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Volitional Mediators of Cognition-Behavior Consistency: Self-Regulatory Processes and Action Versus State Orientation
Abstract
One of the most striking discrepancies between everyday experience and psychological theorizing concerns the complexity of motivational states. While most psychologists tend to focus on a single behavioral domain (e.g., achievement, affiliation, eating, learning, problemsolving, sex, etc.), we know from everyday experience that people very rarely seem to have just one behavioral inclination in a given situation. In everyday life people usually experience several motivational tendencies simultaneously and more often than not have multiple commitments to a variety of goals. At first glance our task — to explain and predict which of the competing action tendencies a person actually will implement in a given situation — seems to boil down to the objective of establishing the dominant (i. e., strongest) action tendency among all the competing tendencies (e. g., Atkinson & Birch, 1970).
... That is, one's motivation to write may be substantially greater or weaker than one's motivation to speak or read, for instance, and the magnitude and perhaps direction of this difference is likely to change across varied performance contexts. It is well documented that positive motivation is associated with strategic behavior (Kuhl, 1985;Kurtz & Borkowski, 1984), task persistence (Zimmerman & Ringle, 1981), and academic achievement (Kuhl, 1985;Kurtz & Borkowski, 1984;Paris & Winograd, 1990). Thus, students who are motivated deploy learning and coping strategies (e.g., distributed periodic review of material, summarization of key concepts and ideas, self-encouragement, seeking assistance) to maximize their educational potential, work through challenges and adversity without giving up, and perform better in school. ...
... That is, one's motivation to write may be substantially greater or weaker than one's motivation to speak or read, for instance, and the magnitude and perhaps direction of this difference is likely to change across varied performance contexts. It is well documented that positive motivation is associated with strategic behavior (Kuhl, 1985;Kurtz & Borkowski, 1984), task persistence (Zimmerman & Ringle, 1981), and academic achievement (Kuhl, 1985;Kurtz & Borkowski, 1984;Paris & Winograd, 1990). Thus, students who are motivated deploy learning and coping strategies (e.g., distributed periodic review of material, summarization of key concepts and ideas, self-encouragement, seeking assistance) to maximize their educational potential, work through challenges and adversity without giving up, and perform better in school. ...
... Self-efficacy, an individual's assessment of his or her competence to perform a future task, is perhaps the most well established and well researched aspect of human motivation. Generally speaking, measures of self-efficacy are positively related to the amount of effort expended to perform a task, persistence with a difficult task, the recruitment of strategies to accomplish a task, and actual task performance, regardless of one's age, gender, or ethnicity (Bandura, 1986(Bandura, , 1997Dweck & Leggett, 1988;Harter, 1996;Kuhl, 1985Kuhl, , 1987Kurtz & Borkowski, 1984;Pajares, 1996Pajares, , 1997Pintrich, 1999;Pintrich & DeGroot, 1990;Pintrich & Schunk, 2002;Schunk, 1991;Schunk & Zimmerman, 1994;Zimmerman & Ringle, 1981). In a meta-analysis of 36 studies in which the association of self-efficacy beliefs with academic outcomes was explored, Multon, Brown, and Lent (1991) found a mean effect size of .38 for self-efficacy, ranging from .52 for basic skills assessments, .36 for grades, and .13 for standardized achievement tests. ...
... The activity-state orientation was evaluated using a modified Indonesian adaptation of the demandrelated subscale of the ACS-90 (Kuhl & Kazen, 1994) and an updating model of volitional action control (Kuhl, 1985). The activity orientation was evaluated using a German adaptation of the Action Control Scale (Kuhl, 1992). ...
... Kuhl (1992) created an activity-state direction to represent individual differences in volitional control limits in the design of self-rule. The resulting shape represents the capacity to begin and establish movement, manage time appropriately, handle interruptions, and work tirelessly on projects while overcoming setbacks and disappointment (Kuhl, 1985;1992). ...
... The action-state orientation is a dual concept, with action representing a higher self-regulation capacity and the state representing a lower self-regulation ability. Kuhl (1985) identified three types of action-state orientations: disengagement, initiative, and perseverance. People who are more activityoriented can better avoid disconnection, or irrelevant thoughts; can exhibit initiative, or program and propose actions without difficulty; and persist in an activity over time, even when tempted by other external activities, more than individuals who are less action-oriented. ...
This study explored the roles of activity versus state direction in how Indonesians adhered to COVID-19 preventive behaviour using the theory of planned behaviour (TPB). A total of 615 participants were gathered through a web questionnaire containing 68 questions. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to determine the causal relationships of the latent variable construct. The results revealed that information sources positively influence both attitudes and subjective norms toward preventive behaviour. The results also support self-regulation as a moderator of the main intent-behaviour relationship. Moreover, state-oriented people cannot self-regulate their behaviour to comply with COVID-19 protocols. This investigation provides productive experiences for strategists and managers to improve COVID-19 compliance. This paper's analysis also contributes to literature by revealing the intention to comply with COVID-19 protocols by emphasizing the role of self-regulation. The findings are relevant to practitioners and policymakers in the field of public health and managing of human behavior, particularly to improve of compliance with COVID-19 prevention. Therefore, governments or public health organizations can be utilized to improve the number of individuals who practice COVID-19 preventative behaviours now and in the future, but various factors must be addressed. Future directions and recommendations for improving TPB are suggested.
... Volition is a dynamic mental process that enables individuals to maintain focus and effort in the face of personal or environmental distractions to improve learning performance (Corno, 1993). Kuhl's (1984Kuhl's ( , 1985 action control theory divides motivation into two categories: choice motivation and execution motivation (Kuhl, 1984(Kuhl, , 1985. The former refers to the formation of intentions, such as making decisions and setting goals, whereas the latter involves the execution and completion of intentions. ...
... Volition is a dynamic mental process that enables individuals to maintain focus and effort in the face of personal or environmental distractions to improve learning performance (Corno, 1993). Kuhl's (1984Kuhl's ( , 1985 action control theory divides motivation into two categories: choice motivation and execution motivation (Kuhl, 1984(Kuhl, , 1985. The former refers to the formation of intentions, such as making decisions and setting goals, whereas the latter involves the execution and completion of intentions. ...
Among the basic medical sciences, anatomy and physiology (anatomy & physiology) is a fundamental subject for students majoring in nursing. Due to its diversity and difficulty, nursing students experience stress when studying it. Previous graduates generally presented lower achievements in anatomy & physiology than in other nursing‐related subjects in the National Council Licensure Examination‐Registered Nurse, indicating that anatomy & physiology education requires improvement. Accordingly, we examined the impact of innovative teaching on students' motivation and performance when learning anatomy & physiology through a quasi‐experimental pre‐/post‐test design. For innovative teaching, we used the novel interactive audio human organ model, followed by team‐based learning. The participants were 200 lower‐grade students in the nursing department of a junior college in Taiwan, divided into two groups receiving innovative teaching (experimental group) or traditional teaching (control group). Questionnaire surveys were administered, and the collected data were statistically analyzed. The innovative teaching in anatomy & physiology improved learning motivation, especially in terms of affect, executive volition, and learning performance. The essential components of learning motivation, such as value, expectation, affect, and executive volition, were positively correlated with the reaction levels of learning performance. Regarding the improvement in academic performance, the experimental group performed significantly better than the control group. The use of innovative teaching in class enhances students' learning motivation and learning performance when studying anatomy & physiology. Interactive teaching aids enhance the enjoyment of learning anatomy & physiology while facilitating in‐depth exploration of the human organs and systems.
... years, SD = 15.2 years; range = 18-81 years). To investigate convergent and discriminant aspects of validity, the following reference variables were included in this pilot study: (a) the Life Orientation Test, which is used to assess optimistic attitudes toward life (Scheier & Carver, 1985); (b) a German adaptation of Levenson's (1972) scales of generalized control beliefs (internality, powerful others, and chance control [IPC] scales, Krampen, 1981); (c) a scale to measure life satisfaction, comprising a selection of items from scales developed by Wiendieck (1970) and by Lohr and Walter (1974); (d) a scale to assess Type A patterns of behavior, comprising a selection of items from the Jenkins Activity Survey (Jenkins, Zyzanski, & Rosenman, 1971); (e) a subscale denoted Action Orientation After Failure, from the Action-Control Scale developed by Kuhl (1985); (0 a depression index, which was derived from self-ratings on selected adjective scales (see Brandtstadter & Baltes-Gotz, in press); and (g) the depression scale of the Freiburger Personlichkeitsinventar (Freiburg Personality Inventory, FPI, short version; Fahrenberg, Hampel, & Selg, 1973). ...
... The variance overlap between flexibility and action orientation after failure makes sense insofar as low action orientation (high state orientation) is described as involving a clinging to, and continual rumination about, unreachable goals (cf. Kuhl, 1985Kuhl, ,1987. In regard to the correlation between flexibility and optimism, note that the concept of optimism dates back to the philosophical-theological theodi-cies (defense of God's goodness in view of the existence of evil; see particularly Leibniz, 1710). ...
Crises and critical life transitions activate 2 distinct but complementary modes of coping, (a) transforming developmental circumstances in accordance with personal preferences (assimilative tendency) and (b) adjusting personal preferences to situational constraints (accommodative tendency). Assimilative and accommodative tendencies were measured by a questionnaire comprising 2 independent scales (Tenacious Goal Pursuit and Flexible Goal Adjustment). Both scales predict high life satisfaction and low depression and are positively related to generalized internal control beliefs. The scales evinced an opposite relation to age: Cross-sectional analyses on a sample of 890 Ss in the age range from 34 to 63 years revealed a gradual shift from an assimilative to an accommodative mode of coping. Implications for theories of depression and successful aging are discussed.
... The self-regulated processes that support learning must be taught to students by teachers in order to foster SRL in the classroom. These procedures frequently involve setting goals, planning, self-motivation, attention control, flexible use of learning strategies (Kuhl, 1985;Corno, 1993;Schraw & Moshman, 1995;Harnishferger, 1995;Winne, 1995, Wolters, 1998Winne & Hadwin, 1998;Wolters, 2003;Zimmerman, 2004). ...
... This procedure frequently requires cleansing the mind of distracting thoughts and looking for circumstances that are helpful for learning (Winne, 1995). According to research, students' academic results improve with focused time spent on task (Kuhl, 1985). Teaching students to focus on their academic work should therefore be a top concern. ...
Students become experts in their own learning through the process of self-regulated learning (SRL). Neither being a mental capacity nor a performance dexterity, self-regulation is the self-directed procedure through which learners translate their psychological capacities into task-related skills in several situations, such as academics, athletics, music, and health. In addition to the conceptualization and describing the intellectual environment in which the construct of self-regulated learning developed, this chapter discusses definitions and characteristics of self-regulated learning. Additionally, various models of the construct as well as the factors determining are also discussed.
... For instance, Nuttin (1980/1984) described goal setting as a sort of cognitive processing through which needs are channeled according to the environment and one's personality characteristics. Kuhl (1985) distinguished intentions and motivational tendencies (e.g., wishes, values, norms, etc.) by ascribing to the former the quality of commitment. Hence, an intention implies that a decision has been made and transformed something valued into something to be pursued. ...
... The transition from motivational tendencies to intentions occurs by means of 'admission rules', which resemble the cognitive processing of needs described by Nuttin (1980Nuttin ( /1984. Once an intention is admitted, volitional processes mediate its relationship to the executive phase (Kuhl, 1985). Nuttin's (1980Nuttin's ( /1984 motivational theory had already pointed it out by stating that, after a goal is set, behavioral projects are constructed to direct a programmed sequence of steps through which one tries to achieve the goal. ...
The term life project (LP) has been used in scientific literature, though frequently without a clear definition. This terminological inaccuracy has been leading the field to conflicting conclusions. This thesis is a compendium of seven articles comprising four parts that, altogether, aim to introduce a new comprehensive theory of LPs.
The first part comprises two non-systematic reviews and one systematic review that discuss the existing literature on the theme. The first article presents the main theories, constructs, and instruments of future time perspective (FTP). The term LP is introduced as an FTP variable entailing a specific type of anticipation. The review fills in a gap in the Brazilian literature, in which the term LP has been frequently used as a synonym of expectations, aspirations, and other terms. The second article presents 15 theoretical approaches to LP. The review discusses similarities and controversies across them and acknowledges that they refer to different aspects of LPs or even distinct constructs. The third article identifies the theoretical contributions on LP across 93 articles. A thematic analysis coded all excerpts providing theoretical contributions on LP, from which six theoretical dimensions were created. Another thematic analysis with the LP’s explicit definitions generated four categories that describe defining features. The associations between the included articles’ theoretical features were investigated by networking analyses that identified three main theoretical trends. The second part includes a theoretical study that integrates the theoretical approaches, dimensions, and defining features acknowledged in the first part. Thus, it signals the initial proposal of a comprehensive theory of life projects. The article starts by providing a definition of the general notion of project as “a process comprising the formation, enactment, and maintenance of intentional structures and actions”. This definition mitigates the conflict between two theoretical traditions that conceived project either as a process prior to action or a set of actions aiming at the same goal. Subsequently, LP is defined as “an ongoing evolving project that encompasses a long-term, meaningful, and prospective narrative capable of driving decisions and efforts in daily life”. This definition embraces diverse components extracted from distinct theories, which precisely denotes its comprehensive nature. The article also provides a framework associating LPs with other phenomena, such as consciousness, narratives, purpose, personal projects, life themes, career, and FTP.
The third part encompasses two empirical articles that provide empirical evidence of the created theory. Firstly, a qualitative study carried out via interviews is reported. Participants were 26 Brazilian citizens, aged between 15 and 59 years, who were aware of plans for the next years of their lives. The interviews content was assessed according to a thematic analysis that allowed for the outline of a theoretical model associating several LP’s personal and contextual antecedents. The second empirical article reports the creation of a psychometric scale for the assessment of LPs – the Life Project Scale (LPS). The article comprises eight studies encompassing over four thousand participants from five countries. Altogether, the eight studies identified different sources of validity and reliability evidence by means of consultation with experts, focus groups, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, invariance measurement models, relations to other measures, three types of reliability coefficients, and test-retest correlations.
The fourth part contains a theoretical study in which the practical relevance of the theory is discussed. Practical limitations of the use of more restricted LP definitions are firstly discussed. The comprehensive theory of life projects is, then, introduced as a possible set of guiding assumptions for professional practices, particularly in the context of basic education. The seven articles introduce the four main components of a theory: (1) definition of terms; (2) a domain; (3) a set of statements; and (4) predictions. Firstly, it contributes with new definitions of project and LP. Secondly, it presents evidence that the theory may be applied in different circumstances and settings. Thirdly, it states the relationships between different types of phenomena and variables. Lastly, it presents a body of knowledge that allows for predictions regarding how people construct and implement their LPs. Therefore, the thesis may be conceived as the introduction of a new comprehensive theory of LPs.
Key-words: life projects, theory, narrative identity, personality, literature review, qualitative methods, psychometrics.
... Studies on teacher education have focused on the effect of the career choice motivation of preservice teachers on their future professional efficacy. These studies assumed that preservice teachers had a firm motivation to become teachers when they enrolled in teacher education programs, and ignored psychological mechanisms or events during teacher training and other factors influencing their career choices [22][23][24]. The first professional development stage for preservice teachers is the survival stage, which begins at the time preservice teachers enroll in their teacher education programs and ends when they become professional teachers [25]. ...
... We found that preservice teachers who had both action control and teacher identity had the lowest burnout (as shown in Figure 6), and preservice teachers who had action control could strengthen the resistance of career decision self-efficacy (CDSE) against burnout (such as Figure 7). Therefore, Kuhl [22] advocated that students should be taught volitional and self-regulatory strategies, which have a very positive effect on maintaining motivation and achieving goals. ...
Preservice teachers at universities of arts have more than 10 years of professional training before admission, but in their senior year, they face the pressure of the graduation exhibition and performances and the teacher certification examination at the same time. This process is dissimilar to that for preservice teachers at general universities. Such a difference, however, has not been taken seriously in the past. In order to avoid burnout, preservice teachers at universities of arts, when they are under the pressure of limited time, may choose to identify with the departments they are more familiar with for their future careers, rather than identifying with their educational program, in order to increase hope for their career and reduce the chance of burnout. In addition, we believe that the use of action control/state control would also show different adaptation situations in the face of pressure. Therefore, this study focuses on the role of profession identity and action control as moderating variables in the process of becoming preservice teachers at arts universities. We recruited 304 art-major preservice teachers to establish a path model to explore their future time perspective and grit, detecting how the mediation of career decision self-efficacy affects learning burnout and career hope. Secondly, we inspected the moderating effect of profession identity and action control on learning burnout and career hope. We found that profession identity moderates the relationships between future time perspective and career decision self-efficacy as well as between career decision self-efficacy and learning burnout, all of which exhibited ordinal interactions. Furthermore, preservice teachers with high decision-making efficacy had lower burnout than those with low efficacy, but the high-efficacy advantage in preservice teachers under state control in reducing burnout would disappear. Lastly, although professional identification was important, action control regulated the relationship between career decision self-efficacy and learning burnout with ordinal interaction; that is, action control could effectively reduce their learning burnout.
... By specifying two distinct and compensatory routes to action, the current work offers a novel theoretical perspective on procrastination. Specifically, we build our line of argument on central tenets of action control theory and the framework of self-regulation it is embedded in (Kuhl, 1985(Kuhl, , 2000. Action control theory offers an explanatory approach to how personal and situational factors regulate action. ...
... We build our line of argument on theoretical frameworks on the self-regulation of action (Carver & Scheier, 1982;Kuhl, 1985Kuhl, , 2000 and argue that there are two distinct routes to initiate action. From this theoretical lens, people experience procrastination when the initiation of actions, that is, the realization of intentions, via both of these routes is blocked. ...
The current work seeks to identify factors that support action initiation from the theoretical lens of self-regulation. Specifically, we focus on factors that reduce procrastination, the delay of the initiation or completion of activities. We draw from action control theory and propose that positive affect operates as a personal and time pressure as a situational factor that unblock routes to action. High positive affect makes people less prone to procrastination because positive affect reduces behavioral inhibition and facilitates the enactment of intentions. By contrast, when positive affect is low, people depend on time pressure as an action facilitating stimulus. We present results of a daily diary study with 108 participants that support our hypotheses. We replicate the findings in the context of work in a second daily diary study with 154 employees. We discuss benefits and drawbacks of the enactment of intentions under time pressure and implications of the results for how to reduce procrastination.
... para desempeñar una actividad que va en contra de sus tendencias motivacionales inmediatas, influyendo directamente sobre el desempeño y logro de metas(Heckhausen y Kuhl, 1985;Kuhl, 1985). De este modo se genera un control de acción que facilita la adopción de acciones previstas para mantener una intención activa en la memoria y protegerla de la competencia de otras tendencias de acción, con ello, se presentan procesos autorregulatorios que permiten a los sujetos formar, mantener e implementar (o liberarse) de sus propias intenciones, logrando un mejor funcionamiento en situaciones de alta exigencia(Kuhl, 2000; Jostmann y Koole, 2010).Así, y priorizando los elementos volitivos a ser considerados en este estudio, se retoman los correspondientes a: la orientación a la acción y al estado, con relación al desempeño (refiere a la capacidad que tienen las personas de permanecer en el modo orientado a la acción cuando sea necesario para lograr una tarea, en comparación con mostrarse distraído(Kuhl, 1994). ...
El objetivo fue poner a prueba un modelo hipotético de variables volitivas y emocionales, sobre el desempeño en habilidades matemáticas de aritmética y álgebra, en una muestra de 678 estudiantes de siete instituciones de Educación Superior de México. La recolección de datos se llevó a cabo mediante: a) un inventario de auto reporte sobre variables volitivas, de regulación y de emociones epistémicas y b) una prueba de ejecución en matemáticas, ambos validados previamente. El modelo resultante se validó mediante análisis de senderos y mostró índices altos de ajuste práctico donde, se identificaron dos efectos principales: las variables volitivas y de regulación emocional ejercen efectos indirectos sobre el desempeño en matemáticas; mientras que las emociones epistémicas de confusión ejercen un efecto directo sobre los diferentes niveles de desempeño matemático.
... Self-regulation refers to the methods that learners employ to control their cognition processes, including their use of cognitive (e.g., selecting, managing/organising, executing) and metacognitive strategies (e.g., planning, monitoring, evaluating) (Pintrich, 1999). Moreover, when exhibiting learner control, volitional strategies can also be used to regulate important aspects of the learning process, such as control of selective attention, encoding, affection, motivation, environment, and information processing (Kuhl, 1985). Hence, volitional control is required to support and maintain one's intention until the goal has been accomplished; it is one of the key strategies for regulating learners' learning motivation, especially when learners are learning from distance (Keller et al., 2021). ...
Online learning is emphasised in the 21st century curricula as one of the efficient instructional practices that improves the learning ownership of contemporary learners. A key factor in ensuring success in learners’ online learning environments is the implementation of learner control. Learner control motivation is influenced by multiple interconnected beliefs and learner-directed learning practices. This study focuses on self-regulation strategies and motivational beliefs in the context of post-pandemic online tutorials. The aim of this study was to discover the influence of self-regulation strategies on learners’ motivational beliefs, and the impact of learners’ motivational beliefs on their learner control motivation when experiencing online tutorials. This study comprises 14 learners (age 9) from a Malaysian elementary school. Qualitative case study methodology was employed, using interviews and observations. The results of this study revealed a significant relationship between self-regulation and motivational beliefs in order to comprehend learners’ motivation for learner control when experiencing online tutorials. The results drew attention on self-regulation strategies to guide online instruction that underpins learners’ motivational beliefs and enhances learner control motivation.
... El primer año que me tocó la virtualidad, se me complicó mucho, me costó gran parte del año adaptarme a esta modalidad. (Corno, 1993;Kuhl, 1985) Tuvimos que tener en cuenta muchas cosas del contexto ya sea nuestro como alumnas, la forma de comunicarnos con las docentes y también para pensar las actividades. Durante la virtualidad, surgió incertidumbre porque no sabíamos que íbamos a hacer y como lo íbamos a hacer. ...
La pandemia por COVID-19 instó a los estudiantes y al resto de agentes educativos a cambiar repentinamente de formatos tradicionales y familiares a formatos de aprendizaje a distancia en gran parte improvisados. En ese marco, el estudio que se presenta exploró el compromiso académico vinculado al proceso de adaptación que los estudiantes desarrollaron a lo largo de la pandemia por COVID-19, en términos de recursos cognitivos, afectivos, comportamentales y agénticos que desplegaron frente al aprendizaje en contextos educativos virtuales e inéditos. Metodológicamente fue exploratoria descriptiva de corte cualitativo para indagar a partir de narraciones breves solicitadas a 61 estudiantes universitarios de Argentina acerca de sus percepciones sobre el compromiso académico vinculado a la adaptabilidad durante los dos años de cursado virtual -2020 y 2021-. Los resultados muestran que los estudiantes despliegan una variedad interesante de recursos digitales para adaptarse ante situaciones novedosas e inciertas. En segundo término, se observa un resaltante estrés hacia los recursos digitales, cansancio y un mayor sentido de desvinculación académica, unido a alternativas que se co-crean desde la agencia personal y colaborativa para organizar nuevas comunidades de aprendizaje virtual. Lo encontrado motiva a re pensar la vuelta a la presencialidad, para reflexionar la clase universitaria como un entorno híbrido donde la presencia se complemente con lo virtual y promoviera el compromiso de los educandos.
... It is not surprising that the theory of planned behavior cannot predict the speed of initiation of a behavior or the maintenance of that behavior over time when one considers that the theory is primarily a model of intention formation rather than a model that explains the translation of intentions into action (see, e.g., Abraham, Sheeran, & Johnson, 1998;Conner & Sparks, 1996;Kuhl, 1985;Norman & Conner, 1996b;. The present findings suggest that the theory may need to incorporate insights from implementation intentions (e.g., Gollwitzer, 1993Gollwitzer, , 1999 and analyses of the processes of change (e.g., Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983, 1984Prochaska, DiClemente, & Norcross, 1992) in order to address these issues. ...
This article tested the ability of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to predict patterns of behavior change associated with health screening. Attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and intentions were used to predict objective measures of attendance 1 month and 13 months later among participants who had never previously been screened (N = 389). Findings showed that the TPB predicted attendance on each occasion and also predicted frequency of attendance. However, the model was unable to reliably distinguish among consistent attendees, participants who delayed attending, and participants who initially attended but relapsed. Thus, the TPB needs to be extended to understand behaviors that must be performed promptly and repeatedly for health benefits to accrue.
... Kuhl and his colleagues (e.g., Kuhl, 1985;Kuhl & Helle, 1986) have accumulated substantial evidence suggesting that motivation and volition are the distal antecedents of persevering (maladaptive) cognitive, behavioral, and affective states. Thus, one means of understanding how and why an individual persistently experiences various symptoms and their psychological sequelae is to consider the question of (presumed) volition. ...
A national sample of 60 male and 61 female adults completed a telephone interview that included measures of hypochondriacal tendencies, psychological distress, and symptom manifestation. They also provided cognitive evaluations for their most important health goal on scales measuring self-efficacy, value, planning, self-reward, self-criticism, self-monitoring, social comparison, and positive and negative goal-based arousal. Health goal cognition significantly predicted hypochondriacal tendencies measured 15 to 30 days after the goal assessment, even after controlling for chronic illness diagnosis. Correlations between goal cognition and hypochondriacal tendencies differed from those observed for psychological distress, and no significant correlations emerged with symptom manifestation. Results support a motivational account of hypochondriacal tendencies and extend previous goals research.
... We assessed the tendency toward intrusive thinking through the individualdifference measure of action versus state orientation. This disposition is assessed by the Action Control Scale (ACS), which has undergone several revisions (Kuhl, 1981(Kuhl, ,1985(Kuhl, ,1994a. Two aspects of action versus state orientation are especially relevant in the present context: (a) Preoccupation versus disengagement (originally called "state vs. action orientation after failure") as defined and assessed by uncontrollable perseveration of thoughts related to aversive experiences (example item: "If I have to talk to someone about something important and, repeatedly, can't find her/him at home"; the response alternatives "I can't stop thinking about it, even while I'm doing something else" and "I easily forget about it until I can see the person again" are indicative of state and action orientation, respectively), (b) Hesitation versus initiative (originally called "prospective" or "decision-related" state vs. action orientation) as defined by subjective difficulties to enact one's own intentions and decisions (example item: "When I have work to do at home"; the response alternatives "It is often hard for me to get the work done" and "I usually get it done right away" are indicative of state and action orientation, respectively). ...
A new paradigm to investigate the tendency to falsely ascribe to oneself assigned goals (misinformed introjection or self-infiltration) and the better memory of self-chosen than of assigned prospective activities (self-choice effect) is explored. In two experiments, state-oriented subjects showed significantly higher rates of false self-ascriptions of assigned activities than action-oriented subjects did (an individual-difference factor related to volitional efficiency; Kuhl & Beckmann, 1994b), whereas all subjects gave evidence of the self-choice effect. Specific manipulations to reduce and to increase the probability of occurrence of false self-ascriptions were also carried out (an intentional-learning instruction and task interruption, respectively). Finally, a first step was taken to examine the relationship between self-infiltration and the tendency to enact more self-chosen than assigned activities (self-determination).
... By contrast, state-oriented individuals tend to ruminate and are vulnerable to task irrelevant influences (see Kuhl, 1983). Consequently, action-oriented individuals should possess higher skills in shielding their actions against negative task irrelevant stimulation-like conflict primes-than state-oriented persons (Beckmann, 1994;Koole, 2004;Koole et al., in press;Kuhl, 1985;Kuhl & Koole, 2004). Therefore, the present study tested whether individual differences in action-state orientation indeed moderate primed cognitive conflict effects on effort-related cardiovascular response-as it was recently found for the moderating influence of personal action choice versus external action assignment (Bouzidi & Gendolla, 2023a). ...
This article presents a quasi-experiment (N = 79 university students) testing whether individual differences in action-state orientation moderate primed cognitive conflict's effects on sympathetically mediated cardiac response during task performance reflecting effort. Action control theory posits that action-oriented individuals are less receptive to distracting affective stimuli during goal pursuit than state-oriented individuals because action-orientation is related to higher volitional skills. Therefore, we expected that action-oriented individuals should be shielded against conflict primes' effect on effort-related responses in the cardiovascular system. By contrast, state-oriented individuals should be more sensitive to irrelevant negative affective stimulation and therefore mobilize higher resources under such conditions. Responses of the cardiac pre-ejection period (PEP) during a moderately difficult short-term memory task corroborated these predictions. The present findings provide the first evidence that individual differences in action-state orientation indeed moderate previously demonstrated cognitive conflict priming effects on effort-related cardiac response and extend recent findings on action shielding.
... Dicha situación propicia la creación de un alumnado dependiente de las instrucciones del profesor. De hecho, tal y como lo señala Kuhl (1985), en numerosas ocasiones no adquirir nuevos conocimientos no es por no querer, sino por no saber buscar las soluciones adecuadas que den respuesta a los retos planteados. Dicha reproducción de modelos, que ciertamente puede tener beneficios para mejorar el dominio técnico o para generar una primera experiencia correcta (como ocurre en primaria), limita la creación de aprendizajes en el alumnado, ya que merma su autonomía, algo que es más problemático en un contenido, como el calentamiento, de tanta relevancia en nuestra asignatura. ...
... In particular, our new model mainly involves two forms of self-control processes: attention focusing and the selection and adaptation of cognitive or task strategies for learning. Attention focusing requires students to concentrate on the learning-relevant activities and ignore distracting information to achieve the predetermined learning goals (Eitel et al., 2019(Eitel et al., , 2020Kuhl, 1985). From this viewpoint, the learner needs to devote his/her mental efforts to germane cognitive processing (i.e., germane load) rather than extraneous processing (i.e., extraneous load). ...
Although cognitive load (CL) and self-regulated learning (SRL) have been widely recognized as two determinant factors of students’ performance, the integration of these two factors is still in its infancy. To further specify why and how CL links with SRL, we first conducted an overview to describe the multiple dimensions of cogni- tive load (i.e., intrinsic, extraneous, germane load, mental load, and mental effort). Subsequently, information processing theory (i.e., the generative mechanism of cog- nitive load) was used to interpret three core aspects of the SRL framework: dynamic SRL, monitoring-control cycles, and conscious vs. unconscious SRL. Based on the above overview and existing perspectives on the associations between CL and SRL, five propositions are discussed: (1) conscious SRL induces additional metacognitive load; (2) invested mental effort is monitored and regulated during SRL processes; (3) mental load affects SRL processes; (4) mental effort influences metacognitive judgments and further task selections; and (5) learners should optimize cognitive load during SRL. Finally, this paper proposes a dynamic and integrative model to exhibit that different dimensions of cognitive load play varying roles in the dynamic SRL process. This proposed model is the first to clarify how SRL subprocesses relate to multiple cognitive load dimensions. In addition, this model also informs the design of intelligent tutoring systems and adaptive scaffolding. Several future research directions are recommended to validate the proposed model.
... State-oriented individuals tend to function poorly during adversities due to their tendency of avoiding negative or unpleasant states. Julius Kuhl (1985) assumed two factors that indicates if an individual is going to be action oriented or state oriented. The degree of perceived incongruence between and individual's expectation and new information, or between conflicting expectations dictates if the individual is going to exhibit action or state oriented tendencies. ...
Individuals differ with respect to their cognitive and motivational processes, which is often termed as action versus state orientation. The aim of the research is to investigate the relationship among action orientation, wellbeing and learned helplessness in young adults. Standardised scales were administered on 66 individuals, age ranging from 18 to 26, to evaluate action versus state orientation, wellbeing and learned helplessness. The results indicated positive association between action orientation and wellbeing and a negative association between action orientation and learned helplessness. Action orientation was found to have a significant impact on wellbeing and learned helplessness. Significant gender differences were noted for action orientation in young adults.
... Based on the total scores, the top and bottom 20 participants were further selected for each group and they were within the distribution of the top 23.53 % or bottom 30.39 % respectively of the total score. After the screening, the selected participants were further asked to fill in a number of questionnaires: (1) Cognitive Failures Questionnaire-Memory and Attention Lapses (CFQ-MAL) 28,29 ; (2) Personal Concerns Inventory (PCI) 29 ; (3) Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale 29 and (4) Action Orientation Scale (AOS) 30 . The PCI was designed to access participants' most important concerns and worries via subjective rating. ...
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) affects a large portion of the population and levies a huge societal burden. It has serious consequences like decreased productivity and reduced quality of life, hence there is considerable interest in understanding and predicting it. As it is a mental disorder, neural measures like EEG are used to study and understand its underlying mechanisms. However most of these studies have either explored resting state EEG (rs-EEG) data or task-based EEG data but not both, we seek to compare their respective efficacy. We work with data from non-clinically depressed individuals who score higher and lower on the depression scale and hence are more and less vulnerable to depression, respectively. Forty participants volunteered for the study. Questionnaires and EEG data were collected from participants. We found that people who are more vulnerable to depression had on average increased EEG amplitude in the left frontal channel, and decreased amplitude in the right frontal and occipital channels for raw data (rs-EEG). Task-based EEG data from a sustained attention to response task used to measure spontaneous thinking, an increased EEG amplitude in the central part of the brain for individuals with low vulnerability and an increased EEG amplitude in right temporal, occipital and parietal regions in individuals more vulnerable to depression were found. In an attempt to predict vulnerability (high/low) to depression, we found that a Long Short Term Memory model gave the maximum accuracy of 91.42% in delta wave for task-based data whereas 1D-Convolution neural network gave the maximum accuracy of 98.06% corresponding to raw rs-EEG data. Hence if one has to look at the primary question of which data will be good for predicting vulnerability to depression, rs-EEG seems to be better than task-based EEG data. However, if mechanisms driving depression like rumination or stickiness are to be understood, task-based data may be more effective. Furthermore, as there is no consensus as to which biomarker of rs-EEG is more effective in the detection of MDD, we also experimented with evolutionary algorithms to find the most informative subset of these biomarkers. Higuchi fractal dimension, phase lag index, correlation and coherence features were also found to be the most important features for predicting vulnerability to depression using rs-EEG. These findings bring up new possibilities for EEG-based machine/deep learning diagnostics in the future.
... The main features of these patterns are not taking responsibility for the situation, trying to blame the consequences of their decisions or lack of them on others, and, particularly in the case of procrastination, the individual might delay the whole process of reaching a resolution. Regarding procrastination, authors have reported rumination and anxiety over past, present, and possible future events to be one of the main traits of this type of behavior (Constantin et al., 2018;Lien-Rebetez et al., 2017;Kuhl, 1985;Stainton et al., 2000;Treynor et al., 2003), along with negative emotional experiences (Lien-Rebetez et al., 2017;Sirois & Pychyl, 2016). ...
The first aim of this study was to adapt the MDMQ to Argentinian Spanish and to collect evidence of its validity and reliability; the second was to determine if time perspectives were adequate predictors of decisionmaking styles. A first sample of 536 participants served in the validation process; a second sample of 209 individuals who completed the mdmq and the Brief Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) was used to conduct descriptive-correlational and regression analyses. Confirmatory factor analysis corroborated a four-factor model with adequate internal consistency for each subscale. Regression analyses showed that future time perspective positively predicted the display of higher vigilant coping patterns —adaptive and rational decision-making style—. Meanwhile, less futuretime- oriented people were more likely to engage in defensive avoidance mechanisms to reach a decision. Past-negative and present-fatalistic time perspectives were positive predictors of non-vigilant decisionmaking style. It indicates that individuals with an aversive vision over their past experiences and present situation are more likely to engage in emotionally based and avoidant decision-making patterns. These findings support the reliability and construct-related validity of the MDMQ for assessing decision-making styles among Argentinian individuals and set a step for conducting more in-depth research in the field of decisionmaking and time perspective.
... U prilog tome da se uzimaju u obzir uţe osobine ide to što se korišćenjem opštih ukupnih skorova na faktorima koji su prirodno multifacetni, odnosno korišćenjem kompleksnih prediktora moţe razvodniti značajan deo varijanse specifičnih faceta (Paunonen & Nicol, 2001) šest (Ashton & Lee, 2007) ili tri osobine (Eysenck, 1997). Digman (Digman, 1997) (Savickas, 1997) ili samoefikasnost (Bandura, 1977b (Ashton & Lee, 2007;Cattell, 1979;Goldberg, 1993), kauzalnim (Eysenck, 1997) (Kanfer, 1990), te štiti neku nameru od toga da bude zamenjena nekom drugom akcijom pre nego što nameravana akcija bude završena (Kuhl, 1985 (Costa & McCrae, 1996), te predstavlja bihejvioralni sistem aktivacije u Grejovom neurofiziološkom modelu (Gray, 1994). U skladu sa tim, kada se govori o individualnim razlikama i procesima zajedno, najčešće je to u kontekstu kako osobine ličnosti utiču na samoregulaciju. ...
Jedan od osnovnih ciljeva psihologije rada i organizacije jeste da pomogne u usklađivanju karakteristika pojedinaca sa karakteristikama radnog mesta, kako bi se obezbedio što veći uspeh organizacije i očuvalo mentalno zdravlje zaposlenih. Shodno tome, reklo bi se da su psihologija ličnosti i psihologija rada, prirodno, od samog početka išle zajedno, ruku pod ruku, te da su kroz istoriju jedna drugoj pružale veliki doprinos u utemeljenju i razvoju. Međutim, to baš i nije uvek bilo tako. Iako je psihologija rada od svog nastanka na ovamo tražila pomoć psihologije ličnosti, posebno kada je u pitanju selekcija radnika, bilo je perioda kada ju je skoro u potpunosti odbacivala, naročito akademska psihologija. Pritom, i dan-danas je malo onih koji sebe smatraju psiholozima „rada“ a da temeljno izučavaju sve mogućnosti i ograničenja merenja i razumevanja ličnosti u poslovnom i organizacionom okruženju. Isto tako, nema mnogo ni onih autora koji se primarno bave analizom ličnosti, a da imaju izgrađenu osetljivost za kontekst rada.
Može se slobodno reći da i danas postoji izvestan jaz između ove dve discipline. Razloga za to ima više i oni potiču iz istorijskih, konceptualno-metodoloških razlika, a ponegde još uvek opstaju zahvaljujući doslednim rezultatima o tome da su osobine ličnosti nisko do umereno povezane s radnim performansama i ponašanjem. Predmet ove knjige jeste identifikacija i obrazloženje tih razloga, na bazi čega su definisani saveti o tome kako da se pomenuti jaz u određenoj meri i prevaziđe. Takođe, sadržaj knjige ukazuje na nekoliko aspekata koji se u teorijskoj i empirijskoj građi neretko previđaju, zbog čega očekivanja od uloge i značaja procene ličnosti u radnom okruženju neretko ostaju nerealistična.
U prvom poglavlju knjige prikazani su rezultati višedecenijskih istraživanja o povezanosti različitih osobina ličnosti s radnim performansama i stavovima prema poslu. Cilj ovog poglavlja jeste da se ukaže, kroz prikaze najrelevantnijih metaanalitičkih i originalnih studija, kolike koeficijente možemo očekivati i koje osobine se pokazuju kao najznačajnije.
Nakon toga, drugo poglavlje se u kraćim crtama bavi istorijskim kontekstom nastanka i razvoja psihologije ličnosti i njenim preklapanjem i „ulaskom“ u oblast rada i organizacionog ponašanja. Posebno je obrađena kriza u kojoj se psihologija ličnosti našla nakon Drugog svetskog rata, koja je bila na vrhuncu 60-ih i 70-ih godina XX veka i koja se osetila i odrazila na oblast rada. Tih decenija je, zbog koalicije napada bihejviorizma i socijalne psihologije, opstanak čitave discipline, a posebno koncepta crte, bio ozbiljno doveden u pitanje. Tada je dominantno mišljenje bilo da situacija skoro u potpunosti objašnjava ponašanje, te u najboljem slučaju to čini u daleko većoj meri nego ličnost. Dakle, u ovom poglavlju su obrađene tačke na kojima se zasnivao napad na ličnost tokom debate, zatim kako se debata ispoljila u oblasti rada i organizacionog ponašanja, te koje su lekcije naučene iz te debate.
Treće poglavlje se bavi određenjem pojma crte i njenim položajem u hijerarhijskoj strukturi ličnosti. Otvoreno je pitanje i date su smernice o tome na kom nivou hijerarhije crta ličnost najbolje predviđa i kakve ishode u oblasti rada, tj. ukazano je na to kada prednost ima analiza osobina na višem i opštijem nivou, a kada je možda bolje rešenje krenuti od specifičnijih i užih crta.
U četvrtom poglavlju je, kroz prikaz više modela i pristupa, ličnost stavljena u kontekst, kako unutrašnji (dinamički procesi), tako i spoljašnji (radno okruženje). Na kraju su prikazana dva integrativna modela konceptualizovana baš u radnom kontekstu, koja objašnjavaju kako ličnost određuje radno ponašanje. Cilj ovog poglavlja jeste da ukaže na koje sve posredne, „male“, ponekad i neobične načine ličnost može uticati na radne performanse, te u kojim se uslovima njen uticaj povećava ili smanjuje. Na bazi toga će čitaoci možda bolje moći da razumeju zašto su korelacije nultog reda između osobina ličnosti i radnih ishoda niske i kako se može iskoristiti veći potencijal procene ličnosti u okviru radnog procesa.
Poslednje – peto poglavlje predstavlja integraciju svih ključnih aspekata prethodnih delova knjige, a sa ciljem da se postave realistična očekivanja od ličnosti i da se iskoristi njen što veći potencijal u determinaciji i predviđanju radnih performansi i radnog ponašanja uopšte. Dakle, cilj petog poglavlja jeste da objasni zašto su koeficijenti toliki koliki su i da li su oni uopšte mali kada se uzme u obzir čitava složenost odnosa trijade ličnosti, situacije i ponašanja. Takođe, ovo poglavlje može pružiti bolji okvir za razumevanje načina na koji treba pristupiti ličnosti kako bi se njene mogućnosti i značaj u što većoj meri iskoristio u obezbeđenju što boljih performansi radnika. Na samom kraju knjige, taksativno su date smernice, bazirane na celokupnom sadržaju knjige, posebno za istraživače i posebno za praktičare. Istraživačima su date sugestije o aspektima i prostoru koji tek traži empirijsko potkrepljenje i teorijsko utemeljenje, kao i predlozi kako bi trebalo dizajnirati studije. Nakon toga je i praktičarima skrenuta pažnja na to zbog čega je sve važno procenjivati ličnosti zaposlenih, koje podatke je potrebno prikupljati i kako sve to može da se iskoristi sa ciljem optimizacije radnih performansi i ostvarivanja što većeg uspeha organizacije.
Ova knjiga je prvenstveno namenjena istraživačima, koji u svojim nacrtima uzimaju u obzir i promenljive iz domena ličnosti zaposlenih u predviđanju uspeha na poslu, stavova prema organizaciji, te aspekata očuvanja mentalnog zdravlja i blagostanja. Takođe, knjiga može biti korisna i studentima koji žele da unaprede i prošire stečeno znanje o značaju i izazovima procene ličnosti u specifičnoj primenjenoj oblasti psihologije i procesima upravljanja ljudskim resursima. I, naravno, knjiga pruža dosta korisnih informacija praktičarima koji se bave poslovnom psihologijom i različitim aktivnostima u domenu upravljanja ljudima u poslovnim organizacijama. Može im biti korisna da prodube i osveže svoja teorijska znanja, da otvore možda neke nove vidike o tome šta im sve može doneti sistematska i redovna procena ličnosti zaposlenih, te kako sva ta znanja iskoristiti da se obezbede što bolje performanse zaposlenih, a samim tim i čitave organizacije.
Naravno, treba napomenuti da se u ovoj knjizi razmatra ličnost, u užem smislu, bez domena kognitivnih sposobnosti i interesovanja. Dakle, o ličnosti se u ovoj knjizi prvenstveno govori kroz okvire diferencijalne psihologije i to u domenu karakternih i temperamentalnih crta.
... The lower self-regulatory performance of state-oriented individuals can be observed under demands, a term that refers to a broad range of conditions under which intention enactment becomes difficult (Kuhl, 1985(Kuhl, , 2000(Kuhl, , 2001; see also Gruber & Goschke, 2004). This includes conditions like demanding life circumstances , subjective listlessness (Kazén et al., 2008, Study 1), high memory load (Kaschel et al., 2017), an uncompleted intention (Kazén et al., 2008, Study 2), and the interruption during a game (Birk et al., 2020). ...
... Self-efficacy in writing is a student's belief in her competence to write different types of text [25]. Students with high self-efficacy tend to use better learning strategies [26] and more self-monitoring of their learning outcomes [27][28][29] than students with low self-efficacy. Positive self-efficacy has a tremendous impact on the student's task persistence [30] and academic outcomes [4,31]. ...
... Mesmo que uma pessoa deseje fortemente realizar um comportamento, pode não ter as oportunidades ou recursos necessários, como conhecimento, dinheiro, habilidades, informação, tempo, equipamento e cooperação de outros para realmente realizá-lo (Kuhl, 1985;Liska, 1984;Sarver, 1983;Triandis, 1977). Para melhorar a capacidade preditiva do comportamento, Ajzen e Kruglanski (2019) incorporaram as metas do indivíduo pois os comportamentos servem como um meio para o indivíduo alcançar seus objetivos. ...
A pesquisa teve por objetivo analisar a percepção de risco do denunciante para corregedoria de órgão público federal. A análise empregou como suporte teórico a literatura comportamental individual decorrente das teorias do comportamento planejado e da teoria da busca do objetivo racional. O método empregado foi o estudo de caso (Yin, 2016), conformando a triangulação com procedimentos de revisão de literatura, observação participante e entrevistas. Os membros entrevistados não indicaram canais de denúncia explícitos em que os profissionais pudessem apresentar queixas, reclamações ou denúncias, tão somente pessoas a quem denunciar, em cargos superiores. O risco de represália demonstrado em relação às consequências também é bastante relevante, demonstrando o temor dos indivíduos ao conflito, e a exposição a diversos agentes organizacionais não envolvidos. Assim, percebe-se que a pesquisa demonstra relevância ao evidenciar que o contexto da corregedoria mesmo presente não afeta o temor de uma represália, além da carência de mecanismos de proteção aos respondentes. Palavras-Chave: Denúncia, Corregedoria, Whistleblow,
... Further, these theories can be combined (and have often been combined in the past) for a clearer picture. Examples beyond SDT and the other popular theory in HCI (i.e., flow theory [3,6]) include motive disposition theory [13,15], theories of attribution [4,20], approach and avoidance motivation [5], mindset theory, goal shielding and action crises [7,9,17], as well as action and state orientation [10], and personality-systems-interaction (PSI) theory [11]. See our supplementary materials for more context and use cases of these theories. ...
We use a Pokémon allegory to illustrate that current approaches to applying Self-Determination Theory (SDT) are reinforcing bad practice. SDT is to motivation research in HCI what Pikachu is to Ash in the Pokémon animated series: important, reliable, and powerful. However, just like Pikachu has its weaknesses (i.e., ground-type Pokémon) and should not be sent into every single battle, SDT is not the right tool for every single research question. While motivation should be seen as a function of situation and person [8, 13], SDT does not account for interindividual differences in need strength. We note that important aspects of motivation as a construct (e.g., arousal, frustration, satiation) are currently neglected in HCI and advocate for more precision with the terminology (e.g., distinguishing motivation from volition, goals, abilities, and personality). Deepening our understanding of motivation can provide valuable insights to researchers in games and play. We also suggest alternative theories of motivation which can be adopted by games and play research.
... This process involves avoiding distracting thoughts and concentrating on goals and tasks. However, this is linked to a conducive learning environment and attention (Kuhl, 1985). In this regard, the role of teacher is crucial in providing a conducing environment and keeping students focused on their work. ...
The prime objective of this study was to explore the level of adopted self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies of students studying at higher education. A qualitative research approach was adopted to collect data from the students of one public sector university. A convenient sampling approach was adopted to collect data from sixty participants studying in various undergraduate programs. A semi-structured interview protocol was developed to collect data based on the three key components of self-regulated learning. All the interviews were recorded verbatim for analysis. Content analysis was performed to analyze data. Sub-categories of three phases of SRL model was considered as unit of analysis. Findings were inferring in view of each phase of self-regulated learning. Findings suggested that the adopted level of self-regulated learning of learners at higher education was very weak. As to forethought, learners do not set goals, plan and analyze their tasks. As to performance phase, students mostly reported their working styles. They report certain strategies to perform their tasks which were mostly collaborative. They did not particularly mention about self-control and self-observations in relation to their tasks. Lastly, as to self-reflection phase, no particular finding was identified in relation to this phase, students mostly depend on their teacher to receive feedback on their tasks. They hardly judge their performance and react accordingly.
... When they passed the screening, participants were required to complete an additional set of questionnaires online, approximately two days before the experiment: Kuhl, 1985). We used the PCI to extract participants' worries and concerns (McVay and Kane, 2013). ...
For a large proportion of our daily lives, spontaneously occurring thoughts tend to disengage our minds from goal-directed thinking. Previous studies showed that EEG features such as the P3 and alpha oscillations can predict mind-wandering to some extent, but only with accuracies of around 60%. A potential candidate for improving prediction accuracy is the Steady-State Visual Evoked Potential (SSVEP), which is used frequently in single-trial contexts such as brain-computer interfaces as a marker of the direction of attention. In this study, we modified the sustained attention to response task (SART) that is usually employed to measure spontaneous thought to incorporate the SSVEP elicited by a 12.5-Hz flicker. We then examined whether the SSVEP could track and allow for the prediction of the stickiness and task-relatedness dimensions of spontaneous thought. Our results show that the SSVEP evoked by flickering words was able to distinguish between more and less sticky thinking but not between whether a participant was on- or off-task. This suggests that the SSVEP is able to track spontaneous thinking when it is strongly disengaged from the task (as in the sticky form of off-task thinking) but not off-task thought in general. Future research should determine the exact dimensions of spontaneous thought to which the SSVEP is most sensitive.
... O conhecimento é um recurso necessário para realizar um comportamento (Kuhl, 1985) e sua falta prejudica a efetividade de um comportamento (Miles, 2012). O maior conhecimento tende a favorecer a autoconfiança e auto eficácia do indivíduo, e com maior segurança o profissional passa a ter domínio da sua autonomia para fazer as denúncias devidas. ...
A pesquisa analisou a construção do conhecimento sobre red flags e sua relação com o julgamento de risco e decisão de denunciar, a partir do modelo de Libby e Luft (1993) que considera o conhecimento a partir da experiência e capacidade de resolução de problemas. A pesquisa foi desenvolvida em duas etapas, uma primeira com análise de consenso Delphi sobre red flags de riscos e suspeitas de ilícitos financeiros para desenvolvimento de instrumento de coleta, e uma seguinte etapa coletada por survey e analisada por equações estruturais que verifica as relações entre as variáveis, para uma amostra de 951 profissionais contábeis. Os resultados trazem evidências sobre os fatores que desenvolvem o conhecimento forense, validada para as relações oriundas da experiência e capacidade de resolução de problemas. O conhecimento em variável latente demonstrou influenciar positivamente o julgamento, mas não significativa com a decisão de denúncia, complementada com variável desenvolvida para conhecimento auto-reportado significativa para a assertividade do julgamento de risco e para a decisão de denúncia do indivíduo. Em ambas as configurações do conhecimento, sua influência é fomentada pelo julgamento de risco que medeia positivamente à decisão de denunciar em coeficiente elevado. A variável de gênero feminino permite perceber a influência positiva no julgamento, embora insignificante para a decisão de denunciar. As evidências contribuem com a prática profissional a partir da revelação das variáveis que podem fomentar o julgamento e decisão denúncia, além de contribuir com a literatura de red flags a partir da avaliação consensual dos riscos e suspeitas, bem como evidenciar a variável de conhecimento como potencial contribuição à literatura whistleblower. Palavras-chave: Red Flags, Whistleblow, Conhecimento.
... Sin embargo, una de las tendencias que establece más nítidamente la diferencia entre ambas señala que la motivación denota compromiso y establecimiento de una intención, mientras que la voluntad indica seguimiento y sostenimiento de dicha intención (Corno, 1994;Wolters, 1998;Barberá, 2000). Kuhl (1985) propone el Modelo de Control de la Acción, en el cual defiende la existencia de tendencias de acción alternativas que interfieren el cumplimiento de la intención. Esto quiere decir que hay factores internos y externos que ofrecen desvíos tentadores para los individuos poco persistentes. ...
... These processes involve individual differences in action control processes, operation of goal-related cognitions and flexible strategy use, and individual differences in dispositionally based volitional styles. Kuhl (1985) mentioned about three issues concerning volition, accordingly. These issues are action initiation (i), perseveration (ii), and inner obstacles (iii). ...
The current study aimed to elaborate on how work volition of university students associated with proactive personality trait, and to what extent proactive personality predicted work volition. Participants consisted of 352 university students including 242 females and 110 males. Findings demonstrated that male university students had stronger work volition perceptions than female students. Further, a positive, moderate level relationship between work volition and proactive personality was explored, whereas a negative yet significant relationship was detected between participants’ constraints perceptions and proactive personality traits. Regression analysis provided evidence regarding the predictive role of the proactive personality on volition dimension as of 25 % positively, and on constraints dimension as of 9 % negatively. Discussions on results are provided regarding literature, and future research directions are presented.
... Hence, while locomotion orientation is concerned with getting things done, assessment orientation is concerned with getting things right (Higgins, Idson, et al., 2003;Higgins, Kruglanski, & Pierro, 2003;Kruglanski et al., 2000). Regulatory mode theory extends on classic control theories such as the Rubicon model of action phases (Gollwitzer, 1990) or Kuhl's (1985) distinction between action and state orientations. Such theories generally consider functions of assessment and locomotion as functionally interdependent (Kruglanski et al., 2000). ...
Variety-seeking research has examined antecedents in terms of contextual factors and individual differences. However, it does not consider the interaction of individual difference factors such as regulatory focus (promotion vs. prevention) and regulatory mode (locomotion vs. assessment) to predict variety-seeking. Drawing on regulatory fit theory, this study introduces a new kind of regulatory fit based on the interaction between regulatory focus and mode (i.e., regulatory focus-mode fit), thereby extending previous work examining fit based on either regulatory focus or regulatory mode in isolation. Results from five studies, including field data from 10,547 music app consumers (text analysis), two preregistered studies, and two online experiments, show that regulatory focus-mode fit (vs. nonfit) decreases variety-seeking. Engagement and attitude certainty serially mediate regulatory focus-mode fit effects. Findings provide implications for consumer segmentation and message framing.
The article is available at https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1317
... One of the main inter-individual factors believed to influence the effectiveness of one's decision-making and execution skills is the level of action control. Action control is a construct introduced by Kuhl [1][2][3], which describes individual differences in volitional abilities concerned with initiating, maintaining, and finalizing planned actions. Measured by the Action Control Scale (ACS-90) [4], it is a unique construct related to differences in cognitive control (moderate positive correlations with self-consciousness and self-monitoring), as well as emotional processing (moderate negative correlations with negative thoughts, emotions, and affect or reactivity to stress) [5]. ...
The art of making good choices and being consistent in executing them is essential for having a successful and fulfilling life. Individual differences in action control are believed to have a crucial impact on how we make choices and whether we put them in action. Action-oriented people are more decisive, flexible and likely to implement their intentions in the face of adversity. In contrast, state-oriented people often struggle to commit to their choices and end up second-guessing themselves. Here, we employ a model-based computational approach to study the underlying cognitive differences between action and state-oriented people in simple binary-choice decision tasks. In Experiment 1 we show that there is little-to-no evidence that the two groups differ in terms of decision-related parameters and strong evidence for differences in metacognitive bias. Action-oriented people exhibit greater confidence in the correctness of their choices as well as slightly elevated judgement sensitivity, although no differences in performance are present. In Experiment 2 we replicate this effect and show that the confidence gap generalizes to value-based decisions, widens as a function of difficulty and is independent of deliberation interval. Furthermore, allowing more time for confidence deliberation indicated that state-oriented people focus more strongly on external features of choice. We propose that a positive confidence bias, coupled with appropriate metacognitive sensitivity, might be crucial for the successful realization of intentions in many real-life situations. More generally, our study provides an example of how modelling latent cognitive processes can bring meaningful insight into the study of individual differences.
This chapter provides an overview of the major motivation theories, and examines how the ARCS-V model applies motivational theory to instructional design. The chapter also provides a cognitive framework to support aspects of the ARCS-V model. Special attention is given to course design and instructional practices aimed at reducing online student attrition and improving academic performance. Additionally, the chapter reviews research examining the utility of the ARCS-V model, as well as recommendations for implementation within the online modality.
RESUMEN
Introducción: La procrastinación decisional refiere a un estilo de toma de decisión desadaptativo caracterizado por la postergación innecesaria en arribar a una decisión en un tiempo dado. La dimensión del tiempo psicológico cobra relevancia en el estudio de estos procesos, en tanto una persona decide considerando experiencias pasadas, su situación presente, y expectativas a futuro. Objetivo: El objetivo del estudio fue evaluar la relación entre la procrastinación decisional y la perspectiva temporal en adultos de Buenos Aires. Metodología: Se realizó un estudio cuantitativo de corte transversal y alcance descriptivo-correlacional. Se recolectó una muestra de 209 adultos (77% mujeres) residentes de Buenos Aires de entre 19 y 64 años (M = 32.84; DE = 8.73) a quienes se les administró una serie de instrumentos de auto reporte adaptados localmente. Resultados: La procrastinación decisional se asoció de manera positiva con la perspectiva temporal de pasado negativo (r = .30; p < .001) y presente fatalista (r =.34; p < .001), y de manera negativa con la perspectiva temporal futura (r =-.31; p < .001). En conclusión: Las personas con mayores experiencias negativas sobre su pasado y su presente, y menor orientación al futuro, exhibieron mayor tendencia a la procrastinación decisional.
Four experiments examined freely interacting groups to investigate the determinants of group members' reactions to opinion deviates and conformists. In the 1st experiment, the deviate was rejected more when he or she articulated the dissenting opinion in close proximity to the group-decision deadline versus at an earlier point in the group discussion. In the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th experiment, the deviate was rejected more when the group discussion was carried out in a noisy versus a quiet environment. Furthermore, when the conformist's contributions to the group's attempts to reach consensus were made salient (in Experiment 4), he or she was evaluated more positively in a noisy versus a quiet environment. The results were discussed in terms of the notion that group members' tendency to denigrate a deviate or extol a conformist may be stronger when their need for collective cognitive closure is heightened.
Reports on the course of memory-monitoring skills across adulthood are discrepant in conclusions and limited in scope. The purpose of this study was to build a large data base (3 samples and 7 different tasks) to assess performance awareness. Younger (19–41 years) and older (59–93 years) Ss estimated performance either before (i.e., predictions) or after (i.e., postdictions) completing each task. Predictions were less accurate than postdictions at both age levels, suggesting Ss monitored performance during the study–test cycle. Overall, the data suggested no consistent age effects in performance awareness: Age differences in monitoring occurred only in predictions and only for some tasks. Between-tasks differences in age effects could not be attributed to a single mediating mechanism like those suggested in previous reports. Why previous research has produced conflicting conclusions about metacognitive development in adulthood is discussed in light of these data.
Due to Covid-19 outbreak, students and teachers experience a rapid shift from conventional to online learning which requires students to be more self-regulated learners. The purpose of this study is to discover how graduate students remain focused and keep devoting effort in academic writing task completion. This research employed a qualitative study involving 13 graduate students of the English Education Master Program of a private university in Indonesia. Data were collected by distributing questionnaire and conducting interview. The data obtained from the questionnaire were analysed using descriptive statistics. Further, open coding techniques were utilized to examine the interview data. There are three major findings drawn in this study, namely, volitional strategies used by students in the academic writing task, persistence amid pandemic situation, and the role of volition in maintaining students’ motivation. The themes describe how students show their determination during the goal-achievement process of academic writing assignments. Students frequently encounter hardships in their learning process which might distance themselves from accomplishing the learning demands. This study shed the light on fruitful merits of volition, particularly in driving students to stay focused despite challenges or distracting situation.
As 'self-law', autonomy contributes to people's psychological health and helps secure meaning in one’s life. Within higher education, it enables students to navigate this environment and prepare for professional life, empowering them to take ownership of their learning and development goals. Autonomy is multidimensional, encompassing the local ability to regulate thoughts and behaviours, and the global ability to establish a sense of existential agency; therefore, it is vital to students’ holistic progression and attainment. Within a relational context, interpersonal relationships influence people’s ability to recognise and exercise their autonomous capacities across local and global contexts. Therefore, fostering students’ autonomy is at the heart of support services within Higher Education Institutions. Student Advisers are well placed to undertake this mission, given the range of academic, administrative, and pastoral responsibilities their role entails. In this paper we provide a taxonomy of student autonomy, arguing it is ‘becoming oneself amongst others’. Given autonomy’s relational foundations, a healthy student-adviser connection can provide an environment for students to operate in a co-directive and self-determined manner. Drawing on University College Dublin’s Student Advisory Services, we offer guidance to Student Advisers, proposing two autonomy enhancement strategies: fostering students' self-governance through facilitating intrapersonal ownership and fostering their self-direction by promoting interpersonal embeddedness.
Previous studies have established that there is a relationship between efficacy beliefs and procrastination. Theory and research on motivation suggest that visual imagery (the capacity to create vivid mental images) may be implicated in this relationship and in the general tendency to procrastinate. This study's aim was to build on prior work by examining the role of visual imagery, as well as roles of other specific personal and affective factors, in predicting academic procrastination. Self-efficacy for self regulatory behavior was observed to be the strongest predictor, predicting lower rates of academic procrastination, though this effect was significantly greater for individuals who scored higher on a measure of visual imagery. Visual imagery predicted higher levels of academic procrastination when included in a regression model with other significant factors, though this relationship did not hold for individuals who scored higher on self regulatory self-efficacy, suggesting that this self-belief may shield individuals who would otherwise be disposed to procrastination behavior. Negative affect was observed to predict higher levels of academic procrastination, contrary to a previous finding. This result highlightsthe importance of considering social contextual issues that may influence emotional states, such as those surrounding the Covid-19 epidemic, in studies of procrastination.
Maternal health in the United States of America (USA) does not compare favorably to other high-resource nations. Maternal mortality, morbidity, and near misses in the USA are the highest among high-income nations and comparable to many middle-income nations. This introductory chapter describes maternal health outcomes in the USA in the context of the Social Determinants of Health (SDoH) as defined in the Healthy People 2030 document. While the SDoH describe social and environmental conditions influencing maternal health, they do not answer the underlying question of why maternal mortality and morbidity are so high. This chapter proposes that the SDoH describe conditions that are markers of decisions at all levels. These decisions, grounded in historical and cultural values, drive both positive and negative outcomes for maternal health.
Maternal health.
Maternal mortality.
Maternal morbidity.
Maternal health outcomes.
Failure to rescue, healthcare.
Healthy People Programs.
Social determinants of health.
Cultural values.
American culture.
Social values.
A limited number of studies have assessed the relation between individual innovativeness and leadership self-efficacy among the teacher candidates. This research investigated the mediating effects of Self-Regulation Approach, to determine the direct and indirect relationships between teacher candidates' individual innovativeness and leadership self-efficacy. Participants (between 17 and 24 years old) at a university (N=350) participated in this study, 68.9% (241) of the participants were female, 31.1% (109) were male. The correlational survey model was used. Instrument of the study was comprised of four sections: (i) Personal Information Form containing demographic variables, (ii) Individual Innovativeness Scale (IIS), (iii) Leadership Self-Efficacy Scale (LSES) and (iv) Self-Assessment Approach Scale (SAAS). The results show that regression analysis was used to test the hypotheses, and leadership self-efficacy scale was defined as dependent, individual innovativeness as independent, self-assessment approach as mediator, and gender and grade level as control variables.
Despite growing interest in workplace spirituality consequences, organizations are urged to better understand how workplace spirituality influences workplace behaviors (e.g. Fox, Webster & Casper, 2018). In this connection, this study proposes and empirically examines how individual-level workplace spirituality predicts selling effort via salesforce intrinsic motivation in Pharmaceutical companies in Pakistan to promote underresearched Muslim countries and its workplaces with diverse spiritual traditions than extensively studied Christian societies. Data were collected from field salespersons employed by pharmaceutical companies operating in the Lahore region of Pakistan to test hypothesized relationships. Findings indicate individual-level spirit at work drives selling effort above and beyond what is positively mediated by intrinsic motivation. This research endeavor improves the legitimacy of workplace spirituality and makes it mainstream to organizational studies which will prevent marginalization of research on this topic.
Chapter 2 first provides the related theories and models of SRL that are the theoretical framework of studying motivational regulation. The chapter highlights social cognitive learning theory and two models of SRL based on this theory. One of the models discussed is Zimmerman’s social cognitive model of SRL, which is based on Bandura’s social cognitive learning theory. The other is Pintrich’s general framework of SRL, which also derives mainly from the social cognitive approach. The chapter then emphasizes the development of the related research about motivational regulation. The research contained studies on motivational regulation strategies used by learners and their relationship with other components of SRL as well as academic achievement. The strategies identified in previous studies include attempts to regulate various motivational beliefs and personal interest in the task as well as the students’ management of their affect, environment, and behavior. Motivational regulation helps students to provide effort and persist at academic tasks and to avoid maladaptive academic behaviors. Students’ regulation of motivation is related positively to the more cognitive and metacognitive aspects of students’ SRL. Students’ ability to control aspects of their motivation through the use of various strategies can impact on their academic learning and achievement. Students who use motivational regulation strategies are more likely to get better grades than students who do not regulate their motivation. Other components of SRL, including motivational components and self-regulated learning strategies are also reviewed to offer support for the empirical study of motivational regulation framed in SRL.
Purpose: This study examined the brain attention biofeedback self-regulation training (BABST) effects on attention, multidimensional impulsivity, emotional response intensity, and self-regulated learning ability of school-aged children in the prolonged COVID-19 pandemic.Methods: A pretest-posttest nonequivalent control group design was used. There were 36 school-aged children in the experimental and control groups. The experimental groups received 10 BABSTsessions for 4 weeks. The data were analyzed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnova, Shapiro-Wilk, MannWhitney U, Wilcoxon signed-rank, and Quade Two-Way ANCOVA by ranks for non-parametric tests.Results: All the variables showed homogeneity between the two groups except academic stress that was controlled as a covariate. The experimental group ranked significantly higher in attention (F=4.43, p =.043), cognitive impulsivity (F=9.70, p =.004), behavior impulsivity (F=11.21, p =.032), emotional response intensity (F=21.94, p <.001), self-regulated learning ability (F=8.71, p =.006) than the control group.Conclusion: The brain attention biofeedback self-regulation program, as a brain neurocognitive-based nursing intervention, markedly improved attention, impulsivity, emotional response intensity, and self-regulated learning ability in school-aged children.
Conducted a field experiment with 3-5 yr old nursery school children to test the "overjustification" hypothesis suggested by self-perception theory (i.e., intrinsic interest in an activity may be decreased by inducing him to engage in that activity as an explicit means to some extrinsic goal). 51 Ss who showed intrinsic interest in a target activity during baseline observations were exposed to 1 of 3 conditions: in the expected-award condition, Ss agreed to engage in the target activity in order to obtain an extrinsic reward; in the unexpected-award condition, Ss had no knowledge of the reward until after they had finished with the activity; and in the no-award condition, Ss neither expected nor received the reward. Results support the prediction that Ss in the expected-award condition would show less subsequent intrinsic interest in the target activity than Ss in the other 2 conditions. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the self-perception explanations of the overjustification effect and their underlying assumptions about cognitive structures based on the operation of multiple-sufficient-causal schemata (MSCS). Two studies were carried out that initially identified the Ss as belonging to the additive, transitional, or discounting stage of MSCS according to the procedure of M. C. Smith (see record
1974-22388-001). A total of 94 5-, 8-, and 11-yr-old schoolchildren were selected as Ss. Half of the Ss were given a tangible reward for an interesting task in the usual overjustification paradigm. The results of both studies indicate that the rewarded groups showed a decline in intrinsic interest that was independent of the Ss' level of functioning on the schema. The author examines objections to the present research strategy and assesses the educational implications of the outcomes. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Prior to each target letter string presented visually to 120 university students in a speeded word–nonword classification task, either {bird, body, building,} or {xxx} appeared as a priming event. Five types of word-prime/word-target trials were used: bird-robin, bird-arm, body-door, body-sparrow, and body-heart. The stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) between prime and target letter string varied between 250 and 2,000 msec. At 2,000-msec SOA, reaction times (RTs) on bird-robin type trials were faster than on xxx-prime trials (facilitation), whereas RTs on bird-arm type trials were slower than on xxx-prime (inhibition). As SOA decreased, the facilitation effect on bird-robin trials remained constant, but the inhibition effect on bird-arm decreased until, at 250-msec SOA, there was no inhibition. For Shift conditions at 2,000-msec SOA, facilitation was obtained on body-door type trials and inhibition was obtained on body-sparrow type. These effects decreased as SOA decreased until there was no facilitation or inhibition. On body-heart type trials, there was an inhibition effect at 2,000 msec SOA, which decreased as SOA decreased until, at 250-msec SOA, it became a facilitation effect. Results support the theory of M. I. Posner and S. R. Snyder (1975) that postulated 2 distinct components of attention: a fast automatic inhibitionless spreading-activation process and a slow limited-capacity conscious-attention mechanism. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
People often perform poorly on tasks following experience with unsolvable problems. The current experiment tested 2 competing explanations (learned helplessness and egotism) for this performance deficit. 40 college students were given either solvable or unsolvable discrimination problems and then a series of anagrams that were alleged to be either highly or moderately difficult. Ss previously given unsolvable problems did better on the anagrams when led to believe that the anagrams were highly difficult than when led to believe that the anagrams were moderately difficult. This result is contrary to a learned helplessness theory interpretation, which attributes performance deficits following unsolvable problems to the belief that outcomes are independent of responses. Instead, this result supports an egotism explanation, which maintains that people are not likely to try hard on a task following experience with unsolvable problems (i.e., following failure), unless a poor performance would not pose a further threat to their self-esteem. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes 3 experiments with a total of 92 3-5 yr. olds. Exp. I compared the effects of external and cognitive distraction from reward objects on the length of time which Ss waited for a preferred delayed reward before forfeiting it for a less preferred immediate one. In accord with predictions from an extension of frustrative nonreward theory, Ss waited much longer for a preferred reward when they were distracted from the rewards. Exp. II demonstrated that only certain cognitive events (thinking "fun things") served as effective ideational distractors. Thinking "sad thoughts" produced short delay times, as did thinking about the rewards themselves. In Exp. III the delayed rewards were not physically available for direct attention during the delay period, and Ss' cognitive attention was manipulated by prior instructions. While Ss waited, cognitions about the rewards significantly reduced, rather than enhanced, the length of their delay of gratification. Overall, attentional and cognitive mechanisms which enhanced the salience of rewards shortened the length of voluntary delay, while distractions from the rewards, overtly or cognitively, facilitated delay. Results permit a reinterpretation of basic mechanisms in voluntary delay of gratification and self-control. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The overjustification hypothesis proposes that expectation of reward for an inherently interesting activity produces less interest in the activity when reward is subsequently unavailable. 2 experiments, with a total of 41 kindergarten and 1st-grade Ss, designed to test this hypothesis are reported. Exp I replicated previous findings that a single trial of noncontingent, promised reward undermines young children's interest in the rewarded play activity (see record
1974-10498-001). Exp II disconfirmed the overjustification hypothesis by demonstrating that a multiple-trial, contingent reinforcement procedure did not produce an overjustification effect. Findings are understandable in terms of a competing response hypothesis but not in terms of overjustification. Accordingly, previous findings of an overjustification effect are reinterpreted as having demonstrated that curiosity in a novel play activity can be undermined by presentation of distracting stimuli. The following additional conclusions are drawn: (a) The overjustification hypothesis is conceptually vague. (b) Self-perception theory seems to have been concerned with variables relatively unimportant for understanding effects of tangible reward procedures on overt behavior. (c) Recent criticisms that token economies undermine intrinsic interest were based on a failure to appreciate differences between single-trial, noncontingent reward and multiple-trial, contingent reinforcement procedures. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes a theoretical framework whereby the action's endogenous attribution is linked with the inferences of intrinsic motivation, subjective freedom, and the action's underlying intention. The endogenous-exogenous distinction is proposed to replace the frequently invoked partition between the action's internal and external causes. Both conceptual and empirical considerations are put forth in favor of such a replacement. Classical attribution topics to which the internal-external partition has been applied are reinterpreted in terms of the endogenous-exogenous distinction, and novel data are reported that support the latter framework. Finally, several categories of conditions for endogenous (or exogenous) attributions are identified, and possible directions of further research within the endogenous-exogenous framework are suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
84 male college students who were homogeneously high in strength of motive to achieve success and low in motive to avoid failure (as assessed by the TAT and the Test Anxiety Questionnaire) were tested individually in 1 of 2 conditions. In 1 condition (easy) Ss were asked to start with a nonachievement task presented on a computer terminal and were told that they could switch to the easy level of the achievement task and subsequently switch back and forth between the 2 tasks whenever they wished. Ss in the difficult condition were allowed to choose between the nonachievement task and the difficult level of the achievement task. No group difference was found in latency of achievement task, a finding that supports the assumption of equal instigating forces for easy and difficult tasks. A significant group difference in duration of first performance of the achievement task, with the difficult group persisting longer than the easy group, indicates that the consummatory value of success at an easy task is greater than the consummatory value of success at a difficult task. Cognitive antecedents of consummatory value are discussed. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents a 3-factor theory of learned helplessness that differs from M. E. Seligman's (see PA, Vols 54:1316 and 61:1206) theory in placing the emphasis on functional rather than motivational helplessness. Generalized performance decrements following exposure to uncontrollable results are attributed to deteriorated cognitive functioning caused by an increase of state-oriented cognitions (functional helplessness). Motivational helplessness (i.e., performance decrements caused by motivational deficits that are attributable to a belief in uncontrollability) is considered a special case of the 3-factor theory. Two experiments (36 undergraduates) demonstrated that Ss did not generalize reduced perception of controllability from training to test task. Ss exposed to uncontrollable failure in training nevertheless showed increased or decreased performance compared to a control group. Those performance effects could be explained on the basis of a personal disposition for and situational induction of state vs action orientation. It is concluded that a decision concerning the type of therapy for helplessness–depression should not be made until it is known whether motivational or functional helplessness is the primary problem. Although an attributional training may reverse motivational helplessness, it may have adverse effects when applied to depressives characterized by functional helplessness. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Notes that learned helplessness-the interference with instrumental responding following inescapable aversive events-has been found in animals and man. The present study tested for the generality of the debilitation produced by uncontrollable events across tasks and motivational systems. 4 experiments with a total of 96 college students were simultaneously conducted: (a) pretreatment with inescapable, escapable, or control aversive tone followed by shuttlebox escape testing; (b) pretreatment with insoluble, soluble, or control discrimination problems followed by anagram solution testing; (c) pretreatments with inescapable, escapable, or control aversive tone followed by anagram solution testing; and (d) pretreatments with insoluble, soluble, or control discrimination problems followed by shuttlebox escape testing. Learned helplessness was found with all 4 experiments: Both insolubility and inescapability produced failure to escape and failure to solve anagrams. It is suggested that inescapability and insolubility both engendered expectancies that responding is independent of reinforcement. The generality of this process suggests that learned helplessness may be an induced "trait." (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Considers M. Fishbein's version of D. E. Dulaney's 1968 theory of propositional control as an explanation for the reported lack of relationship between traditional measures of attitude and overt behavior and as an alternative for the prediction of specific actions. Evidence in support of the theory is reviewed. Specific behaviors are shown to be predictable from specific behavioral intentions. These intentions are shown in turn to be a function of 2 components: (a) the attitude toward the act in question; and (b) the perceived normative expectations of reference groups, multiplied by the person's motivation to comply with the expectations. Variables other than these 2 components are shown to affect behavioral intentions and overt behaviors indirectly by influencing one or both of the components. Traditional attitudes are treated like any other variable external to the theory, and their relations to behavior, if any, are also shown to be mediated by the theory's 2 components. (54 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
160 college students solved button-pushing problems under feedback conditions designed to differ systematically in the amount of information they conveyed and the amount of motivation they produced. During a pretest series of trials, 1 group received
response-contingent feedback designed to enhance both information and motivation. A 2nd group was
yoked to the contingent group and thus received low information and low motivation. A 3rd group experienced
noncontingent success (low information, high motivation), and a 4th group received
noncontingent failure feedback (low information, low motivation). A 2-process model that gives equal weight to information and motivational cues correctly predicted that the performance of the noncontingent success group on a transfer task would fall in between that of the contingent group and the failure/yoked groups. As a more stringent test of the model, 4 interventions were factorially combined with the pretreatments. The intervention treatments involved giving either no information, information about the contingencies, praise, or derogation. As predicted by the model, simply giving Ss information about the contingencies removed the debilitating effects of learned helplessness. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Following the learned helplessness paradigm, the present study with 63 undergraduates assessed the hypothesized existence of a curvilinear relationship between experiences of no control and helpless behavior. Two factors thought to affect the impact of experiences with noncontingent reinforcement were investigated: the amount of helplessness training and the importance attributed to the training task. Helplessness training consisted of varying intensities of experience with noncontingent reinforcement on concept-formation-type problems in situations differing in perceived importance. Results demonstrate both facilitation and helplessness effects, and task importance and amount of training increased the likelihood of helplessness effects. Results are discussed in terms of possible qualifications of the effects of noncontingent reinforcement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In recent approaches to social judgment, information distortion has been discussed primarily as a violation of individual rationality, due to unintentionally occurring biases. In contrast to this view, it is argued that frequently individuals make purposive use of selective changes in information processing in order to avoid indecisiveness. In this sense, selective changes in information processing may be considered a functional requirement of a volitional process which protects the current intention (or tentative decision) from being replaced by competing behavioral tendencies. On the basis of J. Kuhl's theory of action control (1981, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 155-170; 1982, in W. Hacker, W. Volpert, & M. von Cranach, Eds., Cognitive and Motivational Aspects of Action, Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1984, in B. A. Maher, Progress in Experimental Personality Research, Vol. 13, New York: Academic Press) it was predicted that subjects having a high score on the action-control scale (i.e., action-oriented subjects) should show a stronger tendency to increase the attractiveness rating of a tentatively preferred decision during the process of decision making than subjects scoring low on that scale (i.e., state-oriented subjects). To test this assumption, students searching for an apartment were offered 16 apartments along with a list containing information about the alternatives. The subjects had to rate the attractiveness of each apartment twice before they were asked to indicate which apartments they would like to rent. The results confirmed the predictions. It was found that action-oriented subjects increased the divergence of their attractiveness ratings from the first to the second point of evaluation, whereas state-oriented subjects did not.
Novel and familiar letters were presented to Ss under conditions which controlled momentary attention states. The latencies of letter matching for the novel and familiar letters did not differ when Ss were expecting the particular letters which were presented. However, latencies to the two types of letters differed significantly when Ss were not expecting the particular letters which were presented. Additional exposures significantly reduced this difference, thereby generating a perceptual learning curve in terms of response latency. The main findings were interpreted in terms of a model of perceptual processing which involves mechanisms for hierarchical coding, selective attention, and automatic processing.
2 studies examined the extent to which overjustification effects can be explained in terms of expectations deriving from the offer of a reward by the experimenter. This issue was tested by including a condition in which subjects merely observed another child perform an activity for a promised reward. The results of Experiment 1 showed that while such observer subjects manifested a short-term decrement that was not significantly different from the involved reward group, in the long term the decrement did not persist. A suggestion emerged that the "recovery" of the observed group was due to their trying out the activity, and this suggestion was verified in Experiment 2. While the central hypothesis has therefore to be rejected, an interesting new phenomenon has been uncovered with important applied implications.
The study of “metacognition” has become vigorous in recent years, with extensive research exploring the development of children’s knowledge of effective strategies in attention, comprehension, and memory (e.g., Brown, 1980; Flavell & Wellman, 1977). In contrast, the child’s developing understanding of essential strategies for self-regulation — a core aspect of human functioning, basic to virtually all conceptions of personality — has been neglected. Perhaps this neglect reflects the fact that until recently there were few objective criteria against which one could assess the relative efficacy of various strategies for self-control. Studies of the conditions that enhance or impede successful delay of gratification in children (e.g., Miller & Karniol, 1976a, 1976b; Mischel, 1974, 1981b; Toner, 1981; Toner & Smith, 1977; Yates, Lippett, & Yates, 1981) now provide a basis for assessing the child’s developing understanding against objective criteria of efficacy.
A review of clinical, experimental, and field research on stress, together with the author's own research, provides the background for a theory that emphasizes the importance of cognitive processes. Harvard Book List (edited) 1971 #370 (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Discusses various effects of emotions on processes of perception, memory, problem solving, and overt action. Different emotions can act as retrieval cues that facilitate performance. Also, different emotions may trigger different modes of processing. Joy, interest, and anger facilitate an intuitive-holistic mode of processing, whereas fear, shame, surprise, sadness, and guilt facilitate a shift to a sequential-analytic mode of processing. A model is proposed that supports a cognitive-episodic process of motivation for the latter set of emotions and a dynamic motivational process for the former set. (5 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Following the review of a number of motivational systems, the author contrasts an expectancy-value theory with a drive-habit theory of motivation. The emphasis is on human motivation. Harvard Book List (edited) 1971 #354 (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents an animal model of how learned helplessness may manifest itself as depression and anxiety. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents a cognitive-attentional interpretation of the effects of self-reported anxiety level. It is proposed that the component common to self-reported anxiety on measures of general and test anxiety may be labeled "evaluation anxiety." Persons high in evaluation anxiety react to cues that indicate that they are being evaluated with a habitual, overlearned set of self-oriented cognitions. The precise nature of these cognitions varies from one individual to another but tends to be constant within an individual. The cognitions serve as a trigger for heightened emotional reactivity. Persons low in evaluation anxiety react to performance evaluation with an external, situational task focus that generates cognitions about the task or situation conducive to task completion or heightened understanding of the situation. Test anxiety, a specific type of evaluation anxiety, is discussed in terms of self-focusing, task cue utilization, and the cognitive and physiological components of test anxiety. Cognitive-attentional experimental manipulations and treatment research are discussed as well. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews the literature in support of very early perceptual input regulation which can be based on higher-order conceptual or structural stimulus properties. This learning-dependent perceptual tuning takes 2 forms: preconscious orientation, which operates automatically in the processing of most visual information and can be observed as a strong tendency to parse scenic information in terms of conceptually meaningful distinctions, and temporary tuning, in which perceptual biases are modified on a task-specific basis with respect to either scenic information or stimuli whose conceptual properties are arbitrary or conventional (e.g., words, as opposed to nonsensical letter strings). Perceptual tuning is contrasted with conscious attention, which is primarily a task selector rather than an input selector. (31/2 p ref) (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The topics that are to be treated in this book were unduly neglected by psychology for many years but are now beginning to come to the fore. My own researches into attention and exploratory behavior began in 1947, and at about the same time several other psychologists became independently impressed with the importance of these matters and started to study them experimentally. It is interesting that those were also the years when information theory was making its appearance and when the reticular formation of the brain stem was first attracting the notice of neurophysiologists. During the last ten years, the tempo of research into exploratory behavior and related phenomena has been steadily quickening. The book is prompted by the feeling that it is now time to pause and take stock: to review relevant data contributed by several different specialties, to consider what conclusions, whether firm or tentative, are justified at the present juncture, and to clarify what remains to be done. The primary aim of the book is, in fact, to raise problems. The book is intended as a contribution to behavior theory, i.e., to psychology conceived as a branch of science with the circumscribed objective of explaining and predicting behavior. But interest in attention and exploratory behavior and in other topics indissociably bound up with them, such as art, humor and thinking, has by no means been confined to professional psychologists. The book has two features that would have surprised me when I first set out to plan it. One is that it ends up sketching a highly modified form of drive-reduction theory. Drive-reduction theory has appeared more and more to be full of shortcomings, even for the phenomena that it was originally designed to handle. The second surprising feature is the prominence of neurophysiology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
• This work, a second edition of which has very kindly been requested, was followed by La Construction du réel chez l'enfant and was to have been completed by a study of the genesis of imitation in the child. The latter piece of research, whose publication we have postponed because it is so closely connected with the analysis of play and representational symbolism, appeared in 1945, inserted in a third work, La formation du symbole chez l'enfant. Together these three works form one entity dedicated to the beginnings of intelligence, that is to say, to the various manifestations of sensorimotor intelligence and to the most elementary forms of expression. The theses developed in this volume, which concern in particular the formation of the sensorimotor schemata and the mechanism of mental assimilation, have given rise to much discussion which pleases us and prompts us to thank both our opponents and our sympathizers for their kind interest in our work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Subjects shot a light gun at a target with a photorecepter cell in the bull's-eye, with the only information regarding their accuracy being provided by reinforcing tone signals. Half the subjects received reinforcers contingent upon their hits. The others were yoked to the contingent subjects, receiving non-contingent reinforcers in the same patterns. Experiment 1 compared contingent or noncontingent positive or aversive reinforcers in their effect on subsequent anagrams performance. Phenomenal experiences, such as cognitive awareness, attributions, and moods, were assessed. Subjects exhibited a strong helplessness effect independent of their phenomenal experiences. In Experiment 2 the independent variables of contingent/noncontingent reinforcement and awareness of noncontingency were manipulated orthogonally by informing half the subjects that their reinforcement had been noncontingent in the target-shooting. Actual noncontingency produced a strong helplessness effect whereas “awareness of noncontingency” did not.
The first section of this paper introduces a set of constructs, develops a cognitive model of motivation, and derives specific propositions for the case of achievement motivation. The model describes functional relationships among expectancies, instrumentalities, incentive values, and valences, each of which is calculated separately for situations, actions, and outcomes. Each valence is calculated with reference to an outcome''s anticipated consequences, both immediate and delayed. The model draws on, but reworks and extends, Expectancy Value Theory, Bolles'' Psychological Syllogism, Instrumentality Theory, Achievement Motivation Theory, and Causal Attribution Theory. The second section examines the model''s fit to the body of data that bears on a central area of research in achievement motivation, namely task preferences. The last section scrutinizes the motive construct as a summary concept and divides it into six parameter sets which represent sources of individual differences.
