intervention System. Athlete perceptions of their coaches’ behaviors were measured via the Coaching Behavior Scale for Sport, while coach perceptions of their relationship with their athletes were measured using the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire. Prescriptive coaching styles were observed in all coaches as Coach Analysis and Intervention System results showed high levels of explicit behaviors: “instruction,” “direct management,” and “feedback.” All coaches utilized similar time proportions within sessions for Coach Analysis and Intervention System “Practice,” “Playing,” and “Management” states, respectively. Questionnaire results revealed positive perceptions between coaches and athletes for all teams. Despite positive bidirectional relationships, the prescriptive coaching style displayed by all coaches may not align to best coaching practice. Development of a coach’s behaviors, training content, and perceptions through coach education has the potential to enhance their athletes’ sporting experience, athletic development, and sport-specific competencies.
Adventure sports offer an exciting area of investigation regarding pedagogical best practices. Previous research points to the evolution of adventure sports coaching with the development and implementation of the PPTT (physical, psychological, technical, and tactical) framework. However, there is a missing area of consideration within the PPTT framework: the individual participating in the adventure sport. The growth and diversification of adventure sports necessitate consideration of language and reflection between the coach and athlete, and the current paper proposes the integration of a multicultural education lens to support this process. Thus, the main purpose of the current study was to investigate the utility of the PPTT as a framework to support reflective processes and as a common language to facilitate the coach–athlete relationship.
The Olympics is a unique and challenging performance setting that tests the strength of the coach–athlete relationship. The purpose of this study was to investigate the coach–athlete relationship prior to and during the Olympics with Olympic-medal-winning athletes and their coaches. Qualitative research methods were implemented where three Olympic medalist coach–athlete dyads participated in semistructured interviews. Data collection included three separate interviews (athlete, coach, and coach–athlete) for each dyad. Cross-case analysis identified three lower order themes related to creating an athlete-centered environment: (a) empowering effective decision making, (b) open and honest communication, and (c) mental cue-based instruction and feedback. In addition, three lower order themes related to developing a caring supportive relationship emerged: (a) developed trust, (b) commitment, and (c) gratitude. Results indicated that coaches and athletes perceived that their success at the Olympics Games was influenced by the strength of the coach–athlete relationship that was developed over multiple years prior to the Olympics.
There is growing recognition that effective coaching is not only about developing better athletes, but also about developing better people. To achieve this important goal, behavioural frameworks are needed to help coaches foster high-quality interpersonal relationships through their interactions with athletes. This chapter focuses on the principles of Transformational Coaching and how these principles can be practically implemented into real world sport settings. Recent research suggests that Transformational Coaching can be conceptualized using 11 distinct coaching behaviours. This chapter will (a) provide an overview of these 11 behaviours, (b) elaborate on how Transformational Coaching behaviours can foster positive developmental experiences, and (c) offer practical strategies for incorporating Transformational Coaching into everyday coach-athlete interactions.
India's increasing sedentary behavior among children and youth is becoming a national concern. Hence, developing an environment supportive of physical activity and sports would be a major means to increase the participation levels for adolescents. This study aims to examine differences in motivation to participate in physical activities and sports among students of three age categories, namely, early adolescence, middle adolescence and late adolescence. The result of factor analysis yielded a 19-item, four-factor structure on the participation motivation questionnaire (PMQ). Significant differences were found for all three age categories on the two extracted factors of sport action with friends and social status. Further, a significant difference has been identified between sex's students on the factor of health and fitness and social status. The study provides sound psychometric and comparative results that can potentially be useful for education and formative reviews in applied settings, for research purposes and as a measurement tool for embedding motivation towards participation in physical activities (PA) and sports among adolescents.
India’s increasing sedentary behavior among children and youth is becoming a national concern. Hence, developing an environment supportive of physical activity and sports would be a major means to increase the participation levels for adolescents. This study aims to examine differences in motivation to participate in physical activities and sports among students of three age categories, namely, early adolescence, middle adolescence and late adolescence. The result of factor analysis yielded a 19-item, four-factor structure on the participation motivation questionnaire (PMQ). Significant differences were found for all three age categories on the two extracted factors of sport action with friends and social status. Further, a significant difference has been identified between sex’s students on the factor of health and fitness and social status. The study provides sound psychometric and comparative results that can potentially be useful for education and formative reviews in applied settings, for research purposes and as a measurement tool for embedding motivation towards participation in physical activities (PA) and sports among adolescents.
In contrast to cross-sectional age trends of declining adult participation in sport, engagement in adventure sports is increasing among adults. The coach may have an important role to play in shaping the motivational climate to encourage and retain participants in adventure sport. The purpose of this study was to provide an in-depth examination of the coach-created motivational climate in non-competition focused adult adventure sport by adopting a multiple methods approach. The study was grounded in a multidimensional theoretical perspective that combines achievement goal theory (Nicholls, 1984; Ames, 1992) and self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Questionnaires, interviews, and observations of coaching sessions were employed to assess coaches’ (N=6), participants’ (N=25), and observers’ perspectives on the empowering and disempowering nature and features of coaching sessions. Analysis of the data demonstrated consistent views that the coaches’ created a strongly empowering and only weakly disempowering climate. Insight was gained about why and how coaches created this climate as well as the challenges they experienced in maintaining an empowering climate for adults in adventure sport contexts. The place of structure, control, relatedness support and coaches’ philosophies is discussed.
Bu çalışmanın amacı, beden eğitimi derslerinde uygulanan farklı öğretim stillerinin, öğrencilerin temel psikolojik ihtiyaçları üzerindeki etkisinin incelenmesidir. Bu kapsamda, Öğretim Stilleri Yelpazesi kuramında yer alan beş farklı öğretim stili (komut, alıştırma, eşli çalışma, kendini denetleme ve katılım) beş ayrı sınıfta altı hafta boyunca, temel voleybol becerilerini içeren bir program dahilinde hazırlanan ders planları doğrultusunda uygulanmış ve bu öğretim stillerinin lise öğrencilerinin psikolojik ihtiyaçlarının doyumu üzerindeki etkisi, Temel Psikolojik İhtiyaçlar kuramında yer alan özerklik, yeterlik ve ilişkili olma ihtiyaçları bağlamında incelenmiştir. Araştırmada ön test – son test içeren bir deneysel model benimsenmiştir. Deneysel süreç, altı saatlik eğitim verilen ve iki haftalık pilot çalışma uygulamalarına katılan deneyimli bir beden eğitimi öğretmeni tarafından yürütülmüştür. Araştırma verileri, deneysel sürecin öncesinde ve sonrasında İhtiyaç Doyumu Ölçeği aracılığıyla, 2018-2019 güz eğitim-öğretim yarıyılında Denizli ilinde bir Anadolu lisesinde öğrenim görmekte olan 160 dokuzuncu sınıf öğrencisinden (82 erkek, 78 kız) elde edilmiştir. Öğrencilerin almış oldukları son test puanlarından ön test puanları çıkartılarak elde edilen erişi puanları üzerine 5x3 MANOVA analizi uygulanmıştır. Araştırma bulguları, uygulanan farklı öğretim stillerinin, öğrencilerin özerklik ve yeterlik ihtiyaçları üzerinde anlamlı bir etki meydana getirmediğini göstermiştir. Diğer yandan, eşli çalışma öğretim stilinin uygulandığı grupta yer alan öğrencilerin ilişkili olma alt boyutundan aldıkları puanların; komut, alıştırma ve katılım stillerinin uygulandığı grupta yer alan öğrencilere kıyasla istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir artış gösterdiği tespit edilmiştir. Sonuç olarak, öğrencilerin ilişkili olma psikolojik ihtiyaçlarında doyumun sağlanabilmesi adına eşli çalışma öğretim stilinin kullanılması tavsiye edilmektedir.
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The purpose of this study is to analyse the effect of different teaching styles, which are carried on physical education lessons, on the basic psychological needs of students. In this respect, five different teaching style (command, practice, reciprocal, self-check and inclusion), which take part in The Spectrum of Teaching Styles Theory, have been carried out through the prepared lesson plans in terms of a program which includes basic volleyball skills in five different classes for six weeks and these teaching skills’ effect on basic psychological needs of high school students by means of autonomy, competence and relatedness needs which take part in Basic Psyhcological Needs Theory have been analysed. In the research, an experimental model which includes pre-test – post-test has been adopted. The experimental process has been conducted by an experienced physical education teacher who has gotten a six hour training and has attended two week pilot study practises. The research data have been gathered from 160 ninth grade students (82 male, 78 female), who were studying in an Anatolian high school in Denizli in the school semester of 2018-2019, through Need Satisfaction Scale both before and after the experimental process. 5x3 MANOVA anaylsis has been carried out upon gain scores which had been gathered by subtracting the pre-test scores from the post-test scores of students. The research findings has showed that applied different teaching styles don’t create a meaningful effect on students’ autonomy and competence needs. On the other hand, it has been detected that the scores which the students, who have taken part in the group in which reciprocal style was applied, got from sub-dimension of relatedness showed a meaningful rise; in comparison to the students who have taken part in the group in which command, practice and inclusion styles were applied. As a conclusion, the usage of reciprocal teaching style for the sake of supplying the satisfaction of students’ relatedness of psyhcological needs is recommended.
Gratitude, a character strength of positive psychology, is the affective-cognitive recognition and appreciation that one has benefitted from or received value from others (Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Gabana, Steinfeldt, Wong, & Chung, 2017). Higher levels of gratitude are negatively correlated to lower levels of burnout in NCAA student-athletes (Gabana et al., 2017). Furthermore, in coach-athlete relationships affect, behaviors, and cognitions are interconnected (Jowett & Ntoumanis, 2004). This study investigated the relationships between coach-athlete relationships and gratitude, athlete burnout and gratitude, and trait gratitude versus state gratitude among NCAA student-athletes. Participants (N=596) from NCAA Divisions I (n=305), II (n=202), and III (n=89) institutions completed an online survey consisting of the Gratitude Questionnaire-6 (McCullough, Emmons, & Tsang, 2002), Gratitude Adjective Checklist (McCullough et al., 2002), Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (Raedeke & Smith, 2001), and the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (Jowett & Ntoumanis, 2004). Correlational analysis revealed a significant moderate relationship between coach-athlete relationships and sport-specific state gratitude (r=0.500, p<0.001, r2=0.250), and a significant moderately high relationship between athlete burnout and sport-specific state gratitude (r=-0.667, p<0.001, r2=0.445). Trait gratitude was significantly (p<0.001) moderately related to general state gratitude (r=0.422) and had a significant (p<0.001) low strength relationship with sport-specific state gratitude (r=0.324). The relationship between athlete burnout and trait gratitude was low (r=-0.234, p<0.001, r2=0.055), revealing a slightly stronger relationship than previous findings (Gabana et al., 2017). Results are consistent with previous research on burnout and gratitude in sports (Chen & Kee, 2008; Gabana et al., 2017). This study is the first to examine coach-athlete relationships and gratitude, as well as adapt the GAC for sport-specific use. Results suggest that gratitude may serve as a buffer against athlete burnout, and that strong coach-athlete relationships may increase athlete gratitude. Further research is needed to determine best practices for gratitude interventions and coach-athlete relationship development.
Youth sport has been identified as a viable means to facilitate positive youth development (PYD) and nurture fully prepared and contributing adults. However, questions have arisen regarding elite youth sport as a context to effectively foster PYD, and specifically the role of the coach in this process. To explore how coaches facilitate PYD in elite youth sport, the first author immersed himself in the elite youth hockey setting as an assistant coach. Using an ethnographic research design, he observed four AAA minor hockey head coaches of four teams in a large urban center in Ontario over the course of one season. In addition, each coach participated in two semistructured interviews. Framed within the COM-B model, we examined how coaches’ capabilities, opportunities, and motivations influenced their behaviors related to facilitating PYD. The coaches discussed and demonstrated several behaviors (e.g., setting high standards, providing leadership opportunities, communicating with the athletes) with the potential to facilitate PYD; however, the sport structure (i.e., professional sports model that focuses on competition and performance from early childhood) often restricted their ability to do so. Further, coaches’ own motivations to achieve performance success presented a challenge to fostering PYD on some occasions. The results are situated within PYD literature and may evoke practical considerations for elite youth sport coaches aiming to foster PYD more effectively.
Lay summary: Four AAA minor hockey coaches were interviewed and observed over the course of a season. Although the coaches were capable and motivated when it came to fostering the personal development of their players, the performance-oriented structure of the minor hockey system meant that coaches often prioritized winning over player development.
How Generation Z athletes' (those born after 1996) characteristics influence coaching practice has not been examined. This study examines coaches' perceptions of Gen Z athlete characteristics, challenges, and effective coaching strategies. Twelve highly experienced coaches and sport science providers were interviewed and revealed that coaches characterized Gen Z athletes as having excellent technology skills, high expectations for success, short attention spans, poor communication skills, and an inability to deal with adversity. Challenges included connecting with them and working with their support networks. Strategies included connecting process with performance, teaching communication skills, being direct, setting clear expectations, and building resiliency.
Lay Summary
Coaches' perceptions of Gen Z athletes (athletes born after 1996 and having grown up in a totally digital world) characteristics, the challenges working with them, and effective Gen Z coaching strategies were examined. Interviews with 12 highly experienced tennis coaches revealed both positive (e.g., highly educated, high expectations for success) and negative (e.g., finding ways to connect with them, working with support network) characteristics, as well as strategies for effectively coaching them (e.g., connecting process with performance, teaching basic communication skills).
Explored the effects of a 14-wk cognitive-behavioral teaching program (CBP) vs a physical skills intervention vs no training on the motivation, preparation, and putting performance of 65 adult novice golfers. The Sport Motivation Scale was used to measure intrinsic vs introjected forms of self-regulation. Pre-putt routines and actual putting performance were measured by observer ratings. Ss completed all dependent measures prior to training and at 3 additional times over 4-wk intervals. Ss in the CBP displayed enhanced intrinsic motivation, more consistent use of pre-putt routines, and improved putting performance relative to Ss in the other 2 groups. CBP Ss also showed a significantly reduced use of introjection, which reflects a harsh, self-evaluative form of self-regulation similar to ego involvement. Cognitive-behavioral approaches seem to be effective for performance enhancement and can produce positive motivational effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
UniversitC du QuCbec B MontrCal A new measure of motivation toward sport has been developed in French, namely the Echelle de Motivation vis-h-vis les Sports. Two studies were conducted to translate and validate this new measure in English. The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) consists of seven subscales that measure three types of Intrinsic Motivation (IM; IM to Know, IM to Accomplish Things, and IM to Experience Stimulation), three forms of regulation for Extrinsic Motivation (Identified, Introjected, and External), and Amotivation. The first study con-firmed the factor structure of the scale and revealed a satisfactory level of internal consistency. Correlations among the subscales revealed a simplex pattern confirming the self-determination continuum and the construct valid-ity of the scale. Gender differences were similar to those obtained with the French-Canadian version. The more self-determined forms of motivation were associated with more positive responses on related consequences. In a second study, the SMS was administered on two occasions and revealed adequate test-retest reliability.
The aim of the present study was to verify, during a stressful sport competition, the associations between motivational antecedents and consequences of the coping process. Using a two-wave design, we tested a model that incorporates motivational orientations, coping dimensions, goal attainment, and affective states among athletes (N = 122). Path analyses using EQS revealed that self-determination toward sport positively predicted the use of task-oriented coping strategies during a stressful sport competition, while non-self-determined motivation predicted the use of disengagement-oriented coping strategies. Task-oriented coping, in turn, was positively associated with the level of goal attainment experienced in the competition, whereas disengagement-oriented coping was negatively associated with goal attainment. Finally, level of goal attainment was positively linked to an increase in positive emotional states from pre- to postcompetition, and negatively associated with an increase in negative emotional states. Findings are discussed in light of coping frameworks, self-determination theory, and the consequences of motivational and coping processes on psychological functioning.
According to self-determination theory, when the social context is autonomy supportive, people are motivated to internalize the regulation of important activities, and whereas when the context is controlling, self-determined motivation is undermined. A model that incorporates perceptions of coaches' interpersonal behaviors (autonomy support vs. control), 5 forms of regulation (intrinsic motivation, identified, introjected and external regulation, and amotivation), and persistence was tested with competitive swimmers (N = 369) using a prospective 3-wave design. Analyses using structural equation modeling revealed that experiencing relationships as controlling fostered non–self-determined forms of regulation (external regulation and amotivation). Greater levels of self-determined motivation occurred when relationships were experienced as autonomy supportive. Individuals who exhibited self-determined types of regulation at Time 1 showed more persistence at both Time 2 (10 months later) and Time 3 (22 months later). Individuals who were amotivated at Time 1 had the highest rate of attrition at both Time 2 and Time 3. Introjected regulation was a significant predictor of persistence at Time 2 but became nonsignificant at Time 3. External regulation was not a significant predictor of behavior at Time 2, but became negatively associated with persistence at Time 3. The findings are discussed in light of the determinants of the internalization process and the consequences of different forms of self-regulation for psychological functioning.
Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theory has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatedness--which when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and processes within domains such as health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy.
The aim of this paper is to present a motivational model of the coach-athlete relationship that describes how coaches may influence athletes' motivation. In line with cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan, 1980, 1985) and the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997, 2000), a motivational sequence is proposed where coaches' personal orientation towards coaching, the context within which they operate, and their perceptions of their athletes' behaviour and motivation influence coaches' behaviours. Also, coaches' behaviours in the form of autonomy-supportive behaviours, provision of structure and involvement have a beneficial impact on athletes' needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, which, in turn, nurture athletes' intrinsic motivation and self-determined types of extrinsic motivation. Here, we first review coaches' autonomy-supportive behaviours. We then describe the psychological processes through which coaching behaviours have a positive influence on athletes' intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation. Finally, we identify social and personality processes that determine coaching behaviours.
The purpose of this study was to examine the motivational effects of two different teaching styles in one sport activity. One class of 24 girls was taught track and field for 10 weeks, each lesson being taught with either a direct (practice) or a differentiated (inclusion) teaching style. After each lesson the girls completed self-report measures of intrinsic motivation and goal involvement. On course completion, 8 girls were interviewed to assess their reactions to the course. ANOVA showed that students reporting higher levels of competence, autonomy, and task orientation had higher intrinsic motivation scores throughout the course. However, teaching style was also found to have an independent effect; the differentiated style was associated with higher levels of intrinsic motivation and task goal involvement and lower levels of work avoidance involvement. A differentiated teaching style can positively influence young girls’ reactions to a sports activity independently of perceptions of goal orientations,...
Background and Purpose: What drives some athletes to achieve at the highest level whilst other athletes fail to achieve their physical potential? Why does the ‘fire’ burn so brightly for some elite athletes and not for others? A good understanding of an athlete’s motivation is critical to a coach designing an appropriate motivational climate to realize an athlete’s physical talent. This paper examines the motivational processes of elite athletes within the framework of three major social-cognitive theories of motivation.Method: Participants were five male and five female elite track and field athletes from Australia who had finished in the top ten at either the Olympic Games and/or the World Championships in the last six years. Qualitative data were collected using semi-structured interviews.Results and Discussion: Inductive analyses revealed several major themes associated with the motivational processes of elite athletes: (a) they were highly driven by personal goals and achievement, (b) they had strong self-belief, and (c) track and field was central to their lives. The findings are discussed in light of recent social-cognitive theories of motivation, namely, self-determination theory, the hierarchical model of motivation, and achievement goal theory. Self-determined forms of motivation characterised the elite athletes in this study and, consistent with social-cognitive theories of motivation, it is suggested that goal accomplishment enhances perceptions of competence and consequently promotes self-determined forms of motivation.
Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) posits that (a) people are inherently motivated to internalize the regulation of uninteresting though important activities; (b) there are two different processes through which such internalization can occur, resulting in qualitatively different styles of self-regulation; and (c) the social context influences which internalization process and regulatory style occur. The two types of internalization are introjection, which entails taking in a value or regulatory process but not accepting it as one's own, and integration, through which the regulation is assimilated with one's core sense of self. Introjection results in internally controlling regulation, whereas integration results in self-determination. An experiment supported our hypothesis that three facilitating contextual factors--namely, providing a meaningful rationale, acknowledging the behaver's feelings, and conveying choice--promote internalization, as evidenced by the subsequent self-regulation of behavior. This experiment also supported our expectation that when the social context supports self-determination, integration tends to occur, whereas when the context does not support self-determination, introjection tends to occur.
In this study, we examined aspects of the 4 x 100 m relay that are amenable to mathematical analysis. We looked at factors that affect the time required to complete the relay, focusing on the performance of elite male athletes. Factors over which the individual athletes, and the team coach, can exercise some control are: the starting positions of the runners on legs 2, 3 and 4, the positions at which baton exchanges occur, the free distances at the baton exchanges and the running order of the athletes. The lane draw is shown to have an important influence on the relay time, although it is outside the control of the team coach. Teams drawn in the outside lanes benefit from the inverse relation between bend radius of curvature and running speed. For teams composed of athletes with different times over 100 m, we show that the fastest relay times are achieved with the fastest athlete taking the first leg, with the slowest two runners allocated to the final two legs.
Using mathematical analysis, we examined the three baton exchanges that occur during a 4 x 100 m relay. Identical representative 100 m running performances were assumed for each of four elite male athletes, and the calculations were made for optimal or near-optimal positions of the baton exchanges and starting positions of the athletes running the second, third and fourth legs as determined by Ward-Smith and Radford (2002). In this paper, we focus on the calculation of the checkmark position and demonstrate the complexity of the baton exchange process. The results of the mathematical analysis show that, for optimal performance, the checkmark should be located differently for each of the three exchanges in a single race, and is further affected bylane draw and free distance (the distance between the runners at the baton exchange). For a representative free distance of 1 m at each exchange, the checkmark distance ranges from a minimum of 11.04 m at the third exchange in Lane 1 to 12.20 m for the first exchange in Lane 8. Failure by teams and their coaches to consider adequately the complexities of the baton exchanges may help explain why 25.5% of teams in recent World Championships were disqualified or did not finish.
Medals earned, lessons learned
- J Bales
- D Henwood
Bales, J., & Henwood, D. (2004). Medals earned, lessons learned. Coaches Report, 11(2),
4-13.
Greek myths and legends. Modern Athlete and Coach
- T Bidder
Bidder, T. (2005). Greek myths and legends. Modern Athlete and Coach, 43(1), 4-7.
Handbook of self-determination research
- E L Deci
- R M Ryan
Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. Rochester, NY:
The University of Rochester Press.
Development of expertise: The role of coaching, families, and cultural contexts
- J H Salmela
- L C Moraes
Salmela, J.H., & Moraes, L.C. (2003). Development of expertise: The role of coaching,
families, and cultural contexts. In J.L. Starkes & K.A. Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sports: Advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 275-294). Champaign,
IL: Human Kinetics.