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Culture and Generativity
Abstract
This volume brings together experts in generativity and related fields to provide a compelling overview of contemporary research and theory on this topic. Generativity refers to a concern for—or acting towards—the benefit of future generations as a legacy of the self; it has implications for outcomes at the individual, relational and social, and broader societal levels. Understanding the role and expressions of generativity at various stages of our lives is important to the sense of well-being and purpose, and it impacts parenting, caregiving, and social relationships, as well as having implications for activities and experiences in the workforce, and in voluntary activities in communities and the wider society. The chapters in this volume explore the meaning and impact of generativity across development and across life contexts and roles. They address generativity within a particular area or life domain, or period of the lifespan, and outline key methods and findings, as well as theoretical issues and applied implications. The volume represents the first comprehensive exploration of generativity from early to late adulthood; it offers a broad international perspective and will inform research into generativity across multiple cultures.
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The rural teaching profession demands a genuine commitment to the development of future generations, ensuring a legacy that transcends time. Thus, generativity would be a characteristic dimension of the teaching function manifested in various forms, roles and tasks aimed at caring for students and their communities of origin. Objective: To explore the relational dynamics that rural teachers have constructed throughout their life trajectories and how these have influenced the potentially generative development of their teaching identity. Method: an interpretative-qualitative approach was adopted, following a descriptive, exploratory and cross-sectional design. The purposive sample consisted of twelve teachers with an average of 33 years of experience in rural schools in the Metropolitan Region, La Araucanía and Los Ríos (Chile). In-depth interviews from a narrative-generative perspective were used to collect the data. Subsequently, the stories were subjected to content analysis, following the logic of Grounded Theory. Results: The teachers show a potentially generative development, expressed in the construction of relational dynamics of trust, reciprocity and positive affection with their students. With their peers, they demonstrate collaborative practices, teamwork and orientation towards continuous improvement in their professional work. At the management level, they stand out for their leadership skills and commitment to the development of rural communities.
Erikson (Identity: Youth and crisis, W.W. Norton & Company, 1968) theorized identity and generativity as predominant personality developmental tasks in adolescence and midlife (respectively). However, existing literature reveals that not only can both constructs be equally prominent for midlife women (Newton and Stewart, Psychology of Women Quarterly 34:75–84, 2010), they are also dynamically inter-related (Kroger, Whitbourne (ed), Encyclopedia of adulthood and aging, Wiley-Blackwell, 2016), although how, specifically, these two constructs are related, and what role culture and activism might play in their expression are both less well-known. The present study examined middle-aged female activists’ expressions of identity in relation to generativity across two cultural contexts. Ten interview transcripts from the Global Feminisms Project (Institute for Research on Women and Gender (2002) Global Feminisms Project. Retrieved from https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/globalfeminisms/) provided by five Chinese and five American middle-aged female activists were examined. Transcript narratives were coded for themes of identity and generativity using a coding scheme based on Erikson’s writings. Findings showed that female activists in both cultural contexts integrated identity and generativity by expressing themes that consisted of both constructs. However, Chinese women activists expressed their identity by integrating generativity more so than their American counterparts. These results underscore identity and generativity as inter-related constructs that overlap among middle-aged women, as well as cultural variations both within and between groups.
Intergenerational transmission of generativity is a process through which one generation passes elements of its generative potential, such as values and patterns of behavior, on to another. So far, most research on intergenerational transmission of generativity came from relatively stable societies, where the transmission process might be facilitated by the fact that adjacent generations face relatively similar socioeconomic challenges and can therefore make use of similar solutions. In contrast, our study focused on the relationships between parental and offspring characteristics in the context of a society that had undergone a major macro-social change in the past few decades, involving the downfall of the communist regime and subsequent transformation of major political, cultural, and social structures and norms. Apart from examining whether relationships between parental and offspring generative concern and action would show patterns similar to those observed in previous studies, we looked at intergenerational similarities in stagnation, which was recently redefined as a construct partly separable from generativity (Van Hiel et al. Journal of Personality, 74(2), 543–574, 2006). One hundred and twenty-three predominantly female university students and their parents completed measures of generative concern, generative action, stagnation, and Big Five personality traits. Multiple-group path analysis revealed that the structure of the relationships between generativity, stagnation and personality traits did not differ significantly between the groups of parents and offspring. Further analyses showed that parental generative concern was not related to offspring generative concern, but maternal generative action was significantly related to offspring generative action, and maternal stagnation was significantly related to offspring stagnation. The parental level of education was unrelated to offspring generativity or stagnation. These results indicate a certain degree of intergenerational continuity of generativity and stagnation, especially their behavioral components, even though the two generations in our study were raised in different socio-cultural contexts.
Generativity, “a concern for others and a need to contribute something to the next generation,” is a dimension of successful aging in and of itself, but also predicts other positive health outcomes. We examine its manifestations and correlates among elderly in rural India and assess the association between generativity and quality of life (QoL). Three hundred and forty-eight rural Indian elderly completed an interviewer-assisted questionnaire assessing generativity, QoL, and other personal and familial factors. Regression models were used to examine potential correlates of generativity and the relationship between generativity and QoL. Higher education, inheritance income, more living children, and a son/daughter living in the home predicted higher levels of generativity. Higher levels of generativity were associated with higher QoL. There are both personal and familial correlates of generativity, and family relationships are important for generative development. Family-oriented interventions to increase generativity among elderly Indians could improve QoL.
An important aspect of human development in midlife is, according to E. Erikson’s theory, the successful resolution of the crisis between generativity and stagnation. Generativity is understood as focusing one’s energy on productivity and creativity - the creation of new works and ideas dedicated to future generations. It is assumed that generativity results from personal needs and constitutes a response to the social expectations directed at individuals. Concern for the next generation does not go hand-in-hand with concern for the personal development of a person in midlife and this imbalance may lead to a psychological discomfort and a sense of martyrdom. Accordingly, it can therefore be concluded that a person focusing on the well-being of the social environment and neglecting her/himself is incapable of feeling that they are a subject that manages their fate and makes decisions enabling them to achieve personal psychological well-being. It could, therefore, be expected that the fulfilment of generative goals may lead to a reduction in the psychological well-being of a representative of middle adulthood. Empirical data has not confirmed this expectation.
The present study examines the association between various facets of generativity, that is, cultural demand for generativity, generative concern, and generative action, with the satisfaction of the needs for relatedness, competence, and autonomy in samples of elderly from Cameroon, China (Hong Kong), the Czech Republic, and Germany. Participants provided information on self-transcendence values (internalized cultural demand), generative concern and action, and need satisfaction. Results suggest, first, that internalized cultural demand affects generative action indirectly through generative concern, second, that generative concern has a positive direct effect on need satisfaction, but that, third, there is also an indirect effect of generative concern on need satisfaction through generative action, which, fourth, is positive for the needs for relatedness and competence but negative for the need for autonomy. These findings were culture-invariant in our study, suggesting generalizability to other cultures. They are discussed with respect to the role of values in generativity and a possible trade-off of generative action for the satisfaction of needs at least in the elderly. (PsycINFO Database Record
We present the development and the underlying structure of a personality inventory for the main ethnocultural groups of South Africa, using an emic-etic approach. The South African Personality Inventory (SAPI) was developed based on an extensive qualitative study of the implicit personality conceptions in the country's 11 official languages (Nel et al., 2012). Items were generated and selected (to a final set of 146) with a continuous focus on cultural adequacy and translatability. Students and community adults (671 Blacks, 198 Coloreds, 104 Indians, and 391 Whites) completed the inventory. A 6-dimensional structure (comprising a positive and a negative Social-Relational factor, Neuroticism, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and Openness) was equivalent across groups and replicated in an independent sample of 139 Black and 270 White students. The SAPI correlated highly overall with impression-management aspects, but lower with lying aspects of social desirability. The SAPI social-relational factors were distinguishable from the Big Five in a joint factor analysis; the multiple correlations with the Big Five were .64 (positive) and .51 (negative social-relational). Implications and suggestions for emic-etic instrument and model development are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
This article explores the role of social engagement (family and community support) in Alaska Native (AN) Elders’ definitions of successful ageing, why social engagement is important to the health and well-being of AN Elders. In terms of methods, each tribal council nominated AN Elders, ranging in age from 61 to 93 years old, resulting in a purposive sample of 25. Interviews consisted of open- and closed-ended questions, ranging from 45 to 90 minutes. Content analysis was used to find recurring themes and infer meaning from the data and understand the ageing process in rural Alaska. The Elders discussed the importance of family and community, not only as a source of support but also as part of their culture and identity. Family support provided them with meaningful roles in their family, which contributed to their well-being, optimism and generative behaviours. Community support involved Elders’ inclusion in community events and activities and feeling they were supported and meaningfully engaged by their community. The themes in this study highlight the importance of social engagement for AN Elders. This study suggests that perhaps more focus should be placed on social engagement of AN Elders to ensure successful ageing and not just physical and mental health conditions. This Indigenous psychology perspective on positive ageing may serve as a point of dialogue with future First Nations studies of generativity in old age globally.
Generativity has been argued to be an important indicator of successful aging. Indeed, generative concern has been found to be associated with meaning in life. In the present study, this relationship is argued to be partly explained through generative goals. Moreover, the path between generative goals and meaning in life is hypothesized to be conditional on belief in the species (assessed through Machiavellianism as a proxy variable). This moderated mediation model is tested with data from 4 cultural samples: 856 Cameroonian, Czech, German, and Hong Kong Chinese participants aged at least 60 years provided information on their generative concern, generative goals, meaning in life, and Machiavellianism. Controlling for effects of relationship, level of education, everyday competence, and cognitive functioning on meaning in life, analyses confirmed the moderated mediation model in all cultural samples. That is, generative concern is partly associated with meaning in life because it leads to generative goals. In turn, these provide individuals with meaning in life. This association, however, depends on belief in the species in that meaning in life does not increase when Machiavellian attitudes compete with generative goals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
This study explores the motivations and commitment to volunteering in a sample of Argentinian adults, and it analyzes the role of generativity. The sample consisted of 200 volunteers who were purposively selected from five volunteer organizations in the city of Córdoba (Argentina). Participants were assigned to three age groups: young volunteers (18-39 years old), middle-aged volunteers (40-59 years old), and older volunteers (60 or plus years old). The motivations of "values" and "understanding" obtained the highest scores. No relevant differences were found between age groups in the motivations and commitment to volunteering. Generative concern showed more predictive value for motivations and commitment to volunteering than any of the sociodemographic variables considered in the study. The results are discussed at the light of considering volunteering as an expression of generativity in different stages of the life cycle.
Objectives
To examine the unique contribution of generative leisure activities, defined as activities motivated by a concern for others and a need to contribute something to the next generation.DesignCross-sectional survey.SettingPeri-urban and rural area in southern Sri Lanka.ParticipantsCommunity-dwelling adults aged 60 and older (N = 252).MeasurementsThe main predictors were leisure activities, grouped into generative, social, or solitary. The main outcome was cognitive function, assessed using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and the Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE).ResultsMore-frequent engagement in generative leisure activities was associated with higher levels of cognitive function, independent of the effect of other social and solitary leisure activities. In a fully adjusted model combining all three leisure activities, generative activities independently predicted cognitive function as measured using the MoCA (β = 0.47, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.11–0.83) and the IQCODE (β = −0.81, 95% CI = −1.54 to −0.09). In this combined model, solitary activities were also independently associated with slower cognitive decline using the MoCA (β = 0.40, 95% CI = 0.16–0.64) but not the IQCODE (β = −0.38, 95% CI = −0.88–0.12); the association with social activities did not reach statistical significance with either measure. These associations did not differ meaningfully according to sex.Conclusion
Generative leisure activities are a promising area for the development of interventions aimed at reducing cognitive decline in elderly adults.
Purpose of the Study: We examined the relationships among development of generativity, generative acts, and psychological well-being in old age and the possible mediating effects of perceived rejection and respect from younger generations. We hypothesized that generative action would not lead to well-being unless responding elders perceived respect from younger generations, and, further, that perceived respect would predict the development of generativity.
In Study 1, we sampled 252 older persons to verify our hypothetical model in a cross-sectional survey. We assessed generative concern, generative action, perceived rejection from younger people, and psychological well-being. In Study 2, the same measures and a new scale to measure perceived respect from younger people were administered in a longitudinal survey. Four hundred older adults responded at 2 time points, 12 months apart.
Path analysis showed that the effect of generative action on ill-being was mediated by perceived rejection and respect from younger generations. Perceived respect from younger generations at baseline predicted an increase in generative concern 12 months later.
The results suggest that positive intergenerational interaction leads to generativity development and better well-being in old age.
This article examines methodological issues related to the measurement of implicit motives in culturally divergent samples. Implicit motives are seen as basic needs shared by all human beings. However, crosscultural comparisons are very restricted because many cross-cultural studies on implicit motives with non-Western cultures developed and discussed culture-inherent stimuli. The aim of the study here was to search for a culture-independent set of picture stimuli measuring two basic motives (affiliation and power motive) in three different cultures. Two pretests and one main study were carried out in Cameroon, Costa Rica, and Germany with student and nonstudent samples, respectively, and an extended methodological cross-cultural analysiswas conducted. Construct bias, method bias, and item bias that threaten the cross-cultural comparability of findings were addressed. In analyses, unbiased culture-independent sets of picture stimuli were identified that can be used for cross-cultural comparisons of these two implicit motives.
Discusses the translation of psychological instruments in cross-cultural research. A taxonomy of bias ranging from unobserved ethnocentrism in constructs to incorrect word choice in translations is provided. Three types of bias are distinguished: (1) construct bias (related to nonequivalence of constructs across cultural groups), (2) method bias (resulting from instrument administration problems), and (3) item bias (often a result of inadequate translations such as incorrect word choice). Ways in which bias can affect the adequacy of instruments are illustrated. Guidelines for test translations are outlined and are fully described. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Erikson already emphasized the importance of remaining generative in old age. Current instruments designed to measure generativity, however, were developed to be used with middle-aged adults. In a sample of older adults (N = 195), three newly developed instruments measuring different facets of generativity, each with several scales, were applied and tested with regard to methodological issues (internal structure, internal consistency of scales), bivariate associations with established instruments of generativity and social desirability, and age and gender differences. The study results confirmed that the theoretically assumed factor structure and characteristics of the scales support the assessment of generativity in a multidimensional way in older adults. Positive associations with the Loyola Generativity Scale (LGS) demonstrate a positive validation result. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Generativity may be conceived in terms of 7 interrelated features: cultural demand, inner desire, generative concern, belief in the species, commitment, generative action, and personal narration. Two studies describe the development and use of 3 assessment strategies designed to tap into the generativity features of concern, action, and narration. A self-report scale of generative concern, the Loyola Generativity Scale (LGS), exhibited good internal consistency and retest reliability and showed strong positive associations with reports of actual generative acts (e.g., teaching a skill) and themes of generativity in narrative accounts of important autobiographical episodes. In 1 sample of adults between the ages of 19 and 68, LGS scores of fathers were higher than those of men who had never had children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article presents a theory of potentially universal aspects in the content of human values. Ten types of values are distinguished by their motivational goals. The theory also postulates a structure of relations among the value types, based on the conflicts and compatibilities experienced when pursuing them. This structure permits one to relate systems of value priorities, as an integrated whole, to other variables. A new values instrument, based on the theory and suitable for cross-cultural research, is described. Evidence relevant for assessing the theory, from 97 samples in 44 countries, is summarized. Relations of this approach to Rokeach's work on values and to other theories and research on value dimensions are discussed. Application of the approach to social issues is exemplified in the domains of politics and intergroup relations.
This article proposes that psychological research published in APA journals focuses too narrowly on Americans, who comprise less than 5% of the world's population. The result is an understanding of psychology that is incomplete and does not adequately represent humanity. First, an analysis of articles published in six premier APA journals is presented, showing that the contributors, samples, and editorial leadership of the journals are predominantly American. Then, a demographic profile of the human population is presented to show that the majority of the world's population lives in conditions vastly different from the conditions of Americans, underlining doubts of how well American psychological research can be said to represent humanity. The reasons for the narrowness of American psychological research are examined, with a focus on a philosophy of science that emphasizes fundamental processes and ignores or strips away cultural context. Finally, several suggestions for broadening the scope of American psychology are offered.
4 modes of reacting to the late adolescent identity crisis were described, measured, and validated. Criteria for inclusion in 1 of 4 identity statuses were the presence of crisis and commitment in the areas of occupation and ideology. Statuses were determined for 86 college male Ss by means of individual interviews. Performance on a stressful concept-attainment task, patterns of goal setting, authoritarianism, and vulnerability to self-esteem change were dependent variables. Ss higher in ego identity performed best on the concept-attainment task; those in the status characterized by adherence to parental wishes set goals unrealistically high and subscribed significantly more to authoritarian values. Failure of the self-esteem condition to discriminate among the statuses was attributed to unreliability in self-esteem measurement.
This article is an attempt to study the neglected linkages between culture and aggression. It does so by conceptualizing culture as a set of affordances and constraints that channel the expression of coercive means of social control by self and others. All cultural systems represent solutions to the problems associated with distributing desired material and social resources among its group members while maintaining social order and harmony. Norms are developed surrounding the exercise of mutual influence in the process of resource allocation, favoring some and marginalizing others. Violations of these norms by resource competitors are conceptualized as "aggressive" behaviors and stimulate a process of justified counter attack, escalating the violence. The current data from both societal-level and individual-level studies are examined and integrated in light of this organizing framework, and future studies are proposed to explore the interface between culture and aggression more productively.
Objectives: Reminiscence is considered an important aspect of successful ageing. Prominent reminiscence functions in old age are to pass on important experiences (Teach/Inform) and to prepare for death (Death Preparation). These reminiscence functions were hypothesized to be associated with generative behavior which in turn was hypothesized to be associated with meaning in life. Thus, we tested an indirect effect of reminiscence functions on meaning in life mediated by generative behavior.
Method: Elderly participants provided information on reminiscence functions, generative behavior, and meaning in life. Participants were recruited in Cameroon, China (Hong Kong), the Czech Republic, and Germany, to test the generalizability of findings.
Results: The assumed indirect effect was identified: Reminiscence functions were associated with meaning in life via generative behavior. This pattern was found for all cultural samples.
Conclusion: Albeit results have to be interpreted with caution as they are based on cross-sectional data, findings suggest that these reminiscence functions motivate generative behavior and thus indirectly affect meaning in life in elderlies from all four cultural contexts. In future studies, this effect needs to be replicated with a broader age range and a more fine-grained measure of generative behavior to account for potential differences in culturally appropriate generative outlets.
Objectives:
Generativity, or concern with contributing to others, is theorized to be an important goal of mid-to-late life. Greater self-perceptions of generativity are associated with better well-being over time. The aim of this study is to examine how generative self-perceptions and failure to meet generative expectations over time are linked to specific cognitive-affective states (feelings of connectedness, self-worth, and positive affect), and consequently, life satisfaction.
Method:
Analyses used data from Waves 2 and 3 of the National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States (MIDUS). Multiple mediation was utilized to assess whether these cognitive-affective states linked generative failure to decreased life satisfaction. A Johnson-Neyman moderation analysis determined whether these associations vary with age.
Results:
In demographically-adjusted regressions, generative contributions and expectations were associated with greater perceived social connectedness, self worth, and positive affect. Generative failure was associated with lower life satisfaction, a link that was strongest in the middle-aged and young-old and mediated by the cognitive-affective states.
Discussion:
Greater feelings of generativity, and more positive expectations for future contributions, are associated cross-sectionally and over time with better affective well-being. Positive affect, social connectedness, and self-worth may partially explain why generative failure over time is linked to decreased life satisfaction.
This cross-cultural study examined a potential direct effect of generativity and indirect effect through ego integrity on fear of death. In sum, 617 adults aged 60-86 from Germany, the Czech Republic, and Cameroon provided self-report information on their generative concern, ego integrity, and fear of death. Whereas it had no direct effect, generativity had an indirect effect on fear of death: It was associated with increased ego integrity which, in turn, was associated with reduced fear of death. This pattern was verified for the three cultural groups via structural equation modeling. Results suggest that generativity is not sufficient in coming to terms with one's mortality. Instead, generativity contributes to ego integrity which then helps to face death relatively unafraid.
To provide a systematic view of the development of scholarly productivity in thanatology, we coded over 1,550 articles published in the field's leading journals, Omega and Death Studies, for the 20-year period from 1991 to 2010. Tracing trends in the authorship of this evolving literature, we report evidence for (a) the increasing feminization of the field, reflected in the elimination of the gender imbalance in authorship that previously favored male scholars, (b) the emergence of larger and more cohesive networks of collaboration in the production of research, and (c) the diversification in nationality of authorship, signaled by a substantial surge in both the number of countries producing such research and in the percentage of the overall literature arising outside the traditionally American "home base" of the field. Taken together, these trends suggest maturation of thanatology as a scientific area, as well as the productivity of the individual scholars who jointly comprise this interdisciplinary specialty.
La nécessité se fait sentir, pour les psychologizes qui travaillent dans une perspective interculturelle, d'expliciter leurs méthodes et de parvenir à un certain consensus qui permette de juger et de comparer les résultats. L'auteur propose ici un cadre de travail méthodologique pour la recherche interculturelle, qui s'inspire des discussions passées de certains anthropologues. Trois conditions s'avèrent nécessaires si l'on veut donner quelque validité aux comparaisons interculturelles des comportements: 1° Il faut d'abord démontrer qu'il y a équivalence fonctionnelle des comportements dans l'une et l'autre des cultures considérées; c'est-à-dire que seul, un comportement qui cst une réponse à un problème identique peut ětre comparé. 2° On peut, à titre d'essai, partir d'une conception du comportement observe qui est indépendante des cultures considérées (généralité hypothétique) à condition que ce soit seulement comme point de départ et que ce comportement soit ensuite conçu dans les termes měmes de chaque culture (particularité). Les aspects communs peuvent alors ětre utilisés pour construire un cadre de comparaison valide pour les deux cultures (généralité dérivée) et měme pour toutes les autres cultures (universalité). 3° Des instruments et des techniques de mesure peuvent alors ětre inventés, qui seront basés sur ce cadre de comparaison, pour autant qu'on puisse atteindre une équivalence conceptuclle. A titre d'exemple, les notions d'intelligence et de dépendance du champ sont discutées dans cette perspective méthodologique. L'auteur invite les lecteurs à commenter et à discuter le cadre de travail qu'il propose.
Based on a random sample of 200 empirical articles, the present study made a historical analysis of the contents of Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology (JCCP) in the period between 1970 and 2004. In comparison to older studies, recent studies tended to be more social-psychological, and more often employed self-reports, based the choice of cultures on theoretical grounds, and adopted a hypothesis-testing approach. A persistent strong focus on cross-cultural differences and a simultaneous underrating of cross-cultural similarities was found. The majority of studies in which only cross-cultural differences were expected, reported differences and similarities. Methodological and conceptual improvements characterized the past 35 years of publications in JCCP. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract)
In every cross-cultural study, the question as to whether test scores obtained in different cultural populations can be interpreted in the same way across these populations has to be dealt with. Bias and equivalence have become the common terms to refer to the issue. Taxonomy of both bias and equivalence is presented. Bias can be engendered by the theoretical construct (construct bias), the method such as the form of test administration (method bias), and the item content (item bias). Equivalence refers to the measurement level at which scores can be compared across cultures. Three levels of equivalence are possible: the same construct is measured in each cultural group but the functional form of the relationship between scores obtained in various groups is unknown (structural equivalence), scores have the same measurement unit across populations but have different origins (measurement unit equivalence), and scores have the same measurement unit and origin in all populations (full scale equivalence). The most frequently encountered sources of bias and their remedies are described. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract)
Generativity refers to activities that help to establish and guide the next generation. This paper explores the nature of generative concern among older people and how it manifests itself in an era of rapid social and technological changes that have produced wide generation gaps. Eight focus groups were conducted with 51 women and 20 men who were recruited from social centres in Hong Kong on the basis of age, socio-economic status, and level of participation in the centres. The discussions were transcribed verbatim and analysed using grounded-theory principles. The elders frequently referred to the superior educational level and technological knowledge of their offspring, as well as the differences in values and lifestyles between the generations, which they thought had made their own knowledge and wisdom obsolete. They had concerns about social and technological changes, however, and they aroused a sense of urgency to protect the younger generation from contemporary evils, while many considered that passing on moral and behavioural codes nowadays was the most important generative role. Although they wanted to help, their efforts were often criticised. In order to maintain harmonious relationships and to avoid conflicts with their offspring, many participants adopted passive generative roles. Attempts to stabilise the generative self by redefining generativity were also observed. The final section of the paper discusses the implications of the findings for the maintenance of the generative self in personal situations of declining resources.
One of the widest elaborations of generativity today is the theoretical model proposed by McAdams and de St. Aubin. This model
has not yet been tested completely, that is only some of its components and their relations have been tested. The main reasons
for such an empirical status of the model are inadequately clear operationalizations of the components of the model. After
our previous research, which include adaptation of scales for measuring of some key components of model, generative care and
generative action (Lacković-Grgin etal., Suvremena Psihologija, 5, 9, 2002; Lacković-Grgin, Zbirka psihologijskih skala i upitnika, Zadar: University of Zadar, 2004; Tucak etal., Generativna briga i generativno djelovanje u odraslih osoba u Hrvatskoj
i Sloveniji, XVII Dani Ramira i Zorana Bujasa, Summaries, 98, 2005), as well as operationalization of so called belief in species component (which is a component of Philosophy about
human nature) (Ćubela Adorić etal., Philosophies of Human Nature in Adolescents and Adults, 7th Alps-Adria Conference in
Psychology, Abstracts, 167, 2005), in this paper we have tried to evaluate life goals questionnaire. This questionnaire tried to measure the other
component of the model—inner desire. In that way we could realize the main goal of this paper, research of how important are
the evaluations in the prediction of generative action in Croatian and Slovenian adults. Generative action is under the strong
influence of cultural demands and inner desires. There are more sociological and economical indications about the differences
in expected social development in countries like Croatia and Slovenia. Because of the fact that in the last decade Slovenia
has been developed more than Croatia, we could expect that this could also be manifested in assessment of importance of some
areas of life, which are relevant for generative action (e.g., work, marriage, free time), for life goals of agency and communion,
as well as for generative care as a possible predictor of generative action. The greater differences were obtained in some
predictors of generative action (e.g. importance of job, importance of free time, goals of agency and communion), as well
as in their predictive importance.
Self-determination theory (SDT) maintains that an understanding of human motivation requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. We discuss the SDT concept of needs as it relates to previous need theories, emphasizing that needs specify the necessary conditions for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. This concept of needs leads to the hypotheses that different regulatory processes underlying goal pursuits are differentially associated with effective functioning and well-being and also that different goal contents have different relations to the quality of behavior and mental health, specifically because different regulatory processes and different goal contents are associated with differing degrees of need satisfaction. Social contexts and individual differences that support satisfaction of the basic needs facilitate natural growth processes including intrinsically motivated behavior and integration of extrinsic motivations, whereas those that forestall autonomy, competence, or relatedness are associated with poorer motivation, performance, and well-being. We also discuss the relation of the psychological needs to cultural values, evolutionary processes, and other contemporary motivation theories.
Little is known about whether ego identity statuses have the same developmental concomitants in different cultural contexts. Thus, 159 German and 158 Cameroonian Nso adolescents aged 15-18 were recruited to test if associations between identity and generativity (i.e. the desire to create a positive legacy) and prosocial behavior (i.e. helpful and supportive behavior), respectively, are comparable. In both cultural samples, only identity achievement was positively linked with generative concern and prosocial tendencies. Integrating these and previous findings on the association between prosocial behavior and generativity, a partial mediation of the relation between identity achievement and generative concern through prosocial tendencies was hypothesized and confirmed for both cultural groups. Thus, there is an equivalent association between identity achievement, prosocial behavior, and generative concern in adolescents with widely different cultural background.
So far, cross-cultural research on generativity has been lacking. The present study tests the cross-cultural applicability of an integrative model of generativity proposed by McAdams and de St. Aubin. Measures of implicit pro-social power motivation, a general disposition for generativity, generative goals, and life satisfaction were administered to adults in Cameroon, Costa Rica, and Germany. These measures cover the intrapersonal part of the generativity model. After examining the comparability of the measures across the three cultures, cultural differences in the level of each variable were inspected. Finally, the hypothesized model was tested via structural equation modeling. Results show that the model can be successfully applied in all three cultural samples. This finding has interesting implications for the further investigation of generativity, particularly its social antecedents and behavioral consequences.