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Recent Advances in Polymer-Composite Materials for Biomedical Applications
Abstract
Over the last two decades, there has been a substantial surge in the demand for medical products rooted in biomaterials and tissue engineering. This surge has propelled significant growth in biomedical research. Polymer-based composites, constituting a particularly intriguing category of biomaterials, have become extensively employed in various biomedical applications. This popularity is attributable to their exceptional physical and mechanical characteristics. Bio-polymers, in particular, are gaining widespread use owing to their inherent features, including low density, reduced thermal conductivity, resistance to corrosion, and the ease with which complex shapes can be manufactured. To provide an overview of the development of polymer-based composites in terms of their structure, characteristics, and methods of manufacture. Bioactive polymer-based composites are covered in this topic, including those that have the ability to produce bones, antibacterial, magnetic, electrically conductive, and release oxygen. It also explores non-bioactive polymer-based composites with porogens and reinforcing fillers. Furthermore, various types of reinforcements, such as natural fibers, cellulose, animal fibers, bio-polymers, seed shells, bioceramics, and bio-chemicals, are examined for their role in enhancing mechanical properties like tensile strength, compressive strength, flexural strength, creep behavior and Young’s modulus of these composites. The narrative extends to the discussion of scaffold structures created through particle leaching, 3D additive manufacturing and electrospinning. Each section highlights significant and recent advancements in the utilization of polymer-based composites in biomedical applications.
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Thermoplastic pultrusion is a suitable process for fabricating continuous unidirectional thermoplastics with a uniform cross-section, high mechanical properties due to continuous fiber reinforcement, low cost, and suitability for mass production. In this paper, jute and glass fibers were reinforced with a polypropylene matrix and fabricated using the thermoplastic pultrusion process. The volumetric fraction of the composite was designed by controlling the filling ratio of the reinforcing fiber and matrix. The effects of molding parameters were investigated, such as pulling speed and molding temperature, on the mechanical properties and microstructure of the final rectangular profile composite. The pulling speed and molding temperature varied from 40 to 140 mm/min and 190 to 220 °C, respectively. The results showed that an increase in molding temperature initially led to an increase in mechanical properties, up to a certain point. Beyond that point, they started to decrease. The resin can be easily impregnated into the fiber due to the low viscosity of thermoplastic at high temperatures, resulting in increased mechanical properties. However, the increase in molding temperature also led to a rise in void content due to moisture in jute fiber, resulting in decreased mechanical properties at 210 °C. Meanwhile, un-impregnation decreased with the increase in molding temperature, and the jute fiber began to degrade at high temperatures. In the next step, with varying pulling speed, the mechanical properties decreased as the pulling speed increased, with a corresponding increase in void content and un-impregnation. This effect occurred because the resin had a shorter time to impregnate the fiber at a higher pulling speed. The decrease in mechanical properties was influenced by the increase in void content and un-impregnation, as the jute fiber degraded at higher temperatures.
Nanocomposite hydrogel biomaterials represent an exciting Frontier in biomedicine, offering solutions to longstanding challenges. These hydrogels are derived from various biopolymers, including fibrin, silk fibroin, collagen, keratin, gelatin, chitosan, hyaluronic acid, alginate, carrageenan, and cellulose. While these biopolymers possess inherent biocompatibility and renewability, they often suffer from poor mechanical properties and rapid degradation. Researchers have integrated biopolymers such as cellulose, starch, and chitosan into hydrogel matrices to overcome these limitations, resulting in nanocomposite hydrogels. These innovative materials exhibit enhanced mechanical strength, improved biocompatibility, and the ability to finely tune drug release profiles. The marriage of nanotechnology and hydrogel chemistry empowers precise control over these materials' physical and chemical properties, making them ideal for tissue engineering, drug delivery, wound healing, and biosensing applications. Recent advancements in the design, fabrication, and characterization of biopolymer-based nanocomposite hydrogels have showcased their potential to transform biomedicine. Researchers are employing strategic approaches for integrating biopolymer nanoparticles, exploring how nanoparticle properties impact hydrogel performance, and utilizing various characterization techniques to evaluate structure and functionality. Moreover, the diverse biomedical applications of these nanocomposite hydrogels hold promise for improving patient outcomes and addressing unmet clinical needs.
3D printing technology is an emerging method that gained extensive attention from researchers worldwide, especially in the health and medical fields. Biopolymers are an emerging class of materials offering excellent properties and flexibility for additive manufacturing. Biopolymers are widely used in biomedical applications in biosensing, immunotherapy, drug delivery, tissue engineering and regeneration, implants, and medical devices. Various biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymeric materials are considered as bio-ink for 3d printing. Here, we offer an extensive literature review on the current applications of synthetic biopolymers in the field of 3D printing. A trend in the publication of biopolymers in the last 10 years are focused on the review by analyzing more than 100 publications. Their application and classification based on biodegradability are discussed. The various studies, along with their practical applications, are elaborated in the subsequent sections for polyethylene, polypropylene, polycaprolactone, polylactide, etc. for biomedical applications. The disadvantages of various biopolymers are discussed, and future perspectives like combating biocompatibility problems using 3D printed biomaterials to build compatible prosthetics are also discussed and the potential application of using resin with the combination of biopolymers to build customized implants, personalized drug delivery systems and organ on a chip technologies are expected to open a new set of chances for the development of healthcare and regenerative medicine in the future.
Graphical Abstract
The use of additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, has progressed beyond prototyping to produce intricate and valuable finished goods. The potential of additive manufacturing has increased across numerous industries due to the expansion of materials, such as high-performance metals and polymers, and advancements in machine capabilities , such as multi-material printing. By enabling complex designs, reduced waste, and quick production, it has the potential to revolutionize the consumer goods, healthcare, automotive manufacturing, and aerospace industries. The development of specialized scaffolds has been made possible by the precise control that additive manufacturing provides over the internal structure of porous materials. This technology has revolutionized tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Furthermore, it has made it possible to create individualized implants and prosthetics that improve patient comfort and outcomes in orthopedic and dental applications. Also, it provides flexibility in design and customization for individualized implants and prosthetics in orthopedic and dental applications. Design flexibility, waste reduction, improved biocompatibility, quick prototyping, and cost-effectiveness are benefits of additive manufacturing for implants. For personalized healthcare, regenerative medicine, and better patient outcomes, additive manufacturing holds promise as the technology develops with further advancements in printing speed, resolution, and scalability.
The introduction of new materials for the production of various types of constructs that can connect directly to tissues has enabled the development of such fields of science as medicine, tissue, and regenerative engineering. The implementation of these types of materials, called biomaterials, has contributed to a significant improvement in the quality of human life in terms of health. This is due to the constantly growing availability of new implants, prostheses, tools, and surgical equipment, which, thanks to their specific features such as biocompatibility, appropriate mechanical properties, ease of sterilization, and high porosity, ensure an improvement of living. Biodegradation ensures, among other things, the ideal rate of development for regenerated tissue. Current tissue engineering and regenerative medicine strategies aim to restore the function of damaged tissues. The current gold standard is autografts (using the patient’s tissue to accelerate healing), but limitations such as limited procurement of certain tissues, long operative time, and donor site morbidity have warranted the search for alternative options. The use of biomaterials for this purpose is an attractive option and the number of biomaterials being developed and tested is growing rapidly.
Carbon-based 0D materials have shown tremendous potential in the development of biomedical applications of the next generation. The astounding results are primarily motivated by their distinctive nanoarchitecture and unique properties. Integrating these properties of 0D carbon nanomaterials into various polymer systems has orchestrated exceptional potential for their use in the development of sustainable and cutting-edge biomedical applications such as biosensors, bioimaging, biomimetic implants and many more. Specifically, carbon dots (CDs) have gained much attention in the development of biomedical devices due to their optoelectronic properties and scope of band manipulation upon surface revamping. The role of CDs in reinforcing various polymeric systems has been reviewed along with discussing unifying concepts of their mechanistic aspects. The study also discussed CDs optical properties via the quantum confinement effect and band gap transition which is further useful in various biomedical application studies.
Graphical Abstract
The mechanical and biological properties of polylactic acid (PLA) need to be further improved in order to be used for bone tissue engineering (BTE). Utilizing a material extrusion technique, three-dimensional (3D) PLA-Ti6Al4V (Ti64) scaffolds with open pores and interconnected channels were successfully fabricated. In spite of the fact that the glass transition temperature of PLA increased with the addition of Ti64, the melting and crystallization temperatures as well as the thermal stability of filaments decreased slightly. However, the addition of 3–6 wt% Ti64 enhanced the mechanical properties of PLA, increasing the ultimate compressive strength and compressive modulus of PLA-3Ti64 to 49.9 MPa and 1.9 GPa, respectively. Additionally, the flowability evaluations revealed that all composite filaments met the print requirements. During the plasma treatment of scaffolds, not only was the root-mean-square (Rq) of PLA (1.8 nm) increased to 60 nm, but also its contact angle (90.4°) significantly decreased to (46.9°). FTIR analysis confirmed the higher hydrophilicity as oxygen-containing groups became more intense. By virtue of the outstanding role of plasma treatment as well as Ti64 addition, a marked improvement was observed in Wharton's jelly mesenchymal stem cell attachment, proliferation (4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole staining), and differentiation (Alkaline phosphatase and Alizarin Red S staining). Based on these results, it appears that the fabricated scaffolds have potential applications in BTE.
There is a growing concern about wound care, since traditional dressings such as bandages and sutures can no longer meet existing needs. To address the demanding requirements, naturally occurring polymers have been extensively exploited for use in modern wound management. Polysaccharides, being the most abundant biopolymers, have some distinct characteristics, including biocompatibility and biodegradability, which render them ideal candidates for wound healing applications. Combining them with inorganic and organic moieties can produce effective multifunctional composites with the desired mechanical properties, high wound healing efficiencies and excellent antibacterial behavior. Recent research endeavors focus on the development of stimuli-responsive polysaccharide composites for biomedical applications. Polysaccharide composites, being sensitive to the local environment, such as changes of the solution temperature, pH, etc., can sense and react to the wound conditions, thus promoting an effective interaction with the wound. This review highlights the recent advances in stimuli-responsive polysaccharide hydrogels and their composites for use in wound healing applications. The synthetic approaches, physical, chemical, and biochemical properties as well as their function in wound healing will be discussed.
Polymer composites have been widely used in the aviation, aerospace, automotive, military, medical, agricultural and industrial fields due to their excellent mechanical properties, heat resistance, flame retardant, impact resistance and corrosion resistance. In general, their manufacturing process is one of the key factors affecting the life cycle of polymer composites. This article provides an overview of typical manufacturing technologies, including surface coating, additive manufacturing and magnetic pulse powder compaction, which are normally used to reduce the failure behaviour of polymer composites in service so that the quality of composite products can be improved. Advanced polymer composite powder manufacturing processes, the processing mechanism and experimental methods are described, and the influence of different manufacturing processes on the moulding quality is revealed. This investigation can provide suitable methods for the selection of manufacturing technology to improve the quality of polymer composite products.
Biomaterials have ushered the field of tissue engineering and regeneration into a new era with the development of advanced composites. Among these, the composites of inorganic materials with organic polymers present unique structural and biochemical properties equivalent to naturally occurring hybrid systems such as bones, and thus are highly desired. The last decade has witnessed a steady increase in research on such systems with the focus being on mimicking the peculiar properties of inorganic/organic combination composites in nature. In this review, we discuss the recent progress on the use of inorganic particle/polymer composites for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. We have elaborated the advantages of inorganic particle/polymer composites over their organic particle-based composite counterparts. As the inorganic particles play a crucial role in defining the features and regenerative capacity of such composites, the review puts a special emphasis on the various types of inorganic particles used in inorganic particle/polymer composites. The inorganic particles that are covered in this review are categorised into two broad types (1) solid (e.g., calcium phosphate, hydroxyapatite, etc.) and (2) porous particles (e.g., mesoporous silica, porous silicon etc.), which are elaborated in detail with recent examples. The review also covers other new types of inorganic material (e.g., 2D inorganic materials, clays, etc.) based polymer composites for tissue engineering applications. Lastly, we provide our expert analysis and opinion of the field focusing on the limitations of the currently used inorganic/organic combination composites and the immense potential of new generation of composites that are in development.
Sustainability and environmental protection have given rise to the use of renewable and biobased materials in several application areas. Fibre reinforced composites are currently gaining a high market value in both structural and semi-structural applications. Making these materials environmentally friendly, renewable and lighter will protect the environment and increase resource use efficiency. Opposed to synthetic fibres such as carbon and glass, natural plant fibres are less expensive, lighter, degradable, easy to produce, non-toxic and environmentally friendly. However, natural plant fibres are inferior to their synthetic counterparts in both mechanical performance and tolerance to harsh environmental conditions. One method of compensating for these disadvantages is to combine natural and synthetic fibres in a single matrix forming a hybrid composite where the disadvantages of one are compensated by the other. In this way, sustainability and cost minimisation are achieved with acceptable mechanical and physical responses. However, successful implementation and advancement in the development of natural plant fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) hybrid composites require the development of workable conceptual design, suitable manufacturing techniques and understanding of the strengthening mechanisms. The main objectives of this review are to critically review the current state of knowledge in the development of natural FRP hybrid composites, outlining their properties and enhancing them while reducing environmental impact of the product through the hybridisation approach.
Nanotechnology covers a variety of scientific areas including chemistry, material science, physics, biomedicine, biology, and engineering. Metal nanohybrid with extraordinary properties is highly researched in comparison to bulky individual nanoparticles. Especially, metal and metal oxide nanoparticles are a new class of functional nanohybrids having broad, intriguing physio-chemical properties showing applications in nanoscience and biomedical research. Engineered inorganic nanoparticles have paved an essential component in the advancement of nanotechnologies. Synthesis is done through various physical, chemical, and biological methods with their special features and manipulation at the nano level in their physiochemical properties, controlling their shape, size, and surface functionality. Application of metal and metal oxide nanohybrid are discussed, including, gene delivery, theranostics, and catalysis. Due to the versatile application of nanohybrids, it can be used in the detection of tumors, cell tracking, and visualizing the specific region of disease. Development of accurate, multifunctional imaging and ambient data are indispensable for futuristic applications. Nanohybrids (NHs) can load therapeutic drugs in their sector of core and shell and have the ability to release them in a controlled and sequential manner of a delivery system. Novel nanohybrid with their multidimensional, integrated mechanistic property has also shown a great effect on environmental pollution control also. A proteomics and transcriptomics approach for the nanohybrid action of mechanism has been discussed and also includes limitations of MNHs and MONHs. The current manuscript critically reviewed several available recent kinds of literature and has the potential to offer a better understanding of metallic and metallic oxide nanohybrids having a multifunctional role in various biomedical applications.
The interest in producing biodegradable polymers by chemical treatment, microorganisms and enzymes has increased to make it easier to dispose after the end of its use without harming the environment. Biodegradable polymers reported a set of issues on their way to becoming effective materials. In this article, biodegradable polymers, treatment, composites, blending and modeling are studied. Environmental fate and assessment of biodegradable polymers are discussed in detail. The forensic engineering of biodegradable polymers and understanding of the relationships between their structure, properties, and behavior before, during, and after practical applications are investigated.
Biomaterials with the ability to self-heal and recover their structural integrity offer many advantages for applications in biomedicine. The past decade has witnessed the rapid emergence of a new class of self-healing biomaterials commonly termed injectable, or printable in the context of 3D printing. These self-healing injectable biomaterials, mostly hydrogels and other soft condensed matter based on reversible chemistry, are able to temporarily fluidize under shear stress and subsequently recover their original mechanical properties. Self-healing injectable hydrogels offer distinct advantages compared to traditional biomaterials. Most notably, they can be administered in a locally targeted and minimally invasive manner through a narrow syringe without the need for invasive surgery. Their moldability allows for a patient-specific intervention and shows great prospects for personalized medicine. Injected hydrogels can facilitate tissue regeneration in multiple ways owing to their viscoelastic and diffusive nature, ranging from simple mechanical support, spatiotemporally controlled delivery of cells or therapeutics, to local recruitment and modulation of host cells to promote tissue regeneration. Consequently, self-healing injectable hydrogels have been at the forefront of many cutting-edge tissue regeneration strategies. This study provides a critical review of the current state of self-healing injectable hydrogels for tissue regeneration. As key challenges toward further maturation of this exciting research field, we identify (i) the trade-off between the self-healing and injectability of hydrogels vs their physical stability, (ii) the lack of consensus on rheological characterization and quantitative benchmarks for self-healing injectable hydrogels, particularly regarding the capillary flow in syringes, and (iii) practical limitations regarding translation toward therapeutically effective formulations for regeneration of specific tissues. Hence, here we (i) review chemical and physical design strategies for self-healing injectable hydrogels, (ii) provide a practical guide for their rheological analysis, and (iii) showcase their applicability for regeneration of various tissues and 3D printing of complex tissues and organoids.
Polylactic acid (PLA) is a well-known biomaterial on account of its biocompatibility and biodegradability. Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanofillers may endow PLA with advantageous antibacterial and tissue regenerative properties, but may also compromise the biocompatibility of PLA. Several strategies have been developed to improve the biomedical practicality of such composites. The importance of surface properties on amplifying the therapeutic properties and safety of a material enables two potential strategies: (i) surface modification of ZnO nanoparticles, and (ii) surface engineering of the PLA/ZnO composites. Moreover, the controllable biodegradation of PLA allows a third possible strategy: (iii) biodegradation-controlled release of ZnO. The first part of this review introduces the controllable degradation of PLA and the mechanisms of therapeutic properties and cytotoxicity of ZnO. Following this, the paper highlights current research trends regarding the biomedical application of PLA-based ZnO nanocomposites. The final section of this review discusses the potential use of ZnO in tuning the degradation rate of PLA, and the possibility of manipulating the surface properties of ZnO nanoparticles and PLA/ZnO composites in order to optimize the therapeutic properties and safe usage of PLA/ZnO composites in the biomedical field.
The current demand for patients’ organ and tissue repair and regeneration is continually increasing, where autologous or allograft is the golden standard treatment in the clinic. However, due to the shortage of donors, mismatched size and modality, functional loss of the donor region, possible immune rejection, and so forth, the application of auto‐/allo‐grafts is frequently hindered in many cases. In order to solve these problems, artificial constructs structurally and functionally imitating the extracellular matrix have been developed as substitutes to promoting cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation, and ultimately forming functional tissues or organs for better tissue regeneration. Particularly, polymeric materials have been widely utilized in regenerative medicine because of their ease of manufacturing, flexibility, biocompatibility, as well as good mechanical, chemical, and thermal properties. This review presents a comprehensive overview of a variety of polymeric materials, their fabrication methods as well applications in regenerative medicine. Finally, we discussed the future challenges and perspectives in the development and clinical transformation of polymeric biomaterials. With the evolution of the times, the definition of the essential nature of biological materials has undergone a fundamental change from biocompatibility to biomimicry, a process, which is still ongoing. Due to ease of manufacturing, flexibility, biocompatibility, as well as good mechanical, chemical, and thermal properties, polymeric biomaterials are widely applied in regenerative medicine, including bone, cardiovascular, skin, verve, biomedical devices, and so forth.
Recently, Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), one of the most encouraging additive manufacturing (AM) techniques, has fascinated great attention. Although FFF is growing into a manufacturing device with considerable technological and material innovations, there still is a challenge to convert FFF-printed prototypes into functional objects for industrial applications. Polymer components manufactured by FFF process possess, in fact, low and anisotropic mechanical properties, compared to the same parts, obtained by using traditional building methods. The poor mechanical properties of the FFF-printed objects could be attributed to the weak interlayer bond interface that develops during the layer deposition process and to the commercial thermoplastic materials used. In order to increase the final properties of the 3D printed models, several polymer-based composites and nanocomposites have been proposed for FFF process. However, even if the mechanical properties greatly increase, these materials are not all biodegradable. Consequently, their waste disposal represents an important issue that needs an urgent solution. Several scientific researchers have therefore moved towards the development of natural or recyclable materials for FFF techniques. This review details current progress on innovative green materials for FFF, referring to all kinds of possible industrial applications, and in particular to the field of Cultural Heritage.
By-products management from industrial and natural (agriculture, aviculture, and others) activities and products are critical for promoting sustainability, reducing pollution, increasing storage space, minimising landfills, reducing energy consumption, and facilitating a circular economy. One of the sustainable waste management approaches is utilising them in developing biocomposites. Biocomposites are eco-friendly materials because of their sustainability and environmental benefits that have comparable performance properties to the synthetic counterparts. Biocomposites can be developed from both renewable and industrial waste, making them both energy efficient and sustainable. Because of their low weight and high strength, biocomposite materials in applications such as automobiles can minimise fuel consumption and conserve energy. Furthermore, biocomposites in energy-based applications could lead to savings in both the economy and energy consumption. Herein, a review of biocomposites made from various wastes and their related key properties (e.g. mechanical and fire) are provided. The article systematically highlights the individual wastes/by-products from agriculture and materials processing industries for composites manufacturing in terms of their waste components (materials), modifications , resultant properties, applications and energy efficiency. Finally, a perspective for the future of biowastes and industrial wastes in polymer composites is discussed.
The development of new biological devices in response to market demands requires continuous efforts for the improvement of products’ functionalization based upon expansion of the materials used and their fabrication techniques. One viable solution consists of a functionalization substrate covered by layers via an appropriate deposition technique. Laser techniques ensure an enhanced coating’s adherence to the substrate and improved biological characteristics, not compromising the mechanical properties of the functionalized medical device. This is a review of the main laser techniques involved. We mainly refer to pulse laser deposition, matrix-assisted, and laser simple and double writing versus some other well-known deposition methods as magnetron sputtering, 3D bioprinting, inkjet printing, extrusion, solenoid, fuse-deposition modeling, plasma spray (PS), and dip coating. All these techniques can be extended to functionalize surface fabrication to change local morphology, chemistry, and crystal structure, which affect the biomaterial behavior following the chosen application. Surface functionalization laser techniques are strictly controlled within a confined area to deliver a large amount of energy concisely. The laser deposit performances are presented compared to reported data obtained by other techniques.
The present study was investigated the production dental guides by using additive manufacturing stereolithography (SLA) technology, and the dimensional aperture values of the dental guides for dental implant treatment using artificial intelligence technology. The aim of this study is to benefit from artificial neural networks (ANNs) to classify the results obtained from the new production freedom of SLA by changing the existing design concept of dental guides. In the study, the Three Dimensional (3D) anatomical model was designed by using Mimics programme the data obtained from the Cone Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT) images of the patient. Three different dental guide designs were performed using the 3-Matic programme for dental implant treatment on the obtained 3D anatomical model. Dental guide designs and mandible model were produced with a SLA 3D printer, and a data set was created using a 3D scanner. The dimensional aperture values were obtained by performing the 3D registration process between the mandible and dental guides. The data set was analyzed both statistically with Jamovi 2.0.0 software and ANNs. The results showed that the minimum and maximum aperture values obtained from the dental guides were very close to each other, indicating that the guides were compatible with the mandible bone. The statistical results showed that the dimensional aperture values decrease in proportion to the values with minimum arithmetic mean value in the data set, and it was determined that the dental guide-3 was the most suitable model for the mandible. When all test data in the confusion matrix obtained from ten different aritificial neural network models created using ANNs were examined, it was been seen that ANN model-5 was the most successful model with an accuracy rate of 99%.
The bones can be viewed as both an organ and a material. As an organ, the bones give structure to the body, facilitate skeletal movement, and provide protection to internal organs. As a material, the bones consist of a hybrid organic/inorganic three‐dimensional (3D) matrix, composed mainly of collagen, noncollagenous proteins, and a calcium phosphate mineral phase, which is formed and regulated by the orchestrated action of a complex array of cells including chondrocytes, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. The interactions between cells, proteins, and minerals are essential for the bone functions under physiological loading conditions, trauma, and fractures. The organization of the bone's organic and inorganic phases stands out for its mechanical and biological properties and has inspired materials research. The objective of this review is to fill the gaps between the physical and biological characteristics that must be achieved to fabricate scaffolds for bone tissue engineering with enhanced performance. We describe the organization of bone tissue highlighting the characteristics that have inspired the development of 3D cell‐laden collagenous scaffolds aimed at replicating the mechanical and biological properties of bone after implantation. The role of noncollagenous macromolecules in the organization of the collagenous matrix and mineralization ability of entrapped cells has also been reviewed. Understanding the modulation of cell activity by the extracellular matrix will ultimately help to improve the biological performance of 3D cell‐laden collagenous scaffolds used for bone regeneration and repair as well as for in vitro studies aimed at unravelling physiological and pathological processes occurring in the bone.
In recent years, polymer nanocomposites produced by combining nanofillers and a polymeric matrix are emerging as interesting materials. Polymeric composites have a wide range of applications due to the outstanding and enhanced properties that are obtained thanks to the introduction of nanoparticles. Therefore, understanding the filler-matrix relationship is an important factor in the continued growth of this scientific area and the development of new materials with desired properties and specific applications. Due to their performance in response to a magnetic field magnetic nanocomposites represent an important class of functional nanocomposites. Due to their properties, magnetic nanocomposites have found numerous applications in biomedical applications such as drug delivery, theranostics, etc. This article aims to provide an overview of the filler-polymeric matrix relationship, with a special focus on magnetic nanocomposites and their potential applications in the biomedical field.
Polymer materials attract more and more interests for a biocompatible package of novel implantable medical devices. Medical implants need to be packaged in a biocompatible way to minimize FBR (Foreign Body Reaction) of the implant. One of the most advanced implantable devices is neural prosthesis device, which consists of polymeric neural electrode and silicon neural signal processing integrated circuit (IC). The overall neural interface system should be packaged in a biocompatible way to be implanted in a patient. The biocompatible packaging is being mainly achieved in two approaches; (1) polymer encapsulation of conventional package based on die attach, wire bond, solder bump, etc. (2) chip-level integrated interconnect, which integrates Si chip with metal thin film deposition through sacrificial release technique. The polymer encapsulation must cover different materials, creating a multitude of interface, which is of much importance in long-term reliability of the implanted biocompatible package. Another failure mode is bio-fluid penetration through the polymer encapsulation layer. To prevent bio-fluid leakage, a diffusion barrier is frequently added to the polymer packaging layer. Such a diffusion barrier is also used in polymer-based neural electrodes. This review paper presents the summary of biocompatible packaging techniques, packaging materials focusing on encapsulation polymer materials and diffusion barrier, and a FEM-based modeling and simulation to study the biocompatible package reliability.
The corrosion behavior of newly fabricated γ-TiAl alloy was studied using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and cyclic potentiodynamic polarization (CPP) techniques. The γ-TiAl alloy was produced from powder with compositions of Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb processed using electron beam melting (EBM) technique. The corrosion behavior of the bulk alloy was investigated in 1 M HCl solution for different immersion times and temperatures. The experimental results suggest that the fabricated alloy exhibits good resistance to corrosion in acid solution at room temperature. The results also indicate that with an increase in immersion time and solution temperature, the corrosion potential (Ecorr) shifts to a higher positive value, resulting in an increase in corrosion current (jcorr) and consequently a decrease in the corrosion resistance (Rp) of the alloy.
3D printing (additive manufacturing (AM)) has enormous potential for rapid tooling and mass production due to its design flexibility and significant reduction of the timeline from design to manufacturing. The current state‐of‐the‐art in 3D printing focuses on material manufacturability and engineering applications. However, there still exists the bottleneck of low printing resolution and processing rates, especially when nanomaterials need tailorable orders at different scales. An interesting phenomenon is the preferential alignment of nanoparticles that enhance material properties. Therefore, this review emphasizes the landscape of nanoparticle alignment in the context of 3D printing. Herein, a brief overview of 3D printing is provided, followed by a comprehensive summary of the 3D printing‐enabled nanoparticle alignment in well‐established and in‐house customized 3D printing mechanisms that can lead to selective deposition and preferential orientation of nanoparticles. Subsequently, it is listed that typical applications that utilized the properties of ordered nanoparticles (e.g., structural composites, heat conductors, chemo‐resistive sensors, engineered surfaces, tissue scaffolds, and actuators based on structural and functional property improvement). This review's emphasis is on the particle alignment methodology and the performance of composites incorporating aligned nanoparticles. In the end, significant limitations of current 3D printing techniques are identified together with future perspectives.
The development of new biomaterial inks with good structural formability and mechanical strength is critical to the fabrication of 3D tissue engineering scaffolds. For extrusion‐based 3D printing, the resulting 3D constructs are essentially a sequential assembly of 1D filaments into 3D constructs. Inspired by this process, this paper reports the recent study on 3D printing of nanoclay‐incorporated double‐network (NIDN) hydrogels for the fabrication of 1D filaments and 3D constructs without extra assistance of support bath. The frequently used “house‐of‐cards” architectures formed by nanoclay are disintegrated in the NIDN hydrogels. However, nanoclay can act as physical crosslinkers to interact with polymer chains of methacrylated hyaluronic acid (HAMA) and alginate (Alg), which endows the hydrogel precursors with good structural formability. Various straight filaments, spring‐like loops, and complex 3D constructs with high shape‐fidelity and good mechanical strength are fabricated successfully. In addition, the NIDN hydrogel system can easily be transformed into a new type of magnetic responsive hydrogel used for 3D printing. The NIDN hydrogels also supported the growth of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells and displayed potential calvarial defect repair functions.
A fast increasing demand of medical products based on biomaterials and tissue engineering has led to an extensive growth in biomedical research in the past two decades. A highly interesting class of biomaterials are polymer-based composites, which nowadays are widely used in biomedical applications due to their outstanding physical and mechanical properties. In this paper, we aim to summarize the advancement in polymer-based composites with regard to their properties, structure and fabrication using different techniques. Bioactive polymer-based composites, such as bone-forming, electrically conductive, magnetic, bactericidal and oxygen-releasing materials, as well as non-bioactive polymer-based composites containing reinforcing fillers and porogens are discussed. Amongst others, scaffold structures fabricated by particle leaching, electrospinning and additive manufacturing are described. In each section, significant and recent advances of polymer-based composites in biomedical applications are addressed.
The polymeric composite material with desirable features can be gained by selecting suitable biopolymers with selected additives to get polymer-filler interaction. Several parameters can be modified according to the design requirements, such as chemical structure, degradation kinetics, and biopolymer composites’ mechanical properties. The interfacial interactions between the biopolymer and the nanofiller have substantial control over biopolymer composites’ mechanical characteristics. This review focuses on different applications of biopolymeric composites in controlled drug release, tissue engineering, and wound healing with considerable properties. The biopolymeric composite materials are required with advanced and multifunctional properties in the biomedical field and regenerative medicines with a complete analysis of routine biomaterials with enhanced biomedical engineering characteristics. Several studies in the literature on tissue engineering, drug delivery, and wound dressing have been mentioned. These results need to be reviewed for possible development and analysis, which makes an essential study.
Osteosarcoma is a malignant bone tumor, which often occurs in adolescents. However, surgical resection usually fails to completely remove the tumor clinically, which has been the main cause of postoperative recurrence and metastasis, resulting in the high death rate of patients. At the same time, osteosarcoma invades a large area of the bone defect, which cannot be self-repaired and seriously affects the life quality of the patients. Herein, a bifunctional methacrylated gelatin/methacrylated chondroitin sulfate hydrogel hybrid gold nanorods (GNRs) and nanohydroxyapatite (nHA), which possessed excellent photothermal effect, was constructed to eradicate residual tumor after surgery and bone regeneration. In vitro, K7M2wt cells (a mouse bone tumor cell line) can be efficiently eradicated by photothermal therapy of the hybrid hydrogel. Meanwhile, the hydrogel mimics the extracellular matrix to promote proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells. The GNRs/nHA hybrid hydrogel was capable of photothermal treatment of postoperative tumors and bone defect repair in a mice model of tibia osteosarcoma. Therefore, the hybrid hydrogel possesses dual functions of tumor therapy and bone regeneration, which shows great potential in curing bone tumors and provides a new hope for tumor-related bone complex disease.
Bone fractures are increasing day by day through numerous reasons. Tissue engineering is promising solution for bone tissue loss that current strategies cannot treat well or achieve satisfactory clinical outcomes. The scaffolds with required shape, size, physical, chemical and natural features for upgraded performance and for regenerating complex bone fracture is always in demand. Three-dimensional (3D) printing can create customized scaffolds that are profoundly alluring for bone tissue engineering. Over the previous decade, it is currently conceivable to create novel bone tissue scaffolds with designing structure with modified shape, large scale production, wettability, mechanical strength and cell reactions. The challenges of the scaffolds include sufficient mechanical strength and matching the mechanical properties of the scaffolds near to the bone properties. The stress shielding phenomenon also rises due to mismatch in elastic modulus. The elastic modulus of the cortical bone of human lies in the range of 2 to 16 GPa. The Elastic modulus of the steel used for biomedical application lies in the range of ∼ 200 GPa, which leads to encourage stress shielding. Bioabsorbable polymeric have unique properties such as matched mechanical strength with the natural bone, controlled rate of degradation, maintain porosity to make passage for interconnected neo bone regeneration. In case of adding bioactive nano filler materials, it was observed that the increase in the concentration of Hydroxyapatite, agglomeration observed. In order to avoid this, many technologies such as freeze drying, 3D printing, and other additive methods has been recommended. This article gives a review of ongoing advances in the scaffold fabrication techniques, functional scaffolds by adding useful nanomaterial and targeted application for particularly bone tissue regeneration.
This work deals with the manufacture and mechanical characterization of natural-fiber-reinforced biobased epoxy resins. Biolaminates are attractive to various industries because they are low-density, biodegradable, and lightweight materials. Natural fibers such as Ixtle, Henequen, and Jute were used as reinforcing fabrics for two biobased epoxy resins from Sicomin®. The manufacture of the biolaminates was carried out through the vacuum-assisted resin infusion process. The mechanical characterization revealed the Jute biolaminates present the highest stiffness and strength, whereas the Henequen biolaminates show high strain values. The rigid and semirigid biolaminates obtained in this work could drive new applications targeting industries that require lightweight and low-cost sustainable composites.
Composites are materials composed of two or more different components [...]
Bast fiber-reinforced polymer composites (BFRPs) are grabbing considerable research attention due to their assertive impact on the environment and excellence in biodegradability. Though BFRPs have excellent ecological performance factors, they also lack in some cases, such as lower mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties, due to the significant moisture absorption, minimal thermal stability, and inherent nature of bast fibers. BFRPs exhibit weaker fiber/matrix interfacial adhesion as compared to synthetic fiber-reinforced polymer composites, resulting in lower mechanical properties. Nowadays, a wide variety of fiber and matrix modification techniques are practiced improving the fiber-matrix interaction, which ultimately improves the mechanical properties. Among the fiber and matrix modification techniques, nanofiller integration is the most promising one. This study reviews the impacts of introducing carbon-based nanofillers, particularly graphene and carbon nanotubes (CNT), in diversified BFRPs. The influence of carbon-based nanofillers on the mechanical, electrical, and thermal behavior of BFRPs and their potential prospects are comprehensively reviewed. The paper concludes with the challenges and difficulties in composite processing, along with the techniques for overcoming them.
Abstract
Treatment of air, land, and water is challenging for many engineers and scientists for environmental rejuvenation. A variety of methods have been explored for the removal of toxic materials. But the efficiency of these conventional methods is less. Among the different rejuvenation techniques, the adsorption process is used extensively due to its ease and low cost. After a successful search, bionanocomposites were found to be an effective and reliable environmental remediation tool. Bionanocomposites come under the class of advanced hybrid materials. They contain natural/synthetic degradable polymers along with nanomaterial. The nanocomposites play a significant role in wastewater treatment by removing contaminants such as dyes, organic compounds, and heavy metals. The attention toward bionanocomposites is owing to their physical and mechanical properties. This chapter focuses on cost-effective and efficient bionanocomposites for environmental rejuvenation.
The creation of the forthcoming era of materials, products, and methods is guided by sustainability, industrial ecology, eco-efficiency, and green chemistry. Bio-composites, which are ecologically benign alternatives to synthetic composites, are becoming increasingly popular for a variety of uses. Recently, several new high-performance composite materials have been discovered, and advancements in the fields of aviation, automobile, adhesion, building, and electronic engineering also support the adoption of bio composites in a much broader range of applications than those for which they were initially fabricated. This attempt to generate bio composite materials will reduce the demand for low-cost synthetic polymer manufacture. The possibilities for generating new bio-based goods are enormous, but the true problem is to create acceptable bio-based products through innovative concepts. Green materials are the next immense thing. Bio-composites offer very bright future potential, despite the fact that their current low level of manufacturing, some technological deficiencies, and expensive cost prevent them from being used in a broad range of applications. This chapter discusses the overview of bio-based composite materials, comparisons with conventional composite materials, different processes for preparation, characterization and its various applications in the field of construction, automotive, packaging, sports, biomedical, and defence sectors. According to the chapter, bio-composites have the potential to substitute conventional composites in a broad range of applications.
Keywords: Bio-composites, eco-friendly, Bio fillers, Polymer composites, Characterization, Preparation method, Applications, Renewable resources
Self-healing hydrogels have become attractive biomaterials due to their ability to repair their initial structure and properties in response to damage. When designing ideal self-healing hydrogels the understanding of their properties but also the actual healing process is required. Even though there currently are different characterization methods used, the lack of standardization makes comparison of different hydrogels difficult. The challenges in standardization arise, for example, from the use of different healing methods (i.e. healing environments) or different testing equipments used. In order to help the comparison of hydrogels, a group of characterization methods should be chosen and the measuring parameters and results in the literature should be presented more consistently. The characterization should include methods suitable to determine the presence of reversible interactions and their reversibility study, to investigate the self-healability of hydrogels and to determine the healing efficiencies of hydrogels, not forgetting time dependence and dynamics of self-healing. More quantitative, as well as theoretical studies are recommended. In this review different general characterization methods, including different measuring parameters and environments, used for self-healing hydrogels are charted, but also additional methods suitable for injectable/3D-bioprintable and conductive self-healing hydrogels are discussed. Some challenges of each method and future aspects for self-healing hydrogels and their characterization are also given.
Biotextile-based products are widely used in medical implants and regenerative medicine due to their interconnectivity, large surface area, controlled mechanical strength, open pore structure and ease of modification. This chapter reviews the relevant fabrication technologies and types of polymers used to prepare biotextiles for clinical applications. The applications of biotextiles in several sectors of tissue engineering and medical implants have been described. Details about different biotextile products, their therapeutic applications as well as performance characteristics, current issues and shortcomings are highlighted. Biotextiles, both resorbable and nonresorbable, are used as surgical sutures, arterial prosthesis, prosthetic heart valve material, temporary blood filter, noninvasive biotextile-based closure devices for septal defects, wound dressing and so forth, and are discussed thoroughly. The challenges faced in designing and engineering biotextile products, such as the anterior cruciate ligament prosthesis are also covered. Future trends and scope for intensive research on applications of biotextiles have been discussed with reference.
Clays and its composites have received considerable attention recently due to their low cost, wide availability and low environmental impact. The development of various preparation processes and applications of innovative polymer–nanoclay composites has been aided by recent breakthroughs in material technologies. Novel polymer–nanoclay composites with better qualities have been effectively adopted in a variety of fields, including aerospace, car, construction, petroleum, biomedical, and wastewater treatment, owing to innovative production processes. Due to their superior qualities, such as increased density, strength, relatively large surface areas, high elastic modulus, flame retardancy, and thermomechanical/optoelectronic/magnetic capabilities, these composites are acknowledged as potential advanced materials. Hence the present paper reviews the advances in synthesis and preparation of clay-polymer nanocomposites. In addition, this study also focuses on the various techniques used for clay-polymer nanocomposites characterization e.g. scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM), thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential colorimetric analysis (DSC), x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic (FTIR) characterization. These advanced physico-mechanical and chemical characterization techniques would be effective in understanding the most appropriate application of clay polymer nanocomposites. In addition, the application of clay polymer nanocomposites in biomedical sector is also discussed in brief.
Recently, metal oxide–polymer composites have received significant attention in many industrial fields. The combination of metal oxides (commonly used TiO2, ZnO, Fe3O4, and Al2O3) with a polymer matrix governs to produce high-performance metal oxide–polymer composites by in situ polymerization, sol–gel method, solution blending, or melt blending. Design of the metal oxide–polymer composites is essential to meet requirements for tailored productions of the composite materials. Many design parameters such as metal oxide characteristics and alignment, polymer matrix structure, amount of metal oxide/polymer matrix, surface modifications, and production conditions considerably affect interactions between a metal oxide and polymer matrix. Good compatibility of metal oxide with polymer matrix through homogeneous dispersion of the metal oxide in the matrix provides synergistic effects on the properties of the composites. The authors represented the design and synthesis of the metal oxide–polymer composites in detail in this chapter. Enhanced mechanical, electrical, optical, magnetic, thermal, barrier, and antibacterial properties of the metal oxide–polymer composites were briefly mentioned depending on design parameters.
Synthetic biopolymers are effective cues to replace damaged tissue in the tissue engineering (TE) field, both for in vitro and in vivo application. Among them, poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA) has been highlighted as a biomaterial with tunable mechanical properties and biodegradability that allows for the fabrication of porous scaffolds with different micro/nanostructures via various approaches. In this review, we discuss the structure of PLLA, its main properties, and the most recent advances in overcoming its hydrophobic, synthetic nature, which limits biological signaling and protein
absorption. With this aim, PLLA-based scaffolds can be exposed to surface modification or combined
with other biomaterials, such as natural or synthetic polymers and bioceramics. Further, various fabrication technologies, such as phase separation, electrospinning, and 3D printing, of PLLA-based scaffolds are scrutinized along with the in vitro and in vivo applications employed in various tissue repair strategies. Overall, this review focuses on the properties and applications of PLLA in the TE field, finally affording an insight into future directions and challenges to address an effective improvement of scaffold properties.
Recent literature concerning the use of polymer and ceramic coatings for a variety of biomedical applications is surveyed in this review. Applications have been grouped into six broad categories: orthopaedic materials, cardiovascular stents, antibacterial surfaces, drug delivery, tissue engineering and biosensors. Polymer and ceramic coatings add enhanced corrosion protection, antiwear, antibacterial and biocompatibility properties to various substrates for biomedical applications. Processes favoured for polymer coating formation included dip, electrodeposition, spin (including electrospin) and spray (including electrospray and ultrasonic spray). Ceramic coatings were formed using magnetron sputtering and a combination of 3-D printing and in-situ mineralisation, among others. The review period is from 2017 to the present (mid-2021).
In modern days, the usage of trauma fixation devices is significantly increased due to sports injury, age-related issues, accidents and revision surgery purposes. Numerous materials such as stainless steel, titanium,...
The present century has witnessed composite materials to be the most promising and shrewd material for a variety of applications. Among them fiber (natural or synthetic) reinforced composites (FRCs) have gained significant interest owing to the high demand for lightweight materials with high strength for specific applications. The advantages of FRCs include high strength to weight ratio, high durability and stiffness, good damping behavior, flexural strength and most importantly good resistance to corrosion, wear, impact and fire (depending on the matrix and fiber reinforcement). The presence of such wide array of properties for FRCs have led to them being used extensively in a number of applications including mechanical, aerospace, automotive, marine, sports, biomedical, construction etc. The past decades have visualized exciting research in the area of FRC's which helped to unveil the properties of these exciting materials further and consign them in appropriate applications. These FRCs have shown outstanding performance in different fields of applications and hence have been promoted by researchers as promising alternatives to solitary metals and alloys. The global demand for fiber reinforced composites is expected to grow at a faster pace with the aerospace industry occupying the top position in the years to come. Major driving factors for the rising demand is none other than the high strength to weight ratio, corrosion resistance, energy absorption on impact, moisture and chemical resistance possessed by these materials. This chapter gives a general overview on the characteristics and processing of FRC's that are systematically outlined in this book.
Persistent electrical stimulation by a mechanically actuated channel scaffold with porous and layered architecture is a promising strategy to facilitate neuronal microenvironment rebalance and locomotor recovery. Nevertheless, the relevant studies to date only reported preliminary findings but did not comprehensively evaluate its in-depth biological effects and mechanisms. To translate this smart scaffold into clinical application, biocompatibility and efficacy of the piezocatalytic nanoscaffold should be verified in vitro and in vivo. A novel ‘microenvironment rebalance cocktail therapy’ is proposed in this study. The piezoelectric boron nitride nanosheets (BNNS) functionalized polycaprolactone (PCL) channel scaffold displays high elasticity, hydrophilicity and biocompatibility, and stimulates cellular excretion of neurotrophic factors by increasing bioelectrical signal transduction under ultrasonic actuation in vitro. In addition, the scaffold modulates reactive oxygen species level and restores energy metabolic balance to maintain Schwann cell viability. The smart [email protected] porous scaffold induces microvessel regrowth into neurons and reverses muscular atrophy after denervation in a severe sciatic nerve defect model in vivo. The design concept will be applicable in manufacture of an artificial bioelectrical system for advanced piezocatalytic nerve therapies.
In-situ TiB reinforced titanium matrix composites (TMCs) were fabricated by selective laser melting (SLM) of ball-milled Ti6Al4V–TiB2 powders. Optimized SLM processing and stress relief annealing were applied to obtain crack-free and fully dense composites. TiB reinforcement is mainly present in the form of whisker clusters and exhibits a quasi-continuous distribution in TMC1 (2 vol%TiB) while a full-continuous distribution in TMC2 (5 vol%TiB). The distribution of TiB whisker clusters in primary β-Ti grain is not consistent with the complete dissolution mechanism proposed previously. As a result, a dual mechanism of direct reaction and precipitation has been put forward to describe the formation of TiB phase. The microhardness, compressive strength and tensile strength of TMC1 are improved by 14%, 36%, 25% respectively, compared with those of Ti6Al4V alloy. These enhancements can be mainly attributed to Hall-Petch strengthening and load-bearing transformation strengthening. The fracture surface of TMC1 after tensile testing shows a mixture of regions of cleavage facets with regions of small dimples.
The selective laser sintering (SLS) of an yttria (Y2O3) ceramic powder was studied to understand both the effects of i) the initial yttria particle characteristics on the powder bed behaviour and ii) the process conditions (laser power, scanning speed, hatching space) on the sintering/melting of three-dimensionally printed objects. The roughness of the powder bed, a sensitive indicator of the layer bed quality, was determined through three-dimensional optical profilometry and the powder bed packing density was modelled using the discrete-element method. Complex shaped objects including spheres and open rings were successfully fabricated by the SLS three-dimensional printing. In addition, SLS cube-shaped samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. The open pore volume fraction significantly decreased from 41% without a post-SLS heat treatment to 31% with a post-SLS heat treatment at 1750 °C for 20 h under secondary vacuum. Finally, an anisotropy in elastic properties has been highlighted, Young's modulus reaches 11 GPa in the stiffest direction.
Polymers are naturally occurring or artificially prepared materials consisting of long chains of molecules embedded into three-dimensional geometry having excellent flexibility and strength. The physical and chemical behaviour is further improved by adding specific reinforcements into polymer matrix called polymer matrix composites giving entirely new properties (which has revolutionised the aerospace and automobile industry). This paper reports the brief history of origin of polymers and their area of applications in early days of research. The classification of polymers has been discussed along with application area of individual polymer. The literature survey has been presented to highlight the enhancement of various properties of composites after addition of different reinforcements. The future challenges along with areas of application of polymer matrix composites have been explored which may help to eliminate the plastic waste and help to reduce environmental pollution.