Available via license: CC BY 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
Citation: Karaca-Atik, A.; Gorgievski,
M.J.; Meeuwisse, M.; Smeets, G.
Possessing 21st-Century Skills and
Building Sustainable Careers:
Early-Career Social Sciences
Graduates’ Perspectives. Sustainability
2024,16, 3409. https://doi.org/
10.3390/su16083409
Academic Editors: Sara Viotti, Ilaria
Sottimano and Giacomo Garzaro
Received: 12 March 2024
Revised: 12 April 2024
Accepted: 16 April 2024
Published: 18 April 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
sustainability
Article
Possessing 21st-Century Skills and Building Sustainable Careers:
Early-Career Social Sciences Graduates’ Perspectives
Ay¸segül Karaca-Atik * , Marjan J. Gorgievski , Marieke Meeuwisse and Guus Smeets
Department of Psychology, Education & Child Studies, Erasmus School of Social and Behavioral Sciences,
Erasmus University Rotterdam, 3062 PA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
*Correspondence: karacaatik@essb.eur.nl
Abstract: In today’s complex labor market, social sciences graduates encounter various challenges
and negative experiences in their current jobs and job transitions, which may threaten the sustainabil-
ity of their careers. Possessing 21st-century skills is considered important in supporting their career
sustainability. Employing a cross-sectional survey design, this study investigated which 21st-century
skills help social sciences graduates build a sustainable career after their graduation. The sample
consisted of 129 early-career social sciences graduates. We utilized both a variable-centered (path
analysis) and a person-centered (latent profile) approach to data analysis. The path-analysis results
showed that collaboration, creativity, and problem solving, but not communication and critical
thinking, related to career sustainability. The results also revealed a suppressor effect of problem
solving on the positive relationships between creativity and health-related problems, suggesting that
problem solving may prevent creative individuals from developing health-related issues. Further-
more, latent-profile analysis demonstrated two profiles: sustainable and non-sustainable careers.
While both profiles exhibited similar productivity levels, individuals from the non-sustainable profile
reported lower happiness and higher health problems. Partly corroborating the path-analysis results,
graduates with sustainable careers differed in communication and collaboration skills. This study
enhances the understanding of 21st-century skills’ role in career sustainability and validates the
model of sustainable careers.
Keywords: 21st-century skills; higher education; social sciences graduates; sustainable careers
1. Introduction
Over recent decades, careers have evolved in a dynamic, unforeseeable, and insecure
work environment [
1
,
2
]. The use of outsourcing and part-time or temporary labor contracts
has been expanded [
3
]. In advanced economies, organizations expect employees to be
more proactive and entrepreneurial than in the past to be able to manage innovations
and generate competitive advantage [
4
,
5
]. These changes and demands occurring in
the labor market have affected the way individuals develop their careers [
3
,
6
]. Current
careers are not stable or linear but rather flexible and shaped by multiple transitions [
2
,
6
,
7
].
Consequently, the working conditions and career patterns in today’s labor market pose
important difficulties in developing and maintaining a sustainable career [
8
]. A sustainable
career is a continuing career-development process over time that is affected by personal and
contextual factors and is indicated by high levels of health, happiness, and productivity [
9
].
Building a sustainable career is particularly challenging for social sciences graduates.
Social sciences graduates are typically educated with a broad curriculum involving a strong
theoretical focus, rather than a vocation-oriented education [
10
,
11
]. The career paths of
social sciences graduates are less clear compared to graduates from applied fields such as
medicine or engineering [
12
,
13
], and they are employed in various positions across different
sectors [
14
,
15
]. Also, social sciences graduates experience challenging career transitions
from higher education into the labor market after their graduation [
12
]. Research has
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16083409 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 2 of 20
revealed that many social sciences graduates work long hours, have heavy workloads,
experience stress, face burnout, and are likely to encounter a mismatch between their
abilities and job requirements [
13
,
16
–
19
]. In line with that, there is empirical evidence
showing that social sciences graduates are more often dissatisfied with their jobs or careers
in general compared to graduates from applied fields (e.g., [
20
,
21
]). All these negative
aspects and experiences can deteriorate their well-being [
22
] and performance at work [
23
],
thereby threatening the sustainability of their careers [9].
In such a complex workplace, 21st-century skills gain importance in supporting career
sustainability [
1
,
24
,
25
]. Clearly, an expanding body of literature has emphasized the value
of skills in building sustainable careers (e.g., [
26
,
27
]). While not explicitly approaching
career sustainability from a theoretical standpoint, previous research provides evidence
supporting the link between possessing skills and building sustainable careers. The OECD
Survey of Adult Skills [
28
], for example, showed that workers who used information-
processing skills were more likely to earn higher wages and to be satisfied at work. De
Guzman and Choi [
29
] demonstrated that perceived communication, collaboration, and
problem-solving skills were positively related to the career adaptability of technical school
graduates. Similarly, Habets et al. [
30
] found that students’ self-reported 21st-century
skills positively related to how they perceived the fit between their curriculum and their
future labor-market position. Moreover, with a specific focus on social sciences graduates,
a recent systematic review uncovered that both social sciences graduates and employers
reported communication and problem-solving skills most frequently as crucial for sustain-
able careers [
31
]. However, there remains a gap in understanding how specific 21st-century
skills help social sciences graduates develop a sustainable career after their graduation. In
this study, we aim to fill in this gap by answering this research question: “1. What is the
relationship between possessing 21st-century skills and building a sustainable career for
early-career social sciences graduates?”.
Using a variable-centered approach, we will investigate the relationships between
specific skills and sustainable career outcomes as independent entities, unveiling the un-
derlying mechanisms that drive sustainable career development within the social-sciences
domain. In addition, acknowledging the diversity within university graduates and rec-
ognizing the heterogeneity among individuals, this study delves into the unique career
patterns that possible subgroups within the social sciences may possess. Therefore, in this
study, we also aim to answer the following research question: “2. What latent subgroups of
career sustainability exist within social sciences graduates, and how do these subgroups
differ in possessing 21st-century skills?”.
Overall, using both a variable-centered and person-centered approach, we aim to
shed light on not only the overarching relationships between possessing 21st-century
skills and career sustainability, but also the nuanced variations that make sustainable
careers a personalized journey for individuals within the diverse group of social sciences
graduates. We investigate career sustainability as a multidimensional construct captured
by three interrelated indicators, namely happiness, health, and productivity [
9
]. As a
result, our study makes important contributions to the model of sustainable careers and to
the scholarly field of 21st-century skills training in terms of comprehensively portraying
the multifaceted nature of social sciences graduates’ career sustainability through crucial
21st-century skills.
2. Theoretical Framework
2.1. Career Sustainability of Social Sciences Graduates
The concept of sustainable careers can be defined as an individual’s career journey,
which encompasses a range of experiences over time, crosses various social settings, and
is influenced by personal decisions and actions, thereby providing meaning to the individ-
ual [
32
]. Sustainable career development is affected by several personal and contextual
factors [
9
,
32
]. Personal factors refer to motivations, beliefs, and skills that play a key role in
managing a sustainable career [
9
]. Contextual factors refer to the contexts in which an individ-
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 3 of 20
ual’s career takes place, including private life (e.g., family and peers), work-related factors
(e.g., supervisors), and organizational policies that influence an individual’s career decisions,
career management, and eventually career sustainability [
9
]. In this research, we focus on
21st-century skills as the personal factors affecting social sciences graduates’ potential to build
a sustainable career. The theoretical model underlying this study is presented in Figure 1.
Sustainability2024,16,xFORPEERREVIEW3of21
factors[9,32].Personalfactorsrefertomotivations,beliefs,andskillsthatplayakeyrole
inmanagingasustainablecareer[9].Contextualfactorsrefertothecontextsinwhichan
individual’scareertakesplace,includingprivatelife(e.g.,familyandpeers),work-related
factors(e.g.,supervisors),andorganizationalpoliciesthatinfluenceanindividual’scareer
decisions,careermanagement,andeventuallycareersustainability[9].Inthisresearch,
wefocuson21st-centuryskillsasthepersonalfactorsaffectingsocialsciencesgraduates’
potentialtobuildasustainablecareer.Thetheoreticalmodelunderlyingthisstudyispre-
sentedinFigure1.
Figure1.Modelof21st-centuryskillsandsustainablecareersforsocialsciencesgraduates.Note:
basedonthemodelofsustainablecareersbydeVosetal.[9].
AccordingtodeVosandothers[9],asustainablecareerischaracterizedbythree
indicators,namely(a)productivity,(b)health,and(c)happiness(seeFigure1).Inthis
conceptualization,thefirstindicator“productivity”referstoanindividual’sstrongper-
formanceinthecurrentjobandhavinggoodfuturejobprospects[9].Tostartandbuilda
sustainablecareer,younggraduatesneedtofindajobinthefirstplaceandthenkeeptheir
jobsbyperformingwellatwork[9].Composedofdifferentdimensions,jobperformance
isdefinedas“behaviorsoractionsthatarerelevanttothegoalsoftheorganization”[33]
(p.704).Individualswhoperformwellintheirjobsnotonlysecuretheirownemployment
andcareersustainability,butalsocontributetothesuccessandproductivityoftheiror-
ganizations[34].
Inadditiontohighin-roleperformance,intoday’sfast-changingworkenvironment,
graduatesneedtoshowinnovativebehaviorsatwork[35,36],whichareexpectedtolead
toinnovativeoutputfortheorganization[37].Innovativeworkbehaviorrefersto“the
intentionalcreation,introduction,andapplicationofnewideaswithinaworkrole,group
ororganization,inordertobenefitroleperformance,thegroup,ortheorganization”[38]
(p.288).Toillustrate,innovativeemployeesaretheoneswhosebehaviorsresultinnovel
outcomesfortheorganizations,suchasthecreationofnewproductsorprocesses[37,39].
Byengagingininnovativeactivitiesatwork,younggraduatescancontributetothecom-
petitivenessandperformanceoftheorganization[36,39].
Whilebeingproductiveatworkbyperformingwellandbeinginnovativeiscrucial
forcareersustainability,itmayalsoendangercareerdevelopmentbydeterioratingone’s
healthandhappiness[40].Accordingtothemodelofsustainablecareers,thesecondindi-
cator“health”referstothedynamicfitofone’scareerwithphysicalandmentalfunctions
[9].Employeesexperiencingphysicalormentalhealthissues,suchasfrequentpainor
work-relatedstress,maywithdrawfromworkandfinditdifficulttomaintainandfurther
developtheircareers[41–43].Inlinewithpriorresearchfindings,whichhaverevealedthe
needsandproblemsofyoungemployeeswithasocial-sciencesdegreeintoday’swork-
place(e.g.,[17]),wewillspecificallyexaminework-relatedstressandburnoutunderthe
indicatorofhealth(seeFigure1).
Figure 1. Model of 21st-century skills and sustainable careers for social sciences graduates.
Note: based on the model of sustainable careers by de Vos et al. [9].
According to de Vos and others [
9
], a sustainable career is characterized by three
indicators, namely (a) productivity, (b) health, and (c) happiness (see Figure 1). In this
conceptualization, the first indicator “productivity” refers to an individual’s strong per-
formance in the current job and having good future job prospects [
9
]. To start and build a
sustainable career, young graduates need to find a job in the first place and then keep their
jobs by performing well at work [
9
]. Composed of different dimensions, job performance
is defined as “behaviors or actions that are relevant to the goals of the organization” [
33
]
(p. 704). Individuals who perform well in their jobs not only secure their own employ-
ment and career sustainability, but also contribute to the success and productivity of their
organizations [34].
In addition to high in-role performance, in today’s fast-changing work environment,
graduates need to show innovative behaviors at work [
35
,
36
], which are expected to lead
to innovative output for the organization [
37
]. Innovative work behavior refers to “the
intentional creation, introduction, and application of new ideas within a work role, group or
organization, in order to benefit role performance, the group, or the organization” [
38
] (p. 288).
To illustrate, innovative employees are the ones whose behaviors result in novel outcomes
for the organizations, such as the creation of new products or processes [
37
,
39
]. By engaging
in innovative activities at work, young graduates can contribute to the competitiveness and
performance of the organization [36,39].
While being productive at work by performing well and being innovative is crucial for
career sustainability, it may also endanger career development by deteriorating one’s health
and happiness [
40
]. According to the model of sustainable careers, the second indicator
“health” refers to the dynamic fit of one’s career with physical and mental functions [
9
].
Employees experiencing physical or mental health issues, such as frequent pain or work-
related stress, may withdraw from work and find it difficult to maintain and further develop
their careers [
41
–
43
]. In line with prior research findings, which have revealed the needs
and problems of young employees with a social-sciences degree in today’s workplace
(e.g., [
17
]), we will specifically examine work-related stress and burnout under the indicator
of health (see Figure 1).
Work-related stress and burnout are important to examine as possible hindrances of
building a sustainable career [
9
,
41
]. While work-related stress is defined as perceived stress
at work regarding irritating hassles, tough events, and ongoing problems [
44
], burnout is
a psychological syndrome occurring in response to prolonged exposure to work-related
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 4 of 20
stress [
45
]. Both these negative experiences at work lead to physical and mental health
complaints such as headaches and depression [
46
,
47
], and have a negative influence on job
performance [48,49], career satisfaction, and life satisfaction [46,48].
The final indicator of sustainable careers, “happiness” entails feeling successful or satis-
fied with one’s career [
9
]. When employees are happy, they feel the motivation and energy
needed to continue working effectively and efficiently [
34
], which can facilitate building a
sustainable career in the long term [
9
]. In this research, we focus on work engagement and job
and career satisfaction to study the happiness of social sciences graduates.
Work engagement is considered the antipode of burnout [
50
], and refers to “a positive,
fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and ab-
sorption” [51] (p. 74). Engaged employees feel energetic and connected to their work [50].
Work engagement results in several positive outcomes, for example, higher levels of job
satisfaction (e.g., [52]) and job performance (e.g., [53]).
Satisfaction is the other concept that we investigate under happiness. We focus on
both job and career satisfaction, with the latter serving as a central indicator of career
success [
41
]. While job satisfaction is defined as an evaluation of one’s job that results in
contentment with and positive feelings about the particular job [
54
], career satisfaction
refers to the positive feelings derived from several aspects of the career as a whole, including
payment, advancement, and developmental opportunities [
55
]. To put it differently, job
satisfaction only concerns an individual’s current job situation, whereas career satisfaction
is related to the lifetime evaluation of work experiences [
56
,
57
]. Both job and career
satisfaction negatively impact turnover intentions [
58
–
60
]. Additionally, they lead to
increased organizational commitment [61,62] and life satisfaction [63].
In sum, bearing three sustainable career indicators in mind, we seek to capture social
sciences graduates’ career sustainability by focusing on job performance, innovative output,
job stress, burnout, work engagement, and job and career satisfaction in line with the
demands and problems which they may encounter while building their careers. Even
though the above-mentioned concepts are considered to be separate and distinguishable
indicators of sustainable careers (see Figure 1), it is important to emphasize that they are
also expected to be interrelated.
2.2. The Role of 21st-Century Skills in Career Sustainability of Social Sciences Graduates
As the central actors and owners of their careers, individuals are responsible for
making career-related decisions, taking appropriate actions and initiatives when needed,
and adapting and reacting to career events and changes [
9
]. All these responsibilities imply
the importance of possessing relevant 21st-century skills in ensuring career sustainability.
Twenty-first-century skills enable individuals to adapt to the ever-changing job landscape,
navigate through dynamic career environments, and seize opportunities for career growth
and advancement [2,64,65].
To examine how 21st-century skills relate to sustainable career development (cf. [
31
]),
we build on the person–environment (P–E) fit theory. The P–E fit theory posits that
individuals inherently seek environments that are compatible with their characteristics,
including values, needs, and abilities [
66
]. Achieving a strong fit would lead to positive
experiences such as satisfaction. When there is a misfit between their own characteristics
and environmental attributes, individuals are expected to face negative outcomes like
stress [
66
,
67
]. Over the years, in the scope of the P–E fit theory, different fit concepts have
been proposed related to the context of work, such as person–organization fit [
66
]. As the
present study addresses careers, the focus is on the person–career fit, which can occur when
individuals’ abilities and talents fit the requirements of their past, current and future work
environment [
68
]. Person–career fit is at the heart of managing a sustainable career [
9
,
69
].
Individuals with a strong person–career fit experience positive outcomes that foster their
happiness, health, and productivity in the long term [
68
]. Thus, building on the P–E fit
theory and the model of sustainable careers, we propose that if social sciences graduates
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 5 of 20
are equipped with the skills demanded in the labor market, they will develop a stronger
sense of person–career fit, which enables them to manage a sustainable career.
According to the framework of Partnership for 21st-Century Learning (P21), which is a
generic and widely used framework in the literature [
70
], 21st-century skills are categorized
under three main themes called (i) Learning and Innovation Skills, (ii) Information, Media,
and Technology Skills, and (iii) Life and Career Skills. Learning and Innovation Skills
include creativity and innovation, critical thinking, problem solving, communication, and
collaboration; Information, Media, and Technology Skills involve information literacy,
media literacy, and ICT literacy; and Life and Career Skills consist of flexibility, adaptability,
initiative and self-direction, social and cross-cultural skills, productivity and accountability,
leadership, and responsibility [71].
Building on the findings of a recent review study [
31
], we specifically focus on com-
munication, collaboration, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. The
reviewed studies showed that these skills are often required from social sciences graduates
in the labor market. For example, the study by Pineda-Herrero et al. [
72
] demonstrated that
these skills were highly valued by employers and graduates of pedagogy and psychology
to find and maintain a job and perform well at work. In addition to current labor-market
requirements, different studies on what demands will be expected of social sciences gradu-
ates also underline that these skills will become more prominent in the future (e.g., [
73
]).
Likewise, numerous skills frameworks that exist in the literature concurrently draw atten-
tion to the ever-increasing importance of communication, collaboration, creativity, critical
thinking, and problem-solving skills [
74
]. Furthermore, prior research provides evidence
supporting the link between possessing these 21st-century skills and work-related out-
comes relevant to sustainable careers. For example, studies have shown that high levels
of creativity positively affect involvement in innovation at work [
36
]; problem solving
positively relates to well-being [
75
,
76
], and critical thinking is positively associated with
work engagement [77].
Overall, drawing on the P–E fit theory, the conceptual model of sustainable careers,
and results from previous empirical studies, we formulate the following hypotheses to be
tested in this research:
Possessing the 21st-century skills of communication, collaboration, problem solving,
critical thinking, and creativity positively relates to H1) happiness (i.e., work engagement,
job and career satisfaction) and H2) productivity (i.e., perceived performance and innova-
tive output); and H3) negatively relates to health problems (i.e., job stress and burnout).
3. Methods
3.1. Study Design and Context
This study had a cross-sectional survey design. Participants were early-career grad-
uates of social sciences master’s programs in the Netherlands between the years 2018
and 2023. We specifically focused on master’s graduates because many social sciences
undergraduates directly continue further education before entering the labor market and
starting their careers [12,78].
3.2. Sample and Procedure
We recruited participants through the alumni centers of two research universities in
the Netherlands and by making announcements on social media channels. Among the
respondents, we raffled off ten shopping vouchers each worth EUR 50 as compensation
for their participation. Ethical approval was obtained from an ethics committee at a major
university in the Netherlands with the approval number ETH2223-0079. The data were
gathered through an online survey, which was administered both in English and in Dutch
in the spring of 2023. Before data collection, we informed participants about the general
purpose, procedure, voluntary participation, and confidentiality of their responses.
A total of 201 graduates participated in this study. Respondents who indicated that
they graduated from fields other than social sciences were excluded from the sample.
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 6 of 20
To determine which studies can be categorized under social sciences, the International
Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2013 detailed field descriptions were used [
79
].
Based on the ISCED descriptions, two respondents holding master’s degrees in law were
excluded from the dataset prior to analyses. Additionally, we removed participants who
filled out a small proportion of the survey such as only demographics or who could not
provide data on how they feel or perform in their current jobs due to unemployment,
being on leave, or following a second master’s degree. The final sample consisted of
129 individuals.
Most respondents were female (69%). The mean age was 28.33 years (SD = 5.48). Most
of the participants obtained their master’s degree from the discipline of psychology (20.9%),
followed by the disciplines of political sciences (17.8%), educational sciences/pedagogy
(17.1%), public administration (14.7%), sociology (10.1%), anthropology, (9.3%) and other
social sciences disciplines such as economics (10.1%). Also, the majority were temporarily
employed (50.4%), followed by permanent (28.7%) and other employment types (1.6%),
such as temporary employment with a view to permanent employment. Additionally, the
respondents worked in a wide range of sectors such as universities (24%), government
(17.8%), hospitals and health services (12.4%), education (8.5%), business services (6.2%),
welfare institutions (5.4%), financial services (2.3%), or information and communication
services (2.3%). On average, participants worked 35.5 h per week (SD = 5.60) and reported
several occupations such as being a PhD candidate (17.4%), psychologist (7.1%), policy
advisor (8%), government trainee (7.9%), and ortho-pedagogue (4.7%).
3.3. Measures
The study variables (21st-century skills and career outcomes) were measured with
questionnaires that were possible to fill out in English or in Dutch. The items were contextu-
alized to the work context and in some cases slightly rephrased to represent abilities rather
than behavioral outcomes to ensure discriminant validity from our outcome measures
(e.g., job performance). An example of a changed item is “I am good at participating in
team discussions with an open mind” from the collaboration questionnaire, which was
previously worded as “I consistently participate in team discussions with an open mind”.
Where possible, existing Dutch versions were used. The skills and work-related stress
questionnaires were translated from English to Dutch. The original and final items are
presented in Supplementary Materials, File S1. All the variables were scored on a five-point
Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree), except for job satisfaction, where
we used a seven-point scale (1 = Completely Dissatisfied to 7 = Completely Satisfied). The
total score for each scale was calculated by taking the average of the individual scores on
the scale items. All scales were sufficiently reliable, ranging from 0.69 to 0.90.
3.3.1. Twenty-First-Century Skills
Communication skills were measured with an adapted version (cf. [
80
]) of the twelve-
item Communication Competency Scale [
81
]. The items included “I express my ideas
clearly”. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability was 0.69.
Collaboration skills were assessed with the Self-Assessed Collaboration Skills Scale
(SACS; [
82
]). The scale had eleven items (e.g., “I am good at supporting the efforts of
others”). Cronbach’s alpha reliability for the scale was 0.73.
Creativity was assessed with four items from the Creative Potential Scale, which
measures personal opinions concerning the ability to be creative [
83
]. Of the original six
items, two were removed because they were either too general and/or overlapped with
other concepts (cf. [
84
]; see Supplementary Materials, File S1). An example item was “I am
able to try out new ideas”. Cronbach’s alpha reliability was 0.73.
Critical thinking was measured with fourteen items from the Confidence in Critical
Thinking Subscale of the Critical Thinking Toolkit (CriTT; [
85
]). A sample item was “I can
evaluate the arguments of others well”. Cronbach’s alpha reliability was 0.82.
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 7 of 20
Problem-solving skills were assessed with the Problem-Solving Confidence Subscale from
the Problem-Solving Inventory [
86
,
87
]. This measure included eleven items
(e.g., “I am able to solve new and difficult problems”). Cronbach’s alpha of the scale was 0.80.
3.3.2. Sustainable Career Indicators
Based on prior research findings showing that job satisfaction can be measured with a
single item in a reliable and valid way (e.g., [
88
]), we assessed job satisfaction with the item
“Weighing the pros and cons, how satisfied are you with this job?”.
To measure career satisfaction, we used the five-item Career Satisfaction Scale, which
was developed by Greenhaus et al. [
89
] and has frequently been used in the literature to
measure career satisfaction (e.g., [
90
]). Items included “I am satisfied with the success I
have achieved in my career”. Cronbach’s alpha reliability was 0.90.
Work engagement was assessed with the three-item Ultra-Short Work Engagement
Scale [
91
]. The items included “At my work, I feel bursting with energy”. Cronbach’s alpha
reliability was 0.84.
Work-related stress was measured with the Work Stress Scale [
92
,
93
]. The scale had six
items (e.g., “I am usually under a lot of pressure when I am at work”). Cronbach’s alpha
reliability was 0.83.
A short version of the Burnout Assessment Tool (BAT) was used to measure burnout [
94
].
This scale included twelve items (e.g., “After a day at work, I find it hard to recover my
energy”). Cronbach’s alpha reliability was 0.89.
To measure perceived job performance, we used Goodman and Svyantek’s [
95
] task
and contextual performance scales. The former scale assesses an individual’s current
performance at work, such as achieving the objectives of the job. The latter scale measures
organizational citizenship behaviors, such as voluntary actions that extend beyond formal
requirements. We used three items for each scale (cf. [
96
]; e.g., “I achieve the objectives of
the job” and “I help colleagues when their workload increases”). Cronbach’s alpha was
0.86 for task performance and 0.70 for contextual performance.
Innovative outputs at work were assessed with five items from the Innovative Output
Scale [
37
]. A sample item was “I produce ideas to improve work practices”. Cronbach’s
alpha was 0.85.
3.3.3. Control Variables
Previous studies demonstrated that age, gender, major, weekly work hours, and employ-
ment sector might be associated with our study variables, specifically job satisfaction, stress,
work engagement, and burnout (e.g., [
97
,
98
]). Therefore, we included these demographic
characteristics and information on current employment as control variables in our analyses.
3.4. Data Analysis
First, we checked the data for outliers and influential cases and found no distortions
or extreme cases. Second, we conducted descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations
between study variables in SPSS (Version 29). Third, to test whether possessing 21st-century
skills predicts the outcome variables related to career sustainability, we performed path
analysis in SPSS Amos (Version 29) with maximum likelihood estimation and using the
estimation of means and intercepts for missing data. The model fit was evaluated using the
Chi
2
goodness-of-fit statistic, Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). TLI and CFI values greater than 0.90
are considered representative of a good fit [
99
], while values close to 0.95 indicate superior
fit [
100
]. An RMSEA value equal to or less than 0.05 is indicative of a good fit, values
ranging from 0.05 to 0.08 suggest an adequate fit, and values falling between 0.08 and 0.10
suggest a mediocre fit, while values exceeding 0.10 are considered unacceptable [101,102].
Last, we carried out latent-profile analysis (LPA). We performed LPA by using the
tidyLPA package in R (Version 4.2). LPA classifies individuals into homogenous subgroups
based on the variables of interest examined in the study [
103
]. We conducted the LPA with
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 8 of 20
the recommended three-step approach [
104
]. In Step 1, we used job and career satisfaction,
work engagement, job stress, burnout, job performance, and innovative output as profile
indicators. To increase the interpretability of the latent profiles, we used z-standardized
mean scores of the indicators (cf. [
105
]). Initially, we started our evaluation with a single-
profile model. Then, we increased the profile numbers one by one by investigating whether
the inclusion of an additional profile led to superior solutions that were both statistically
and conceptually meaningful. We compared each consecutive model to the previous model
by checking whether the addition of an extra profile improved the model fit. We considered
several fit criteria. We used the Bootstrap likelihood ratio test (BLRT) to compare the
model of interest to a model with one fewer profile, with a p-value below 0.05 meaning
that the current model fits the data better than the previous model [
106
,
107
]. In addition,
we checked the Akaike information criterion (AIC), Bayesian information criterion (BIC),
and sample-size-adjusted BIC (SABIC), with lower values indicating a better fit [
107
].
Moreover, we checked the entropy statistic, which estimates how well the model separates
and classifies individuals for each profile [
106
,
108
]. Entropy values closer to the maximum
value of 1.00 signify more certainty in profile classification [
107
,
108
]. Beyond the statistic
tests and indices, we considered the utility (i.e., the profiles should include at least 5% of the
sample) and conceptual interpretability of the profiles in line with the recommendations in
the literature [103,106].
After selecting the best-fitting model, in Step 2, we assigned the individuals to their
most likely profile using the posterior profile probabilities. In Step 3, we examined whether
the resultant profiles of career sustainability differed in 21st-century skills.
4. Results
4.1. Descriptive Statistics and Measurement Model
Table 1displays the means, standard deviations, Cronbach alphas, and bivariate
correlation coefficients among all variables. The table shows significant and positive
correlations among all 21st-century skills, and several links between skills and sustainable
career outcomes, as predicted (see Table 1). For example, communication significantly
correlated with all outcome variables (rrange 0.24 to
−
0.38, p< 0.05), and creativity showed
significant positive correlations with task performance and innovative output (r= 0.30 and
0.29, respectively, p< 0.05). The demographic variables showed significant correlations
with the outcome variables and were therefore included in our path analyses. Furthermore,
correlations between the career-sustainability-related variables exhibited the expected
pattern, with strong significant correlations between variables that can be clustered around,
respectively, happiness (i.e., job satisfaction, career satisfaction, and work engagement),
health problems (i.e., job stress and burnout), and productivity (i.e., task performance,
contextual performance, and innovative output).
Before testing our hypotheses, we tested a measurement model including eight la-
tent variables, namely communication, collaboration, critical thinking, problem solving,
creativity, happiness, health problems, and productivity. The five latent variables related
to skills were indicated by their mean scores, where we corrected for the measurement
error of each variable with its reliability score (cf. [
109
]). We chose to work with mean
scores to reduce model complexity and avoid identification problems related to the large
number of latent variables, each with several observed indicators [
109
,
110
]. The three latent
outcome variables were represented by their respective indicators: “happiness” by the
mean scores of job and career satisfaction and work engagement; “health problems” by
the mean scores of burnout and stress; and “productivity” by the mean scores of task and
contextual performance and innovative output. The fit of this measurement model was
good (see Table 2); χ2(42 df)= 73.81 (p< 0.01), CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.08.
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 9 of 20
Table 1. Means, standard deviations, reliability, and correlation coefficients among study variables.
Construct Mean SD Study Variables
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Study Variables
1. Communication 3.94 0.39 (0.69)
2. Collaboration 3.98 0.41 0.64 ** (0.73)
3. Critical Thinking 4.03 0.42 0.44 ** 0.50 ** (0.82)
4. Problem Solving 3.90 0.42 0.53 ** 0.57 ** 0.58 ** (0.80)
5. Creativity 3.89 0.56 0.30 ** 0.41 ** 0.58 ** 0.58 ** (0.73)
6. Career Satisfaction 3.72 0.89 0.34 ** 0.27 ** 0.17 * 0.32 ** 0.12 (0.90)
7. Job Satisfaction 5.51 1.44 0.27 ** 0.11 0.11 0.18 0.02 0.65 ** −
8. Engagement 3.64 0.88 0.30 ** 0.17 0.10 0.23 * 0.09 0.65 ** 0.79 ** (0.84)
9. Burnout 2.08 0.68 −0.38 ** −0.18 −0.08 −0.29 ** 0.08 −0.59 ** −0.75 ** −0.70 ** (0.89)
10. Stress 2.45 0.77 −0.26 ** −0.10 −0.02 −0.27 ** 0.10 −0.43 ** −0.61 ** −0.42 ** 0.73 ** (0.83)
11. Task Performance 4.30 0.56 0.31 ** 0.35 ** 0.33 ** 0.51 ** 0.30 ** 0.19 0.22 * 0.34 ** −0.30 ** −0.18 (0.86)
12. Conceptual Performance 4.00 0.74 0.31 ** 0.40 ** 0.10 0.30 ** 0.16 0.22 * 0.26 ** 0.45 ** −0.28 ** −0.15 0.39 ** (0.70)
13. Innovative Output 3.54 0.86 0.24 * 0.41 ** 0.18 0.29 ** 0.29 ** 0.20 * 0.32 ** 0.47 ** −0.30 ** −0.14 0.45 ** 0.54 ** (0.85)
Control Variables
Age 28.33 5.48 −0.14 0.02 −0.01 −0.03 0.10 −0.01 0.11 −0.01 −0.19 * −0.07 −0.07 0.06 0.14
Workhours 35.50 5.60 0.08 0.19 0.21 * 0.21 * 0.12 0.29 ** 0.15 0.19 −0.13 −0.12 0.08 0.08 0.02
Gender a0.29 0.45 −0.29 ** −0.19 * −0.09 −0.17 −0.12 −0.10 0.04 −0.03 −11 −0.06 −0.11 −0.15 −0.25 **
Internship b0.43 0.50 0.02 −0.01 −0.13 0.03 0.05 0.20 * 0.14 0.15 −0.18 −0.04 0.15 0.03 0.03
Major c0.05 0.23 −0.01 −0.06 −0.07 −0.07 −0.05 −0.06 −0.23 * −0.11 0.17 0.02 −0.17 −0.23 * −0.26 **
Sector d0.03 0.17 −0.19 * 0.02 0.11 0.02 0.03 −0.23 * −0.30 ** −0.32 ** 0.36 ** 0.24 * 0.11 −0.20 −0.15
Sector e0.07 0.26 −0.04 −0.10 −0.07 −0.06 0.00 −0.26 ** −0.23 * −0.17 0.16 0.07 −0.10 −0.19 −0.06
Sector f0.07 0.25 0.03 0.02 −0.01 −0.04 0.01 0.00 0.15 0.20 * −0.10 −0.07 0.11 0.20 * 0.22 *
Note. Sample sizes vary due to missing data. N ranges between 96 and 129 individuals. Cronbach alphas are shown on the diagonal in brackets. a1 = male (29%), 0 = female (69%) or
other (2%);
b
1 = conducted a practical internship, 0 = not;
c
1 = major is urban geography, 0 = not;
d
1 = sector is information and communication services, 0 = not;
e
1 = sector is business
services, 0 = not; f1 = sector is welfare institutions, 0 = not; * p < 0.05, ** p< 0.01.
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 10 of 20
Table 2. Fit indices for the tested models.
χ2df ∆χ2 a ∆df
CFI TLI
RMSEA
1. Measurement Model 73.81 ** 42 - -
0.96 0.91
0.08
2. Structural Model 1 b: Predictors, covariates, and outcome variables 241.38 *** 98 167.57 *** 56
0.83 0.59
0.11
3. Structural Model 2: Only significant paths 258.52 *** 111 17.14 13
0.82 0.63
0.10
4. Final Model c: Structural Model 2 with covarying residuals 187.31 *** 110 −71.21 *** 1
0.91 0.81
0.07
a∆χ2
value compares the current model to the previous model.
b
We corrected the relationships with covariates,
which showed significant correlations with outcome variables.
c
The residuals of “happiness” and “health
problems” were allowed to covary. ** p< 0.01, *** p< 0.001.
4.2. Hypotheses Testing: Relationships between Skills and Indicators of Career Sustainability
To investigate the hypothesized relationships between possessing 21st-century skills
and indicators of sustainable careers, we fitted alternative models to the data (see Table 2).
All these models were corrected for significant control variables (i.e., age, major, and
employment sector, see Table 1). We tested a model including all the regression paths
from skills to the outcome variables (Structural Model 1). The relatively poor fit of this
model suggested considerable room for improvement. Next, we tested a model where
we removed the non-significant paths from predictors and covariates to happiness, health
problems, and productivity. This model with only significant paths also had a poor fit (see
Table 2), but the model fit did not significantly differ as compared to the more complex
Structural Model 1. Hence, we used the more parsimonious Structural Model 2. Finally, we
allowed the residuals of the latent well-being constructs to covary based on prior research
findings, showing strong evidence for the link between happiness and health indicators
(e.g., [
111
,
112
]). Adding these covariances in the model substantially improved the model
fit (see Table 2,
∆χ2(1 df)
=
−
71.21, p< 0.001) and led to the final model (see Figure 2), which
yielded a reasonable fit to the data:
χ2(110 df)
= 187.31 (p< 0.001), CFI = 0.91, TLI = 0.81,
RMSEA = 0.07.
Sustainability2024,16,xFORPEERREVIEW11of21
Figure2.Finalmodelshowingsignificantpathsfrom21st-centuryskillstosustainablecareerindi-
cators.Note.N=129.Relationshipsarecorrectedforage,major,andemploymentsector;*p<0.05,
**p<0.01,***p<0.001.
InaccordancewithHypotheses1,2,and3,theresultsrevealedthataftercontrolling
forage,major,andemploymentsector,problem-solvingskillssignificantlypredictedall
indicatorsofsustainablecareers,namelyhappiness,health,andproductivity,intheex-
pecteddirections(pathswere,respectively,B=0.50,S.E.=0.15,β=0.32,p<0.001;B=−0.97,
S.E.=0.15,β=−0.59,p<0.001;andB=0.28,S.E.=0.11,β=0.32,p=0.010).Thisfinding
indicatesthatindividualswhoperceivethemselvesaspossessingstrongproblem-solving
skillstendtoconsiderthemselveshappyandproductivewhilefacingfewerhealthprob-
lemsatwork.Additionally,collaborationskillsshowedapositiverelationshipwith
productivity,aftercontrollingformajorandsector(B=0.35,S.E.=0.11,β=0.38,p=0.002).
Criticalthinkingandcommunicationskillsdidnotsignificantlypredictanyoftheindica-
torsofsustainablecareers.
Contrarytoourinitialexpectations,ouranalysisrevealedthatafteraccountingfor
ageandemploymentsector,creativitypositivelyrelatedtohealthproblems(B=0.46,S.E.
=0.10,β=0.37,p<0.001),suggestingthatindividualswhoindicatethattheypossessstrong
creativityskillsexperiencehigherlevelsofstressandburnoutatwork.However,creativ-
itydidnotexhibitasignificantbivariatecorrelationwitheitherstressorburnout(seeTable
1).Whenweconductedadditionalexploratoryregressionanalyses,wefoundthatthese
relationshipswereonlysignificantandpositiveafteraddingproblemsolvingintothere-
gressionmodel(seeSupplementaryMaterialFileS2),revealingthatproblemsolvingsup-
pressestheserelationships.Thissuppressoreffectindicatesthatproblemsolvingmaypre-
ventcreativeindividualsfromfacingstressandburnoutatwork.
4.3.LatentProfilesofCareerSustainabilityinEarly‐CareerSocialScientists
Withtheperson-centeredapproach(i.e.,byconductingLPA),weaimedtofindout
whetherdifferentprofilesofcareersustainabilityexistinearly-careersocialsciencesgrad-
uatesandtoexaminewhetherandhowgraduatesassignedtothesepossiblyexistingpro-
filesmaydifferinpossessing21st-centuryskills.Table3representstheLPAresults,in-
cludingthefitindicesandentropyvaluesofsixdifferentprofilemodels.TheBLRTvalues
demonstratedthatthefitsignificantlyimprovedwiththeadditionofanextraprofileuntil
Figure 2. Final model showing significant paths from 21st-century skills to sustainable career
indicators. Note. N = 129. Relationships are corrected for age, major, and employment sector;
* p < 0.05, ** p< 0.01, *** p< 0.001.
In accordance with Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3, the results revealed that after control-
ling for age, major, and employment sector, problem-solving skills significantly pre-
dicted all indicators of sustainable careers, namely happiness, health, and productiv-
ity, in the expected directions (paths were, respectively, B= 0.50, S.E. = 0.15,
β
= 0.32,
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 11 of 20
p< 0.001; B=
−
0.97, S.E. = 0.15,
β
=
−
0.59, p< 0.001; and B= 0.28, S.E. = 0.11,
β
= 0.32,
p= 0.010). This finding indicates that individuals who perceive themselves as possessing
strong problem-solving skills tend to consider themselves happy and productive while
facing fewer health problems at work. Additionally, collaboration skills showed a positive
relationship with productivity, after controlling for major and sector (B= 0.35, S.E. = 0.11,
β
= 0.38, p= 0.002). Critical thinking and communication skills did not significantly predict
any of the indicators of sustainable careers.
Contrary to our initial expectations, our analysis revealed that after accounting for
age and employment sector, creativity positively related to health problems (B= 0.46,
S.E. = 0.10,
β
= 0.37, p< 0.001), suggesting that individuals who indicate that they possess
strong creativity skills experience higher levels of stress and burnout at work. However,
creativity did not exhibit a significant bivariate correlation with either stress or burnout (see
Table 1). When we conducted additional exploratory regression analyses, we found that
these relationships were only significant and positive after adding problem solving into the
regression model (see Supplementary Materials, File S2), revealing that problem solving
suppresses these relationships. This suppressor effect indicates that problem solving may
prevent creative individuals from facing stress and burnout at work.
4.3. Latent Profiles of Career Sustainability in Early-Career Social Scientists
With the person-centered approach (i.e., by conducting LPA), we aimed to find out
whether different profiles of career sustainability exist in early-career social sciences grad-
uates and to examine whether and how graduates assigned to these possibly existing
profiles may differ in possessing 21st-century skills. Table 3represents the LPA results,
including the fit indices and entropy values of six different profile models. The BLRT
values demonstrated that the fit significantly improved with the addition of an extra profile
until the six-profile model. Additionally, the two-profile model had substantially lower
values for AIC, BIC, and SABIC compared to the one-profile model, while the entropy was
the closest to 1.00 (0.96). Compared to the other models, we found that the distinctions
between the profiles in three-, four-, and five-profile models were not clear-cut, and there
was some commonality or similarity between the groups (see Supplementary Materials,
File S3), which made it difficult to differentiate between profiles and thus to theoretically
interpret the results. Consequently, the two-profile model was selected as the best fit to the
data, serving as both a statistically and conceptually superior solution.
Table 3. Model fit statistics of the latent-profile analysis.
Profile Numbers AIC BIC SABIC Entropy BLRT p
1 2952.66 2998.41 2947.81 1.00
2 2696.84 2768.34 2689.27 0.96 0.01
3 2578.99 2676.22 2568.69 0.87 0.01
4 2558.90 2681.87 2545.88 0.84 0.01
5 2550.40 2600.11 2534.65 0.81 0.04
6 2556.59 2731.04 2538.12 0.81 0.69
Note. AIC = Akaike Information Criterion; BIC = Bayesian Information Criterion; SABIC = Sample-size Adjusted
Bayesian Information Criterion; BLRT = Bootstrap likelihood ratio test.
In Figure 3, we present a visual illustration of the two profiles using standardized
z-scores of the variables that we used as profile indicators, with 0 representing the sample
mean. The first profile contained most of the participants (89.92%, n = 116). This profile
was characterized by lower levels of stress and burnout and higher levels of job and career
satisfaction, work engagement, performance, and innovative output than the other profile.
Consequently, we labeled this profile “sustainable careers”. The second profile included
10.08% of the graduates (n = 13). The individuals in this profile demonstrated lower levels
of engagement, satisfaction, performance, and innovative output, and higher levels of
stress and burnout than the first profile. Therefore, we named the second profile “non-
sustainable careers”. An interesting finding is that although individuals in the “sustainable
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 12 of 20
careers” profile showed slightly higher job performance than the individuals from the “non-
sustainable careers”, the difference was not overly substantial (see Figure 3). This indicates
that early-career social sciences graduates tend to show similar levels of job performance
even when they are less happy and suffer from stress and burnout at work.
Sustainability2024,16,xFORPEERREVIEW12of21
thesix-profilemodel.Additionally,thetwo-profilemodelhadsubstantiallylowervalues
forAIC,BIC,andSABICcomparedtotheone-profilemodel,whiletheentropywasthe
closestto1.00(0.96).Comparedtotheothermodels,wefoundthatthedistinctionsbe-
tweentheprofilesinthree-,four-,andfive-profilemodelswerenotclear-cut,andtherewas
somecommonalityorsimilaritybetweenthegroups(seeSupplementaryMaterialFileS3),
whichmadeitdifficulttodifferentiatebetweenprofilesandthustotheoreticallyinterpretthe
results.Consequently,thetwo-profilemodelwasselectedasthebestfittothedata,servingas
bothastatisticallyandconceptuallysuperiorsolution.
Tab l e 3.Modelfitstatisticsofthelatent-profileanalysis.
ProfileNumbersAICBICSABICEntropyBLRTp
12952.662998.412947.811.00
22696.842768.342689.270.960.01
32578.992676.222568.690.870.01
42558.902681.872545.880.840.01
52550.402600.112534.650.810.04
62556.592731.042538.120.810.69
Note.AIC=AkaikeInformationCriterion;BIC=BayesianInformationCriterion;SABIC=Sample-
sizeAdjustedBayesianInformationCriterion;BLRT=Bootstraplikelihoodratiotest.
InFigure3,wepresentavisualillustrationofthetwoprofilesusingstandardizedz-
scoresofthevariablesthatweusedasprofileindicators,with0representingthesample
mean.Thefirstprofilecontainedmostoftheparticipants(89.92%,n=116).Thisprofile
wascharacterizedbylowerlevelsofstressandburnoutandhigherlevelsofjobandcareer
satisfaction,workengagement,performance,andinnovativeoutputthantheotherprofile.
Consequently,welabeledthisprofile“sustainablecareers”.Thesecondprofileincluded
10.08%ofthegraduates(n=13).Theindividualsinthisprofiledemonstratedlowerlevels
ofengagement,satisfaction,performance,andinnovativeoutput,andhigherlevelsof
stressandburnoutthanthefirstprofile.Therefore,wenamedthesecondprofile“non-
sustainablecareers”.Aninterestingfindingisthatalthoughindividualsinthe“sustaina-
blecareers”profileshowedslightlyhigherjobperformancethantheindividualsfromthe
“non-sustainablecareers”,thedifferencewasnotoverlysubstantial(seeFigure3).Thisindi-
catesthatearly-careersocialsciencesgraduatestendtoshowsimilarlevelsofjobperformance
evenwhentheyarelesshappyandsufferfromstressandburnoutatwork.
Figure3.Indicatorpaernsintwo-profilemodel.
Figure 3. Indicator patterns in two-profile model.
Furthermore, to test whether there were differences in possessing 21st-century skills
across these two profiles, we performed independent sample t-tests. We found that the
groups significantly differed in communication and collaboration skills (Cohen’s d value
was 0.86 and 0.60, respectively). The individuals within the “sustainable careers” profile
reported higher levels of communication and collaboration skills compared to those in the
“non-sustainable careers” profile, t(127) = 2.93, p= 0.004 with a difference of 0.33 (95% CI,
0.11 to 0.55) for communication skills, and t(127) = 2.04, p= 0.04 with a difference of 0.24
(95% CI, 0.01 to 0.48) for collaboration skills. For the remaining three skills—critical thinking,
problem solving, and creativity—t-test analyses did not yield significant differences.
5. Discussion
This study aimed to examine which specific 21st-century skills can help social sciences
graduates develop a sustainable career after their graduation. To investigate this, we
posed two research questions and adopted both a variable-centered (i.e., path analysis)
and person-centered (i.e., LPA) approach. The first research question concerning the
link between possessing skills and building sustainable careers was answered using path
analysis. The results revealed that self-reported collaboration and problem-solving skills
were significantly related to different indicators of sustainable careers among social sciences
graduates (i.e., happiness, health, and productivity), supporting H1, H2, and H3. Thus,
this study underlines the pivotal role played by collaboration and problem-solving skills in
developing a sustainable career for social sciences graduates. Acquiring and strengthening
these skills can not only act as a safeguard against negative workplace experiences such
as stress and burnout, but can also serve as a catalyst for enhancing one’s happiness and
productivity at work.
These findings confirm previous research results. For instance, problem solving was
found to have a positive association with the general health of family caregivers [
75
] and
with the work-related well-being of firefighters [
76
]. Manzoor et al. [
113
] presented evi-
dence supporting a positive relationship between teamwork and employee performance.
Likewise, Hanaysha [
114
] demonstrated its link with employee productivity among univer-
sity staff. Moreover, this study builds on the findings of a recent systematic review of the
literature, which uncovered that these skills are considered to be important for the career
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 13 of 20
sustainability of social sciences graduates by both graduates themselves and potential
employers [31].
Our path analysis unexpectedly demonstrated that creativity related positively to
job stress and burnout. While one can find some evidence or explanations supporting
these positive relationships in the literature (e.g., [
115
,
116
]), the relationship between
creativity and stress is considered complex, and it is important to differentiate between
perceived creativity and engaging in creativity as a job demand [117]. In their daily study,
Henderson and her colleagues [
117
] showed that engaging in more creative activities
was related to higher perceived stress. However, they also found that individuals who
perceived themselves as more creative experienced less stress. Their findings underscore
the importance of individual perceptions towards creativity in understanding its impact on
stress levels. Their latter finding aligns with our initial hypothesis (i.e., negative relationship
between perceived creativity and health problems), which did not receive support in our
study. In our study, the absence of a significant bivariate correlation between self-reported
creativity and either stress or burnout (see Table 1) suggested the presence of a suppressor
effect. Additional exploratory regression analyses (see Supplementary Materials, File S2)
revealed that the relationship was influenced by another key characteristic that creative
individuals often demonstrate, namely problem-solving skills. This finding implies that
problem-solving skills help prevent experiencing stress and burnout at work. If people
with creative skills do not also possess strong problem-solving skills, they could be more
prone to experiencing job stress and burnout than people with less creative skills.
Our path analysis did not support the relationships between communication and
critical thinking skills and any of the sustainable career indicators. One potential reason
for these findings could be the presence of a third variable influencing these relationships,
leading to inconclusive results. For example, personality traits might play a moderating
role in these relationships. There is evidence suggesting that specific personality traits, such
as extraversion, are associated with higher levels of happiness or subjective well-being
(e.g., [
118
]). Personality traits have also been linked to the self-perception of communication
skills, with studies profiling different traits in relation to communication skills [
119
]. Thus,
personality traits may influence how individuals perceive themselves in terms of possessing
communication skills.
To answer the second research question regarding the identification of subgroups in
social sciences graduates based on sustainable career indicators, we employed a person-
centered approach using LPA. This approach enabled us to explore sustainable careers
as a multidimensional construct within individuals. The existence of two profiles among
early-career social sciences graduates was demonstrated, labeled sustainable and non-
sustainable careers [
9
]. This finding supports a recent study by Curado and others [
120
],
who found two clusters of sustainable careers based on three indicators, namely well-being,
job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behavior. We chose the same labeling as in
this recent study (i.e., sustainable vs. non-sustainable careers), because being consistent
with the terminology used in the literature contributes to cumulative science [121].
In line with the model of sustainable careers [
9
], the individuals in the “sustain-
able careers” profile experienced more work engagement, were more satisfied with their
jobs and careers, reported higher performance and innovative outputs, and faced less
stress and burnout compared to the other profile, “non-sustainable careers”. Potentially,
they were happy, healthy, and productive at the same time [
9
]. Most of the respondents
(i.e., 89.92%) were assigned to the “sustainable careers” profile, which is a positive finding.
This suggests that a substantial proportion of recent social sciences graduates in the early
stages of their careers are making noteworthy progress in terms of sustainable career devel-
opment. However, the other group also exists and needs attention. A notable finding is that
despite experiencing lower levels of happiness and more health problems, graduates in the
“non-sustainable careers” profile still rated their job performance as comparable to that of
graduates with a sustainable career profile. This resiliency is most probably driven by their
intention to secure their future employability. Moreover, the group comparisons of these
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 14 of 20
two profiles on their self-reported possession of 21st-century skills revealed that individuals
who showed a sustainable career pattern reported higher levels of communication and
collaboration skills. Therefore, partly corroborating the results of path analysis, our LPA
findings underscore the importance of effective communication and collaboration in the
context of sustainable career development for early-career social scientists.
Overall, the variable-centered approach using path analysis enabled a comprehensive
exploration of the overarching patterns across the entire sample, offering a broad perspective
on the relationship between 21st-century skills and sustainable careers. On top of that,
the person-centered approach, conducted through LPA, enhanced this understanding by
providing a nuanced perspective. This approach allowed us to pinpoint distinct profiles within
the sample that are also expected to exist in the population (i.e., social sciences graduates).
5.1. Implications
Our findings contribute to the literature on career sustainability in various ways. For
examining the link between skills and sustainable career development, we approached
sustainable careers as a multidimensional construct consisting of happiness, health, and
productivity, which were indicated by various work-related variables. Also, this study
responds to the call for using a person-centered approach more frequently in the field of
work and organizational psychology, in which this approach is scarcely used [
105
], and
contributes to the validation of the model of sustainable careers. In this study, we presented
evidence for the relationship between possessing 21st-century skills and sustainable career
development from the perspectives of early-career social sciences graduates.
Moreover, our study has important implications for practice. Higher education institu-
tions should critically examine their curricula if and to what extent they teach 21st-century
skills, especially communication, collaboration, and problem-solving skills, in their pro-
grams to ensure that graduates are well-prepared for the dynamic workforce and for
developing sustainable careers. The finding related to the suppressor effect of problem
solving on the relationships between creativity and job stress as well as burnout empha-
sizes the significance of integrating creativity training with problem-solving skills in higher
education programs. Such a combination could potentially protect creative students from
developing work-related stress and burnout in their careers.
The results also have implications for employees to acquire or develop 21st-century
skills for safeguarding their career sustainability, and for employers to provide their employ-
ees with opportunities to train and develop these skills in their workplace. In contexts where
creativity is cherished, such as in creative industries [
122
], organizations and employees
need to be aware that while creativity is valuable in the workplace, it may come with a po-
tential downside in terms of increased stress and burnout. Thus, fostering problem-solving
skills can help individuals harness their creative abilities effectively without succumbing to
stress or burnout. With this aim, tailored training programs or workshops can be designed
to improve problem-solving skills in creative professionals.
5.2. Limitations and Future Directions
This study has some limitations that need to be acknowledged. An important limita-
tion is that our results are based on cross-sectional data, meaning that data were collected
at one single moment and thus represent a snapshot in time. As contextual and individual
factors can vary over time, the use of a single-measurement moment cannot capture the
dynamic nature of career sustainability over time. It is also not possible to draw firm
conclusions about causal relationships between study variables. Additionally, common
method variance may have inflated the covariation between the different constructs. To
address this limitation and gain a more comprehensive understanding of how 21st-century
skills help social sciences graduates develop a sustainable career over time, future research
could benefit from longitudinal designs that track changes and developments over an
extended period.
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 15 of 20
Another limitation of this study is the small sample size, which restricts the generaliz-
ability of our findings. Our sample involved graduates who completed a social sciences
master’s degree in the Netherlands between the years 2018 and 2023. The geographic,
timeframe, and disciplinary boundaries of our sample limit the generalizability of our
results to graduates from other countries, time periods, or academic disciplines. Therefore,
the conclusions drawn from this study should be interpreted with caution. Further research
with larger samples would extend the validity of our findings and allow for a broader
representation of the population.
Moreover, it is important to note that all five skills that we investigated in this study
were measured indirectly through self-reports. While there are substantive advantages of
using self-assessments in measuring skills, such as having the opportunity to examine a
wide range of skills in a study [
123
], in the case of this research, self-reports are inherently
susceptible to biases. In the self-assessment of skills, individuals might overestimate or
underestimate their own skills, or they might tend to give socially desirable answers [
124
].
Therefore, future research may also benefit from more objective or direct assessments of
skills such as using computer-based performance tests in addition to self-reports to enhance
the robustness of our findings.
In our study, we focused on possessing skills as a component of person–career fit.
However, future research can expand on this by examining the role of other components,
namely individual values and needs (cf. [
66
]) in building sustainable careers. Moreover,
scholars can also link possessing 21st-century skills to career attractiveness, particularly
through the lens of expectancy theory, used for predicting job performance and satisfaction
in the literature [
125
]. Possessing 21st-century skills could help individuals perceive
themselves as more capable of fulfilling job responsibilities and achieving career satisfaction
and success. Consequently, it could potentially enhance individuals’ career expectations in
terms of happiness and productivity, thereby influencing how they perceive the attraction
of their careers.
6. Conclusions
This study underscores the importance of 21st-century skills in building sustainable
careers. Our findings provide insights into which 21st-century skills help social sciences
graduates to build sustainable careers. In particular, collaboration, communication, and
problem-solving skills were found to be important for social sciences graduates’ career sus-
tainability. Possessing and strengthening these skills can help individuals mitigate negative
experiences at work while enhancing productivity. Our research, utilizing both variable-
centered and person-centered approaches, not only advances the understanding of the role
21st-century skills play in career sustainability but also validates the model of sustainable
careers. Overall, this study contributes to the research fields of 21st-century-skills training
and career sustainability and serves as an initial exploration of the research topic, providing a
foundation for future investigations with larger samples in longitudinal designs.
Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at https:
//www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/su16083409/s1, File S1: Table S1. Measures and Related Items;
File S2: Table S2. Coefficients of the Regression Models without Problem-Solving; Table S3. Coeffi-
cients of the Regression Models with Problem-Solving; File S3: Figure S1. Indicator Patterns in Two,
Three, Four and Five-Profile Models.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.K.-A., M.J.G., M.M. and G.S.; methodology, A.K.-A.,
M.J.G., M.M. and G.S.; software, A.K.-A.; validation, M.J.G. and M.M.; formal analysis, A.K.-A.,
M.J.G. and M.M.; investigation, A.K.-A., M.J.G. and M.M.; resources, A.K.-A.; data curation, A.K.-A.,
M.J.G. and M.M.; writing—original draft preparation, A.K.-A.; writing—review and editing, M.J.G.,
M.M. and G.S.; visualization, A.K.-A.; supervision, M.J.G., M.M. and G.S.; project administration,
A.K.-A., M.J.G., M.M. and G.S.; funding acquisition, A.K.-A. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 16 of 20
Funding: This research was funded by the postgraduate scholarship program of the Ministry of
National Education, Republic of Türkiye, awarded to A. Karaca-Atik.
Institutional Review Board Statement: This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration
of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) of Erasmus
University Rotterdam (approval number ETH2223-0079, dated 6 December 2022).
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available in Open Science Framework
at https://osf.io/6ta9v/?view_only=36b65555cc2240a4a53e30e0e7e35f67 (accessed on 3 March 2024).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
References
1.
Lawrence, B.S.; Hall, D.T.; Arthur, M.B. Sustainable careers then and now. In Handbook of Research on Sustainable Careers; De Vos,
A., Van der Heijden, B.I.J.M., Eds.; Edward Elgar Publishing: Cheltenham, UK, 2015; pp. 432–450. [CrossRef]
2.
Savickas, M.L.; Nota, L.; Rossier, J.; Dauwalder, J.P.; Duarte, M.E.; Guichard, J.; Soresi, J.; Van Esbroeck, R.; Van Vianen, A.E.M.
Life designing: A paradigm for career construction in the 21st century. J. Vocat. Behav. 2009,75, 239–250. [CrossRef]
3.
Sullivan, S.E.; Baruch, Y. Advances in career theory and research: A critical review and agenda for future exploration. J. Manag.
2009,35, 1542–1571. [CrossRef]
4.
Blanka, C. An individual-level perspective on intrapreneurship: A review and ways forward. Rev. Manag. Sci. 2019,13, 919–961.
[CrossRef]
5.
De Jong, J.P.D.; Parker, S.K.; Wennekers, S.; Wu, C.H. Entrepreneurial behavior in organizations: Does job design matter? Entrep.
Theory Pract. 2015,39, 981–995. [CrossRef]
6.
Sullivan, S.E.; Al Ariss, A. Making sense of different perspectives on career transitions: A review and agenda for future research.
Hum. Resour. Manag. Rev. 2021,31, 100727. [CrossRef]
7.
Hirschi, A. The fourth industrial revolution: Issues and implications for career research and practice. Career Dev. Q. 2018,66,
192–204. [CrossRef]
8.
De Vos, A.; Dujardin, J.M.; Gielens, T.; Meyers, C. Conceptual framework for sustainable careers. In Developing Sustainable Careers
across the Lifespan; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2016; pp. 9–28. [CrossRef]
9.
De Vos, A.; van Der Heijden, B.I.; Akkermans, J. Sustainable careers: Towards a conceptual model. J. Vocat. Behav. 2020,
117, 103196. [CrossRef]
10.
Pavlin, S. The role of higher education in supporting graduates’ early labour market careers. Int. J. Manpow. 2014,35, 576–590.
[CrossRef]
11. Robert, P. Job mismatch in early career of graduates under post-communism. Int. J. Manpow. 2014,35, 500–513. [CrossRef]
12.
Edge, J.; Martin, E.; McKean, M. Getting to Work: Career Skills Development for Social Sciences and Humanities Graduates. The
Conference Board of Canada, Canada. 2018. Available online: https://www.conferenceboard.ca/e-library/abstract.aspx?did=94
63 (accessed on 10 May 2023).
13.
Nyström, S.; Dahlgren, M.A.; Dahlgren, L.O. A winding road–professional trajectories from higher education to working life: A
case study of political science and psychology graduates. Stud. Contin. Educ. 2008,30, 215–229. [CrossRef]
14.
Greaves, L. What Do Graduates Do? 2021/22: Insights and Analysis from the UK’s Largest Higher Education Survey. Prospects,
UK. 2022. Available online: https://futureplan.glos.ac.uk/students/news/detail/1460/what-do-graduates-do-2021-22 (accessed
on 15 September 2023).
15.
Paunov, C.; Planes-Satorra, S.; Moriguchi, T. What Role for Social Sciences in Innovation? Re-Assessing How Scientific Disciplines
Contribute to Different Industries; (Report No. 45); OECD Science, Technology and Industry Policy Papers: Paris, France, 2017.
[CrossRef]
16.
Deželan, T.; Fink Hafner, D.; Melink, M. First-job educational and skill match: An empirical investigation of political science
graduates in Slovenia. Int. J. Manpow. 2014,35, 553–575. [CrossRef]
17.
McCormack, H.M.; MacIntyre, T.E.; O’Shea, D.; Herring, M.P.; Campbell, M.J. The prevalence and cause(s) of burnout among
applied psychologists: A systematic review. Front. Psychol. 2018,9, 1897. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
18.
Robst, J.; VanGilder, J. Salary and job satisfaction among economics and business graduates: The effect of match between degree
field and job. Int. Rev. Econ. Educ. 2016,21, 30–40. [CrossRef]
19.
Rummell, C.M. An exploratory study of psychology graduate student workload, health, and program satisfaction. Prof. Psychol.
Res. Pract. 2015,46, 391–399. [CrossRef]
20.
Gatt, S.; Hayek, L.; Huemer, C. Societal relevance dimensions of graduating in political science in Austria. Osterr. Z. Polit. 2018,
47, 43–53. [CrossRef]
21.
Hur, H.; Maurer, J.A.; Hawley, J. The role of education, occupational match on job satisfaction in the behavioral and social science
workforce. Hum. Res. Dev. Q. 2019,30, 407–435. [CrossRef]
22.
Wielers, R.; Hummel, L.; Van der Meer, P. Career insecurity and burnout complaints of young Dutch workers. J. Educ. Work 2022,
35, 227–240. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 17 of 20
23.
Bakker, A.B.; Demerouti, E.; Sanz-Vergel, A. Job demands–resources theory: Ten years later. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ.
Behav. 2023,10, 25–53. [CrossRef]
24.
Retkowsky, J.; Nijs, S.; Akkermans, J.; Jansen, P.; Khapova, S.N. Toward a sustainable career perspective on contingent work: A
critical review and a research agenda. Career Dev. Int. 2023,28, 1–18. [CrossRef]
25.
Suhairom, N.; Musta’amal, A.H.; Amin, N.F.M.; Kamin, Y.; Wahid, N.H.A. Quality culinary workforce competencies for
sustainable career development among culinary professionals. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 2019,81, 205–220. [CrossRef]
26.
Schweitzer, L.; Lyons, S.; Smith, C.J. Career sustainability: Framing the past to adapt in the present for a sustainable future.
Sustainability 2023,15, 11800. [CrossRef]
27.
Presti, A.L.; Capone, V.; Aversano, A.; Akkermans, J. Career competencies and career success: On the roles of employability
activities and academic satisfaction during the school-to-work transition. J. Career Dev. 2022,49, 107–125. [CrossRef]
28. OECD. Skills Matter: Further Results from the Survey of Adult Skills; OECD Publishing: Paris, France, 2016. [CrossRef]
29.
De Guzman, A.B.; Choi, K.O. The relations of employability skills to career adaptability among technical school students. J. Vocat.
Behav. 2013,82, 199–207. [CrossRef]
30.
Habets, O.; Stoffers, J.; Heijden, B.V.D.; Peters, P. Am I fit for tomorrow’s labor market? The effect of graduates’ skills development
during higher education for the 21st century’s labor market. Sustainability 2020,12, 7746. [CrossRef]
31.
Karaca-Atik, A.; Meeuwisse, M.; Gorgievski, M.; Smeets, G. Uncovering important 21st-Century skills for sustainable career
development of social sciences graduates: A systematic review. Educ. Res. Rev. 2023,39, 100528. [CrossRef]
32.
Van der Heijden, B.I.J.M.; De Vos, A. Sustainable careers: Introductory chapter. In Handbook of Research on Sustainable Careers;
De Vos, A., Van der Heijden, B.I.J.M., Eds.; Edward Elgar Publishing: Cheltenham, UK, 2015; pp. 1–19. [CrossRef]
33.
Campbell, J. Modeling the performance prediction problem in industrial and organizational psychology. In Handbook of Industrial
and Organizational Psychology, 2nd ed.; Dunnette, M.D., Hough, L.M., Eds.; Consulting Psychologists Press: Palo Alto, CA, USA,
1990; pp. 687–732.
34.
De Hauw, S.; Greenhaus, J.H. Building a sustainable career: The role of work–home balance in career decision making. In
Handbook of Research on Sustainable Careers; De Vos, A., Van der Heijden, B.I.J.M., Eds.; Edward Elgar Publishing: Cheltenham, UK,
2015; pp. 223–238. [CrossRef]
35.
Bos-Nehles, A.; Renkema, M.; Janssen, M. HRM and innovative work behaviour: A systematic literature review. Pers. Rev. 2017,
46, 1228–1253. [CrossRef]
36.
Van Wetten, S.J.; Gerards, R.; De Grip, A. Are graduates’ intrapreneurial skills optimally used for innovation? Technovation 2020,
96, 102131. [CrossRef]
37. De Jong, J.; Den Hartog, D. Measuring innovative work behaviour. Creat. Innov. Manag. 2010,19, 23–36. [CrossRef]
38.
Janssen, O. Job demands, perceptions of effort-reward fairness and innovative work behaviour. J. Occup. Organ. Psychol. 2000,73,
287–302. [CrossRef]
39.
Neessen, P.; Caniëls, M.C.; Vos, B.; De Jong, J.P. The intrapreneurial employee: Toward an integrated model of intrapreneurship
and research agenda. Int. Entrep. Manag. J. 2019,15, 545–571. [CrossRef]
40.
Van de Voorde, K.; Paauwe, J.; Van Veldhoven, M. Employee well-being and the HRM–organizational performance relationship:
A review of quantitative studies. Int. J. Manag. Rev. 2012,14, 391–407. [CrossRef]
41.
Barthauer, L.; Kaucher, P.; Spurk, D.; Kauffeld, S. Burnout and career (un) sustainability: Looking into the Blackbox of burnout
triggered career turnover intentions. J. Vocat. Behav. 2020,117, 103334. [CrossRef]
42.
Richardson, J.; McKenna, S. An exploration of career sustainability in and after professional sport. J. Vocat. Behav. 2020,
117, 103314. [CrossRef]
43.
Van den Groenendaal, S.M.E.; Akkermans, J.; Fleisher, C.; Kooij, D.T.; Poell, R.F.; Freese, C. A qualitative exploration of solo
self-employed workers’ career sustainability. J. Vocat. Behav. 2022,134, 103692. [CrossRef]
44.
Steinhardt, M.A.; Dolbier, C.L.; Gottlieb, N.H.; McCalister, K.T. The relationship between hardiness, supervisor support, group
cohesion, and job stress as predictors of job satisfaction. Am. J. Health Promot. 2023,17, 382–389. [CrossRef]
45. Maslach, C.; Schaufeli, W.B.; Leiter, M.P. Job burnout. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2001,52, 397–422. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
46.
Hakanen, J.J.; Schaufeli, W.B. Do burnout and work engagement predict depressive symptoms and life satisfaction? A three-wave
seven-year prospective study. J. Affect. Disord. 2012,141, 415–424. [CrossRef]
47.
Kim, H.; Ji, J.; Kao, D. Burnout and physical health among social workers: A three-year longitudinal study. Soc. Work 2011,56,
258–268. [CrossRef]
48.
Nisar, S.K.; Rasheed, M.I. Stress and performance: Investigating relationship between occupational stress, career satisfaction, and
job performance of police employees. J. Public Aff. 2019,20, 1986. [CrossRef]
49.
Taris, T.W. Is there a relationship between burnout and objective performance? A critical review of 16 studies. Work Stress 2006,
20, 316–334. [CrossRef]
50.
Bakker, A.B.; Schaufeli, W.B.; Leiter, M.P.; Taris, T.W. Work engagement: An emerging concept in occupational health psychology.
Work Stress 2008,22, 187–200. [CrossRef]
51.
Schaufeli, W.B.; Salanova, M.; González-Romá, V.; Bakker, A.B. The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample
confirmatory factor analytic approach. J. Happiness Stud. 2002,3, 71–92. [CrossRef]
52.
Orgambídez-Ramos, A.; Borrego-Alés, Y.; Mendoza-Sierra, I. Role stress and work engagement as antecedents of job satisfaction
in Spanish workers. J. Ind. Eng. Manag. 2014,7, 360–372. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 18 of 20
53.
Rich, B.L.; Lepine, J.A.; Crawford, E.R. Job engagement: Antecedents and effects on job performance. Acad. Manag. J. 2010,53,
617–635. [CrossRef]
54. Judge, T.A.; Kammeyer-Mueller, J.D. Job attitudes. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2012,63, 341–367. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
55.
Judge, T.A.; Cable, D.M.; Boudreau, J.W.; Bretz, R.D., Jr. An empirical investigation of the predictors of executive career success.
Pers. Psychol. 1995,48, 485–519. [CrossRef]
56.
Lounsbury, J.W.; Moffitt, L.; Gibson, L.W.; Drost, A.W.; Stevens, M. An investigation of personality traits in relation to job and
career satisfaction of information technology professionals. J. Inf. Technol. 2007,22, 174–183. [CrossRef]
57.
Wassermann, M.; Fujishiro, K.; Hoppe, A. The effect of perceived overqualification on job satisfaction and career satisfaction
among immigrants: Does host national identity matter? Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 2017,61, 77–87. [CrossRef]
58.
Chan, S.H.J.; Mai, X. The relation of career adaptability to satisfaction and turnover intentions. J. Vocat. Behav. 2015,89, 130–139.
[CrossRef]
59.
Joo, B.K.B.; Park, S. Career satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intention: The effects of goal orientation,
organizational learning culture and developmental feedback. Leadersh. Organ. Dev. J. 2010,31, 482–500. [CrossRef]
60.
Salleh, A.M.M.; Omar, K.; Aburumman, O.J.; Mat, N.H.N.; Almhairat, M.A. The impact of career planning and career satisfaction
on employee’s turnover intention. Entrep. Sustain. Issues 2020,8, 218–232. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
61.
Hsu, M.S.; Tsai, Y.Y. Career satisfaction and organizational commitment among hotel employees in Taiwan. J. Hotel Bus. Manag.
2014,3, 1000107. [CrossRef]
62.
Saridakis, G.; Lai, Y.; Muñoz Torres, R.I.; Gourlay, S. Exploring the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational
commitment: An instrumental variable approach. Int. J. Hum. Resour. Manag. 2020,31, 1739–1769. [CrossRef]
63.
Lounsbury, J.W.; Park, S.-H.; Sundstrom, E.; Williamson, J.M.; Pemberton, A.E. Personality, career satisfaction, and life satisfaction:
Test of a directional model. J. Career Assess. 2004,12, 395–406. [CrossRef]
64.
Hirschi, A.; Koen, J. Contemporary career orientations and career self-management: A review and integration. J. Vocat. Behav.
2021,126, 103505. [CrossRef]
65.
Majid, S.; Liming, Z.; Tong, S.; Raihana, S. Importance of soft skills for education and career success. Int. J. Cross-Discip. Subj.
Educ. 2012,2, 1037–1042. [CrossRef]
66.
Van Vianen, A.E.M. Person–environment fit: A review of its basic tenets. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2018,5, 75–101.
[CrossRef]
67.
Edwards, J.R.; Cable, D.M.; Williamson, I.O.; Lambert, L.S.; Shipp, A.J. The phenomenology of fit: Linking the person and
environment to the subjective experience of person-environment fit. J. Appl. Psychol. 2006,91, 802–827. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
68. Greenhaus, J.H. Employee mobility in the context of sustainable careers. Adv. Strateg. Manag. 2020,41, 105–108. [CrossRef]
69.
Hirschi, A.; Steiner, R.; Burmeister, A.; Johnston, C.S. A whole-life perspective of sustainable careers: The nature and consequences
of nonwork orientations. J. Vocat. Behav. 2020,117, 103319. [CrossRef]
70.
Dede, C. Comparing frameworks for 21st century skills. In 21st Century Skills: Rethinking How Students Learn; Bellance, J., Brandt,
R., Eds.; Solution Tree Press: Bloomington, IN, USA, 2010; pp. 51–76.
71.
P21. Framework for 21st Century Learning. 2019. Available online: http://static.battelleforkids.org/documents/p21/P21_
Framework_Brief.pdf (accessed on 5 February 2023).
72.
Pineda-Herrero, P.; Ciraso-Cali, A.; Armijos-Yambay, M. Employability and competences of pedagogy, psychology, and ed-
ucational psychology graduates: A comparative study of employers and graduates. Rev. Esp. Pedagog. 2018,76, 313–333.
[CrossRef]
73.
Lyonette, C.; Hunt, W.; Baldauf, B. Occupations and Skills of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences Graduates and Postgradu-
ates. Warwick Institute for Employment Research. 2017. Available online: http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/145142/ (accessed on
8 May 2023).
74. Kotsiou, A.; Fajardo-Tovar, D.D.; Cowhitt, T.; Major, L.; Wegerif, R. A scoping review of future skills frameworks. Ir. Educ. Stud.
2022,41, 171–186. [CrossRef]
75.
Yeung, S.; Lui, M.H.L.; Ross, F.; Murrells, T. Family carers in stroke care: Examining the relationship between problem-solving,
depression and general health. J. Clin. Nurs. 2007,16, 344–352. [CrossRef]
76.
Payne, N.; Kinman, G. Job demands, resources and work-related well-being in UK firefighters. Occup. Med. 2019,69, 604–609.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
77.
Lappalainen, P.; Saunila, M.; Ukko, J.; Rantala, T.; Rantanen, H. Managing performance through employee attributes: Implications
for employee engagement. Int. J. Prod. Perform. Manag. 2019,69, 2119–2137. [CrossRef]
78.
Guthrie, B. Graduate Destinations 2015: A Report on the Work and Study Outcomes of Recent Higher Education Graduates. Graduate
Careers Australia. 2016. Available online: https://www.nagcas.org.au/documents/item/402 (accessed on 18 September 2023).
79.
UNESCO-UIS. International Standard Classification of Education, Fields of Education and Training 2013 (ISCED-F 2013)—Detailed Field
Descriptions; UNESCO: Quebec, QC, Canada, 2015. [CrossRef]
80.
Keyton, J.; Caputo, J.M.; Ford, E.A.; Fu, R.; Leibowitz, S.A.; Liu, T.; Polasik, S.S.; Ghosh, P.; Wu, C. Investigating verbal workplace
communication behaviors. J. Bus. Commun. 2013,50, 152–169. [CrossRef]
81.
Monge, P.R.; Bachman, S.G.; Dillard, J.P.; Eisenberg, E.M. Communicator competence in the workplace: Model testing and scale
development. Ann. Int. Commun. Assoc. 1981,5, 501–527. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 19 of 20
82.
Hinyard, L.; Toomey, E.; Eliot, K.; Breitbach, A. Student perceptions of collaboration skills in an interprofessional context:
Development and initial validation of the self-assessed collaboration skills instrument. Eval. Health Prof. 2019,42, 450–472.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
83.
DiLiello, T.C.; Houghton, J.D. Creative potential and practised creativity: Identifying untapped creativity in organizations. Creat.
Innov. Manag. 2008,17, 37–46. [CrossRef]
84.
Laguía, A.; Moriano, J.A.; Gorgievski, M.J. A psychosocial study of self-perceived creativity and entrepreneurial intentions in a
sample of university students. Think. Ski. Creat. 2019,31, 44–57. [CrossRef]
85.
Stupple, E.J.; Maratos, F.A.; Elander, J.; Hunt, T.E.; Cheung, K.Y.; Aubeeluck, A.V. Development of the Critical Thinking Toolkit
(CriTT): A measure of student attitudes and beliefs about critical thinking. Think. Ski. Creat. 2019,23, 91–100. [CrossRef]
86.
Heppner, P.P.; Petersen, C.H. The development and implications of a personal problem-solving inventory. J. Couns. Psychol. 1982,
29, 66–75. [CrossRef]
87.
Kourmousi, N.; Xythali, V.; Theologitou, M.; Koutras, V. Validity and reliability of the Problem Solving Inventory (PSI) in a
nationwide sample of Greek educators. Soc. Sci. 2016,5, 25. [CrossRef]
88.
Dolbier, C.L.; Webster, J.A.; McCalister, K.T.; Mallon, M.W.; Steinhardt, M.A. Reliability and validity of a single-item measure of
job satisfaction. Am. J. Health Promot. 2005,19, 194–198. [CrossRef]
89.
Greenhaus, J.H.; Parasuraman, S.; Wormley, W.M. Effects of race on organizational experiences, job performance evaluations, and
career outcomes. Acad. Manag. J. 1990,33, 64–86. [CrossRef]
90.
Spurk, D.; Abele, A.E.; Volmer, J. The career satisfaction scale: Longitudinal measurement invariance and latent growth analysis.
J. Occup. Organ. Psychol. 2011,84, 315–326. [CrossRef]
91.
Schaufeli, W.B.; Shimazu, A.; Hakanen, J.; Salanova, M.; De Witte, H. An ultra-short measure for work engagement. Eur. J. Psychol.
Assess. 2019,35, 577–591. [CrossRef]
92.
Cullen, F.T.; Link, B.G.; Wolfe, N.T.; Frank, J. The social dimensions of police officer stress. Justice Q. 1989,2, 507–533. Available
online: https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/jquart2&i=529 (accessed on 8 July 2022).
93.
Ellison, J.M.; Caudill, J.W. Working on local time: Testing the job-demand-control-support model of stress with jail officers. J.
Crim. Justice 2020,70, 101717. [CrossRef]
94.
Hadžibajramovi´c, E.; Schaufeli, W.; De Witte, H. Shortening of the Burnout Assessment Tool (BAT)—From 23 to 12 items using
content and Rasch analysis. BMC Public Health 2022,22, 560. [CrossRef]
95.
Goodman, S.A.; Svyantek, D.J. Person–organization fit and contextual performance: Do shared values matter? J. Vocat. Behav.
1999,55, 254–275. [CrossRef]
96. Gorgievski, M.J.; Bakker, A.B.; Schaufeli, W.B. Work engagement and workaholism: Comparing the self-employed and salaried
employees. J. Posit. Psychol. 2010,5, 83–96. [CrossRef]
97.
Gómez-Urquiza, J.L.; Vargas, C.; De la Fuente, E.I.; Fernández-Castillo, R.; Cañadas-De la Fuente, G.A. Age as a risk factor for
burnout syndrome in nursing professionals: A meta-analytic study. Res. Nurs. Health 2017,40, 99–110. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
98.
Shirom, A.; Nirel, N.; Vinokur, A.D. Work hours and caseload as predictors of physician burnout: The mediating effects by
perceived workload and by autonomy. Appl. Psychol. 2010,59, 539–565. [CrossRef]
99.
Bentler, P.M. On the fit of models to covariances and methodology to the Bulletin. Psychol. Bull. 1992,112, 400–404. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
100.
Hu, L.-T.; Bentler, P.M. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives.
Struct. Equ. Model. Multidiscip. J. 1999,6, 1–55. [CrossRef]
101.
Browne, M.W.; Cudeck, R. Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In Testing Structural Equation Models; Bollen, K.A., Long, J.S.,
Eds.; SAGE Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 1993; pp. 136–162.
102.
MacCallum, R.C.; Browne, M.W.; Sugawara, H.M. Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure
modeling. Psychol. Methods 1996,1, 130. [CrossRef]
103.
Marsh, H.W.; Lüdtke, O.; Trautwein, U.; Morin, A.J. Classical latent profile analysis of academic self-concept dimensions: Synergy
of person-and variable-centered approaches to theoretical models of self-concept. Struct. Equ. Model. A Multidiscip. J. 2009,16,
191–225. [CrossRef]
104.
Hickendorff, M.; Edelsbrunner, P.A.; McMullen, J.; Schneider, M.; Trezise, K. Informative tools for characterizing individual
differences in learning: Latent class, latent profile, and latent transition analysis. Learn. Individ. Differ. 2018,66, 4–15. [CrossRef]
105.
Spurk, D.; Hirschi, A.; Wang, M.; Valero, D.; Kauffeld, S. Latent profile analysis: A review and “how to” guide of its application
within vocational behavior research. J. Vocat. Behav. 2020,120, 103445. [CrossRef]
106.
Ferguson, S.L.; Moore, E.W.G.; Hull, D.M. Finding latent groups in observed data: A primer on latent profile analysis in Mplus
for applied researchers. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 2020,44, 458–468. [CrossRef]
107.
Tein, J.Y.; Coxe, S.; Cham, H. Statistical power to detect the correct number of classes in latent profile analysis. Struct. Equ. Model.
Multidiscip. J. 2013,20, 640–657. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
108.
Celeux, G.; Soromenho, G. An entropy criterion for assessing the number of clusters in a mixture model. J. Classif. 1996,13,
195–212. [CrossRef]
109.
Williams, L.J.; O’Boyle, E.H., Jr. Measurement models for linking latent variables and indicators: A review of human resource
management research using parcels. Hum. Resour. Manag. Rev. 2008,18, 233–242. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2024,16, 3409 20 of 20
110.
Little, T.; Rioux, C.; Odejimi, O.; Stickley, Z. Parceling in Structural Equation Modeling: A Comprehensive Introduction for Developmental
Scientists; Elements in Research Methods for Developmental Science; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2022.
[CrossRef]
111.
Maricu
t
,
oiu, L.P.; Sulea, C.; Iancu, A. Work engagement or burnout: Which comes first? A meta-analysis of longitudinal evidence.
Burn. Res. 2017,5, 35–43. [CrossRef]
112.
Song, X.; Xiang, M.; Liu, Y.; Yu, C. Relationship between job satisfaction and burnout based on a structural equation model.
J. Occup. Environ. Med. 2020,62, e725–e731. [CrossRef]
113.
Manzoor, S.R.; Ullah, H.; Hussain, M.; Ahmad, Z.M. Effect of teamwork on employee performance. Int. J. Learn. Dev. 2011,1,
110–126. [CrossRef]
114.
Hanaysha, J. Testing the effects of employee empowerment, teamwork, and employee training on employee productivity in
higher education sector. Int. J. Learn. Dev. 2016,6, 164–178. [CrossRef]
115.
Hon, A.H. Does job creativity requirement improve service performance? A multilevel analysis of work stress and service
environment. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 2013,35, 161–170. [CrossRef]
116.
Kryshtanovych, M.; Akimova, L.; Akimov, O.; Parkhomenko-Kutsevil, O.; Omarov, A. Features of creative burnout among
educational workers in public administration system. Creat. Stud. 2022,15, 116–129. [CrossRef]
117.
Henderson, H.M.; Kane, S.J.; Zabelina, D.L.; Veilleux, J.C. Creativity to prompt willpower: Feeling more creative predicts
subsequent activated positive affect and increased willpower in daily life. Psychol. Aesthet. Creat. Arts 2023. [CrossRef]
118.
Ford, T.E.; Lappi, S.K.; Holden, C.J. Personality, humor styles and happiness: Happy people have positive humor styles. Eur. J.
Psychol. 2016,12, 320–337. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
119.
Sitra, A.; Abdullah, A. TESL trainee practitioners’ self perception of their personality traits and verbal communication skills. Int.
J. Appl. Linguist. Engl. Lit. 2017,6, 9–18. [CrossRef]
120.
Curado, C.; Gonçalves, T.; Ribeiro, C. Validating sustainable career indicators: A case study in a European energy company.
Merits 2023,3, 230–247. [CrossRef]
121.
De Maat, D.A.; Lucassen, N.; Shiner, R.L.; Prinzie, P. A person-centered approach to resilience and vulnerability in emerging
adulthood: Predictions from parenting and personality in adolescence. Dev. Psychopathol. 2023,35, 1913–1928. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
122. Wohl, H. Innovation and creativity in creative industries. Sociol. Compass 2022,16, 12956. [CrossRef]
123.
Allen, J.; Van der Velden, R. The Role of Self-Assessment in Measuring Skills; ROA, REFLEX Working Paper Series No. 2ROA;
External Reports. 2005. Available online: https://cris.maastrichtuniversity.nl/en/publications/the-role-of-self-assessment- in-
measuring-skills (accessed on 20 January 2024).
124.
Zlatkin-Troitschanskaia, O.; Shavelson, R.J.; Kuhn, C. The international state of research on measurement of competency in higher
education. Stud. High. Educ. 2015,40, 393–411. [CrossRef]
125.
Wabba, M.A.; House, R.J. Expectancy theory in work and motivation: Some logical and methodological issues. Hum. Relat. 1974,
27, 121–147. [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
