Oxygen of Democracy: Exploring the Status of Journalists as Watchdogs of Good Governance in Nigeria

Abstract

The watchdog role of journalists is enshrined in Chapter II, Section 22 of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria as amended. It is, therefore, the constitutional role of the mass media to act as a watchdog for good governance by ensuring that government is responsible and accountable to the people. Sadly, several factors inhibit journalists from performing this constitutionally assigned duty. This paper examines how journalists rate their role as the watchdog of society, and how they score government on accountability. Using the Social Responsibility Theory, this quantitative paper employed an online questionnaire (Google Forms) as a research instrument to generate data from 410 respondents. The study employed a quantitative survey as previous and current media practitioners were chosen from the 6 geopolitical zones of Nigeria through a purposive sampling technique. The study demonstrates that Nigerian journalists rate their role as watchdogs of good governance, high. This study therefore recommends that being watchdogs for good governance in Nigeria, journalists should guard and reinforce the professional ethics of journalism practice.

Full text

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Abstract
The watchdog role of journalists is enshrined in Chapter II, Section 22 of the 1999 Constitution of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria as amended. It is, therefore, the constitutional role of the mass media to act
as a watchdog for good governance by ensuring that government is responsible and accountable to the
people. Sadly, several factors inhibit journalists from performing this constitutionally assigned duty. This
paper examines how journalists rate their role as the watchdog of society, and how they score government
on accountability. Using the Social Responsibility Theory, this quantitative paper employed an online
questionnaire (Google Forms) as a research instrument to generate data from 410 respondents. The study
employed a quantitative survey as previous and current media practitioners were chosen from the 6
geopolitical zones of Nigeria through a purposive sampling technique. The study demonstrates that
Nigerian journalists rate their role as watchdogs of good governance, high. This study therefore
recommends that being watchdogs for good governance in Nigeria, journalists should guard and reinforce
the professional ethics of journalism practice.
Keywords: Good Governance, Mass Media, Nigeria, Journalists, Watchdog
INTRODUCTION
In recent times more than ever, experts have lauded the critical role of the media in informing, entertaining
and mobilising citizens for change. The media have metamorphosed into a major part of our lives.
Arguably, very few institutions affect human beings more than the media. Many people rely on the media
for daily news, information about the world, guidance on healthy living, job search, weather forecast and
much more. The influence of the media in human lives is so strong that some scholars describe this
PAPER/AAU/EJOC/23AUG0004
Received: 01 August 2023
Accepted: 08 October 2023
First Published: Oct. – Dec. 2023
*Corresponding author:
OKOCHA Desmond Onyemechi,
PhD
Department of Mass
Communication
Bingham University, Nasarawa
State, Nigeria
Email: desmonddoo@yahoo.com
CAVEAT: Author(s) are solely
responsible for plagiarism and other
ethical and legal infractions that
may be caused by this paper
publication.
EKPOMA JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION
(EJoC)
Vol. 1, No. 1, 2023
OXYGEN OF DEMOCRACY: EXPLORING THE STATUS OF
JOURNALISTS AS WATCHDOGS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE IN
NIGERIA
OKOCHA Desmond Onyemechi, PhD
Department of Mass Communication
Bingham University, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
Email: desmonddoo@yahoo.com
OKEREAFOR Stanley Chukwuemeka
Department of Mass Communication
Bingham University, Karu, Nasarawa State, Nigeria.
Email: scokereafor@gmail.com
DYIKUK Justine John
PhD Candidate, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom and
Lecturer, Department of Mass Communication
University Jos, Nigeria.
Email: justinejohndyikuk@gmail.com

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generation as the “media generation” (Okereafor, 2022). The presence of the media almost invades us –,
radio, television, film, DVDs, VCRs, cell phones, answering machines, and fax machines have become
our technological friends. It appears that we are “virtually” followed by the Internet. Indeed, media have
become part of our lives, and we will never be able to reverse this fact (West and Turner, 2010).
The media plays a critical role in the fight against corruption; correcting injustice and promoting good
governance. The constitutions of various countries and other official documents capture this all-important
Fourth Estate of the Realm, as the media is referred to. In the view of Hamada (2020), the very structure,
practice, autonomy, ethical requirements, and outputs of journalism help it to fight corruption, all of which
also reveal differences across geographies. From this view-point, good governance is invariably promoted
by journalism. Since the return to democracy in Nigeria in 1999, with its relatively free media occasioned
by democratic governance, there have been many reports of corruption by government officials. These
leaks have led to some punishments for perpetrators, including dismissal from service. Unfortunately, an
insignificant number of convictions have been secured in the courts.
Celebrated corruption cases by government officials uncovered by the media or accentuated by media
reports abound. In an April 26, 2015, report in Premium Times titled, “Top 10 Corruption Scandals
Nigeria’s National Assembly Hasn’t Resolved,” the online newspaper listed ten “huge misgovernance and
corruption issues” that were yet unresolved. They include:
1. The Maina Pension Scam: There was a probe into pension funds that affected about 141,790
pensioners. Abdulrasheed Maina, the Chairman of the Pension Reform Task Team, was accused
of looting N195billion.
The Senate set up a committee to investigate the matter. During the investigation, Mr. Maina
alleged that Aloysius Etuk, representing Akwa Ibom State, demanded $100,000 from him as a
bribe. A former director of pension in the office of the Head of Service of the Federation, Sani
Shuaibu Teidi, who was prosecuted along with 31 others, also alleged that Mr. Etuk and other
members of the committee collected a bribe of N3 billion from him. Although the Senate seemed
furious about the allegation, it did not take decisive steps to investigate. The National Assembly
also did not push the executive hard enough to implement its report on the pension scam and punish
offenders.
2. Police Pension Fund Fraud: Five people, including a former Director of the Police Pension Fund,
Esai Dangabar, were accused of misusing N32.8 billion from the Police Pension Fund. Mr.
Dangabar accused some committee members of the Senate of benefiting from the loot. The Senate
denied the allegation without ordering an investigation. The world may never know whether the
Senate Joint Committee on Establishment and Public Service Matter, and State and Local
Government Affairs indeed took bribes from the pension thieves.

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3. Stella Oduah: Before her removal as Aviation Minister, Stella Oduah was embroiled in a N255
million armoured car scandal. She was accused of abusing her office by compelling an agency
under her ministry to buy her expensive cars. The House of Representatives has so far failed to
release a detailed report of its investigation into the matter. Although Ms. Oduah was later dropped
as a Minister, other officials involved in the matter remained untouched to date.
Recently, a Federal High Court in Abuja granted Media Rights Agenda (MRA) leave to apply for
an order to compel the House to furnish it with transcripts of the proceedings of the House
Committee on Aviation at the hearing of the Committee on the procurement of the two bulletproof
BMW cars by the Nigerian Civil Aviation Authority (NCAA) through Messrs Coscharis Motors
Limited.
4. Farouk Lawan: House of Representatives member, Farouk Lawan, was caught on tape collecting
$620,000 out of a $3m bribe while his committee investigated the fuel subsidy scam. He was seen
collecting the money from oil mogul, Femi Otedola. The House of Representatives referred the
bribery allegation to its committee on ethics. But no report has been issued to date (Premium
Times, 2015).
In exposing these cases, the media played important roles in shaping public opinion and mass action
against these corruption cases. Only recently, Nigeria’s Accountant-General of the Federation, Ahmed
Idris was involved in money laundering and diversion of public funds allegations to the tune of N80
billion. He was relieved of his position by the Federal Government on the 18th of May, 2022, detained and
granted bail while investigations continue (Daily Post, 2022).
The government’s anti-corruption agencies, especially the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission
(EFCC), have learned how to collaborate with the media to expose high-level corruption cases, and
importantly, get public sympathy and buy-in in the fight against corruption. It is important to also add that
the collaboration between the EFCC and the media has also led to what people call a "media trial” - a
situation where convictable evidence against an accused is limited, yet the anti-corruption agency goes to
press to accuse and expose the suspect and the suspected crimes, only for the courts to throw out such
cases. Media-trial can also be described as a media process that declares an accused guilty, but not before
the law courts. According to Shalushravansingh (2022) in Media Trial and its Impact on Evidence, media
trial or prosecution is the practice of proclaiming an accused guilty without due judicial process. Media
trials are pre-judicial, dehumanising, abuse of court processes and place a higher burden of proof on the
accused.
This study, therefore, investigated how Nigerian journalists rated their watchdog roles in promoting good
governance, and how the nation is scored in good governance based on the eight characteristics of good

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governance as defined by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
(UNESCAP) adopted by this research.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
1. To investigate how Nigerian journalists rate their role as watchdog of good governance in the country.
2. To examine the extent to which journalists score Nigeria based on the eight variables of good
governance.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This study adopts the Social Responsibility Theory. The Social Responsibility Theory of the press which
is associated with the 1949 United States "Commission of the Freedom of Press" allows for a free press
without any censorship but at the same time, it encourages that the content of the press should be discussed
in the public panel and media should accept any obligation from public interference or professional self-
regulations or both (Communication Theory, 2022).
The Social Responsibility Media Theory was propounded in 1956 by F. S. Siebert, T. B. Paterson and W.
Schramm. The major premise of the theory is that freedom carries concomitant obligations, and the press,
which enjoys a privileged position under the government, is obliged to be responsible to society for
carrying out certain essential functions of mass communication. Though it encourages total freedom of
the press without censorship, it, however, states that the media should be regulated according to social
responsibilities and external controls. Content is also filtered through public obligation and interference.
After the emergence of this theory, professionalism in the media started to be taken seriously (Ineji, Nkanu
and Okoi, 2019). The theory holds the press responsible for all publications made which makes the
journalist socially responsible for all publications made. This theory places a burden on media
practitioners.
Baran and Davis (2012) in analysing the social responsibility theory posit that the theory highlights the
necessity for a free and autonomous media capable of evaluating other social and government
establishments to provide unbiased news reports. The scholars argue that social responsibility theory’s
most pioneering feature is the call for a responsible media necessary for furthering beneficial “Great
Communities”. It specified that the media should do this by prioritizing cultural pluralism, becoming the
voice of all the people not just elite groups who dominate national, regional, or local culture.
Critics of the theory including Bajracharya (2018) argue that social responsibility and ethics are ethically
binding. They therefore posit that legal restrictions on media that is working based on the “principle of
responsibility” may not be appropriate as laws are undemocratic.

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Obagwu & Idris (2019) in outlining assumptions from Social Responsibility Theory argue that media
practitioners are required to be professional by reporting truthful, balanced, and complete reports of
happenings to assist the public in getting informed without encumbrances from extraneous factors. These
assumptions hold the media and its practitioners responsible for truthfully and accurately reporting
government activities and exposing bad governance practices. It is a sacred obligation of the media to the
society. The principles and assumptions of this theory make it relevant to this article.
Since this study investigated the rating of the watchdog roles of the Nigerian journalists as it relates to
good governance and how well or not Nigeria is scored on good governance variables, Social
Responsibility Theory came to bear as the theory underscored the importance of a free and autonomous
press that is capable of appraising other societal and government establishments to deliver unbiased news
reports and promote "Great Communities. It said that the media should do this by prioritizing cultural
pluralism while considering national, regional and local groups and interests. Good governance requires
the existence of checks and balances or accountability which the media aptly provides.
CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION
Democracy
There are different forms of government through which political authority is expressed within a
geographic location. These include monarchy, socialism, federalism, communism, oligarchy, autocracy
and democracy amongst others, with some rooted in the esoteric (Oklahoma Historical Society, 2023,
Dahl, 1998, Boin and Lodge, 2008).
Explaining democracy, which by the way does not have a consensus definition, would probably be
incomplete without referencing the classical speech about this form of government delivered by President
Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War on November 19, 1863. In his Gettysburg Speech
delivered at the consecration of the Soldiers National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, Lincoln
posited that "...this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the
people, by the people, for the people (democracy), shall not perish from the earth." This epic description
of democracy theorises that power, legality, authority and authenticity of government rest on the people
or governed. On a general note, democracy is described by scholars as a form of government that
encourages the exercise of power by the people, who run the affairs of the state either directly or through
validly elected representatives. Citizens play crucial roles in a democracy, as their voices dictate the tide
(Dahl, 1998, Nwogu, 2015).

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There are several elements which are considered necessary for a system of government to be considered
or classified as a democracy or democratic. They include the rule of law, civil society and civic
participation, accountability and transparency, free and fair elections, popular sovereignty, political
equality, civil liberties and human rights, pluralism and political pluralism. The presence of these features
and the degree to which they exist explain why there are different variants of democracy (Jarvie and
Milford, 2006, Dahl, 1989, Diamond, 2004, Nwogu, 2015).
Journalist
The term “Journalist” has been variously defined. Talley (2022) argues that journalists tell stories. With
their reports and stories, they talk about everything that cuts across various spheres of human endeavour.
A major objective of a journalist's output is to enable the audience to make informed decisions.
Oller Alonso, Shapiro, Andresen, Anika, De Maio, Hamada, Hanusch, Hollings, Kolbeins, Hughes,
Manda, Mbozi, and Spyridou, (2019), in Worlds of Journalism Study (WJS) define a journalist as a person
who constantly hunts, pursues, examines, infers, and situates factual information about present events
(news) across several channels, including text, audio, and pictorial formats. This is done as part of the
process of disseminating this information to a wider audience than those originally conversant with it, and
without an expectation of private gain from the result of this information being communal. Their work
may cover an extensive range of subjects or "beats," (as is called by practitioners) such as arts, culture,
entertainment, politics, business, finance, economy, crime, sports, or entertainment. Journalists can be
associated with one or more news organizations or may work independently as freelancers.
In defining a journalist, the Worlds of Journalism Study (WJS, 2019) made two important distinctions of
a journalist – professional and peripheral:
i. Professional journalist: Someone who meets the definition of journalist and who considers their activity,
income, or time as a journalist to be their main or most important occupation, whether economically,
because it provides financial sustainability, or symbolically, in that it provides social recognition or
professional status.
ii. Peripheral journalist: Someone whose frequent or regular work includes providing intentionally
accurate news content without expectation of deriving personal benefit as a direct consequence of this
information being made available, but who does not otherwise fully meet the definition of professional
journalist. This class includes full-time and part-time workers as well as unpaid interns and others whose
sense of “identity” or “belonging” makes them consider themselves as journalists. It may include people
who work exclusively in spaces at the margins of conventional news dissemination, such as microblogging
platforms, messenger apps, and other media spaces that provide social networking, video sharing or news

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aggregation, or that experiment with new practices and models of doing news, but it should also include,
for example, volunteers at more long-standing outlets, such as community radio stations.
Due to their “innate ambiguity”, the WJS in the earlier quoted report advised the avoidance of the
following concepts:
i. Citizen (or amateur) journalists (they are better referred to as Peripheral Journalist)
ii. Mainstream journalists/media (it is sometimes an antonym for “citizen journalists” or “alternative
media,” and “mainstream media” is often associated with pejorative judgments against news outlets or
organizations of which the speaker disapproves for ideological reasons that can vary dramatically).
iii. Alternative media/platforms (sometimes used to connote non-traditional approaches to news...the
sheer breadth and ambiguity of the term make it pragmatically indefinable for methodological purposes).
iv. From the above definitions of a journalist, a constant thread in the definitions is the word “news”. Still
quoting Oller Alonso et al. (2019) in WJS, the news is defined as "subject matter that consists of factual
information about current affairs, analysis of or commentary upon that information, or any combination
thereof." For this study, the WJS definition of a journalist was adopted.
Good Governance
For this paper, (good) governance and the eight characteristics of good governance as defined by the
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) will be adopted.
UNESCAP (2009:1) defines governance as:
The process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not
implemented). Governance can be used in several contexts such as corporate governance,
international governance, national governance and local governance…. The government is one
of the actors in governance. Other actors involved in governance vary depending on the level of
government that is under discussion. In rural areas, for example, other actors may include
influential landlords, associations of peasant farmers, cooperatives, NGOs, research institutes,
religious leaders, finance institutions political parties, the military etc. The situation in urban
areas is much more complex. Actors in urban areas include urban elite, urban poor, urban middle
class, elected local officials and the media. At the national level, in addition to the above actors,
media, lobbyists, international donors, multi-national corporations, etc. may play a role in
decision-making or in influencing the decision-making process. All actors other than the
government and the military are grouped as part of the "civil society".
Good governance is understood as including some form of democratic government. Governance will have
to include a minimum level of democracy to be ‘good.’ Good governance thus requires the existence of
checks and balances (horizontal accountability), participation and elections (vertical accountability), and
respect for basic human rights (which include political rights) (Amundsen, 2010).
Good governance from the above definition would, therefore, suppose that the governance process meets
the needs of society and efficiently utilises public resources to meet those needs. The term governance is

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multi-sectoral, applicable to different sectors and environments, whether private or public. It is also
instructive to note that the term government, in the sense of elected and appointed officials, is only an
actor in the concept of governance. In a general sense, everyone is a critical player in governance, and
should therefore be seen thus.
Like UNESCAP, the World Bank Group through the World Governance Indicators has variables for
measuring or assessing good governance. These variables are (a) Voice and Accountability, (b) Political
Stability and Absence of Violence/Terrorism, (c) Government Effectiveness, (d) Regulatory Quality, (e)
Rule of Law and (f) Control of Corruption (World Bank, 2022).
UNESCAP (2009:1) lists eight features of (good) governance, which also serve as parameters for
measuring performance or not in (good or bad) governance. These essential components are:
 Participation: Requires that all groups have direct or representative access to the systems of
government.
 Rule of law: Exemplified by impartial legal systems that protect the human rights and civil
liberties of all citizens, particularly minorities.
 Transparency: This means that citizens understand and have access to the means and manner in
which decisions are made.
 Responsiveness: Involves that institutions respond to their stakeholders within a reasonable time
frame.
 Consensus-oriented: This is demonstrated by an agenda that seeks to mediate between the many
different needs, perspectives, and expectations of a diverse citizenry.
 Equity and inclusiveness: Depends on ensuring that all the members of a community feel
included and empowered to improve or maintain their well-being.
 Effectiveness and efficiency: This is developed through the sustainable use of resources to meet
the needs of society.
 Accountability: Refers to institutions being ultimately accountable to the people and one another.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The Debate on Good Governance in Nigeria
Good governance in Nigeria is of interest to many stakeholders, including citizens, international
development partners, and the larger international community. With a current population of 216,281,502
as of June 29, 2022, based on Worldometer (2022) elaboration of the latest United Nations data, and a
population equivalent to 2.64% of the total world population, ranking number 7 in the list of countries
(and dependencies) by population, having good governance in Nigeria is critical. Good governance is

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important to give a voice to the larger percentage of the population, ensure enforcement of human rights,
and be accountable for the running of government that ensures the welfare and well-being of citizens.
Good governance has also been indicated in the effective utilisation of natural and human resources, while
bad governance is the reverse. Bad governance manifests in Nigeria’s commonwealth (mis)management.
Nigeria is heavily affected by the so-called ‘resource curse’ despite an estimated USD 400 billion in oil
income since independence in 1960, the country has experienced…a very poor economic development,
and it has a population more impoverished now than it was 50 years ago (Amundsen, 2010).
Oil has profoundly influenced the political economy of Nigeria, and most observers claim Nigeria is ‘oil-
cursed’. This is due to Nigeria’s very poor economic development, very low Human Development Index
(HDI), and persistent governance problems including unfathomable corruption and societal strife, despite
substantial oil incomes over many years (Sachs & Warner 2001, p. 828; Karl 2003, p. 9; Mehlum et al..
2006, p. 1117; Humphreys et al.. 2007, p. 94). Despite being a member of OPEC with vast oil resources
the majority of its population, Nigeria is in extreme poverty…Corruption, violence, waste, and
government ineptitude have all led to its lack of success and growth (Peterson, 2012).
Bad governance has taken a toll on Nigeria’s national development and greatly elevated corruption and
maladministration. Commenting on this issue, Human Rights Watch (HRW, 2007) states that several
Western envoys approximate that at least between USD 4 billion to USD 8 billion per year was lost to
corruption by Nigeria over the two terms of eight years of Obasanjo's government. This is massive. In a
release at the 6th National Seminar on Economic Crime titled "Anti-Corruption Climate Change: It Started
in Nigeria" by the UNODC in 2007, it was stated that "Nigeria lost billions of dollars - the livelihoods of
millions of people - to foreign havens, stolen and expatriated by corrupt leaders. By some estimates close
to US $400 billion was stolen between 1960 and 1999. Sani Abacha alone is estimated to have stolen the
equivalent of 2 - 3 per cent of the country's GDP for every year that he was President".
The above figures embezzled through corruption are staggering, especially considering that the country
is infrastructure deficient and has a large percentage of its population living below the poverty line.
According to a new World Bank (2022) report, “A Better Future for All Nigerians: Nigeria Poverty
Assessment 2022”, “as many as 4 in 10 Nigerians live below the national poverty line. Many Nigerians –
especially in the country’s north – also lack education and access to basic infrastructure, such as electricity,
safe drinking water, and improved sanitation”.
Non-governmental organisations and civil society organisations, including journalists, noted as the
‘Media’ in this study have important roles to play in promoting good governance by performing traditional

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functions of broadcasting independent news and holding governance actors accountable for their actions
and inactions.
The Role of the Media in Promoting Good Governance
The role of the media in reporting objective news, demanding accountability from governments at national
and sub-national levels and shaping public opinion are amongst the most pressing concerns of today’s
journalists. Quoting Gandhi in his autobiography published by Beacon Press (1993), a fundamental
objective of a newspaper (media) is to appreciate and give voice to popular feelings; added to this is the
need to awaken among the public feelings that are required (national development) and lastly to
courageously unmask common flaws and shortcomings. Ghandi’s statement accentuates the role and
importance of the media in promoting free speech and good governance. Agreeing with this position,
Yadav (2001) postulates that media can enlighten the public and give them the voice to speak and be
heard. Continuing, the scholar posits that the essence of democracy is the governed right to know the
workings of leadership, especially as the decisions impact on the people's life, liberty, freedom and
possessions. The importance and influence of the media in a country’s national life have, therefore,
informed efforts to control and monitor the media (Udomisor, 2013).
Discharging this important role of promoting good governance has its challenges. Journalists’ efforts at
promoting good governance are hampered by the growing distrust by the general population of sections
of the media perceived as “pro-government” or “government-media,” or the government structure itself.
The media therefore is in a continuous battle to prove its credibility and impartiality in discussing matters
that affect the general populace.
The Challenge of Repositioning Journalism as a Mechanism of Good Governance
Repositioning journalism as a mechanism of good governance is confronted by several factors, some
arising from the long misuse of the word "journalist,” while others are unethical issues. It is interesting to
note that there are still some disagreements on the definition of the term, journalist. Other challenges in
repositioning journalism as a mechanism of good governance include the commercialisation of the
profession arising from media ownership democratisation due to the rise in democracy, capitalism and
communication technology. Media ownership liberalisation and the availability and access to
communication technology have led to the influx of non and semi-professionals, who regard themselves
as core professional journalists.
Several factors are responsible for the unethical concerns in journalism practice, which invariably affect
the repositioning of journalism as a mechanism of good governance. According to Galadima and Enabu
as cited by Asemah these include, “money, failure of religion, clash of interest, poor economy, lack of

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facilities, ownership of media, African culture of reciprocal gesture, knowledge of the power of the press,
love for favours and the love for sensation” (2009, p. 404).
Ineji, Nkanu, and Okoi (2019) also listed some unethical concerns among journalists worthy of note. They
include:
 Pressure: Pressure here has been understood as any force or influence which makes a journalist
feel strongly compelled to act in a manner desirable to the source of such force or influence.
Pressure can be internal or external
 Poor Remuneration: A poorly paid journalist is likely to be unethical, and might collect brown
envelopes, and gifts and even embark on moonlighting to make ends meet.
 Greed: It is certain that no matter the amount of money that a greedy man has, he is not satisfied
so as a result of this, some journalists go against the ethics of journalism they have subscribed
to uphold
 Unprofessionalism: This is occasioned by a lack of professional training on the part of the
journalist who is susceptible to engaging in unethical practices.
 Lack of Principles: Journalists who lack principles are the ones who do anything provided such
practices are in their interests.
METHODOLOGY
This is a quantitative study. The research instrument was an online questionnaire (Google Forms), with
several questions designed to collect information and data from respondents. The Google Form was
created and distributed to respondents between June 22, 2022, and November 24, 2022.
The study population consisted of journalists and other media practitioners such as media programme
producers, columnists, and on-air personalities who practice in Nigeria and are registered with the
Nigerian Union of Journalists, Nigerian Guild of Editors and other professional media bodies. With its
non-probability sample technique, purposive sampling was employed for this study. This permitted the
researchers to get registered journalists with the Nigerian Union of Journalists across Nigeria. The many
advantages of purposive sampling were also considered in its use including reaching difficult-to-access
populations and relatively low cost in obtaining primary data. It is also important to note that the many
advantages of purposive sampling are also the disadvantages of having bias which may be because of
oversampling a particular network of practitioners and having respondents who may hesitate to provide
details of colleagues and asking them to have ethical implications.

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According to the Nigerian Union of Journalists, the total number of registered journalists in Nigeria was
twenty thousand eight hundred and sixty-eight (20,868) as of July 6, 2021 (Okocha and Ola-Akuma,
2022). The sample size (N - 410) was drawn from former and practising journalists and media practitioners
and was purposely sampled. The sample size of 410 was considered using a digital sample size calculator
that is comparable to Cochran's formula, with a confidence level of 95% and a margin of error of 5%. As
a result, 378 or more surveys were required to achieve a confidence level of 95%, implying that the real
value is within 5% of the measured/surveyed value. To accommodate the peculiarities of the geopolitical
zones, the researcher utilised 410 sample-size replies.
Considering the large area and population to be covered, the data collection was virtually conducted. The
electronic survey made it possible to reach respondents in all the geopolitical zones of Nigeria using the
Internet and other digital communication tools. To moderate the limitations of purposive sampling, the
respondents were purposively selected from the 6 geopolitical zones of Nigeria: North Central (NC),
North East (NE), North West (NW), South West (SW), South-South (SS) and South East (SE). The
location of the journalists who were surveyed was captured on the Google form administered to
respondents (see appendix for questionnaire). The researchers deliberately targeted journalists in various
locations to achieve representation (see Table 3). The results, therefore, were thoughts and opinions from
all the zones.
RESULTS
To collect data on the research focus, an online questionnaire was designed, and the results were grouped
and presented according to the research's central questions.
The collected data was represented using tables.
Table 1: Disaggregation by gender
Gender
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Male
258
62.9
Female
152
37.1
Total
410
100
Source: Field Study, 2022
The table above shows the percentage of respondents based on gender category, with 152 females
accounting for 37.1% of the total and 258 males representing 62.9%.

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Table 2: Age range of survey respondents
Age Range
Frequency
Percentage (%)
38-47
149
36.3
48-57
112
27.3
28-37
82
20
18-27
35
8.5
58 and above
32
7.8
Total
410
100
Source: Field Study, 2022
The age range of participants is represented above. Of the 410 respondents, 35 (8.5%) respondents were
between 18 and 27, while 82 (20%) of the respondents were between the ages of 28 and 37. 149 (36.3%)
respondents fell between the ages of 38 and 47, and 27.3% (112) respondents were between 48 and 57. A
total of 32 (7.8%) respondents were 58 and above.
Table 3: Showing disaggregation by Nigeria’s geopolitical zones
Geopolitical Zones
Frequency
Percentage (%)
North Central
152
37.1
North East
57
13.9
North West
53
12.9
South South
52
12.7
South West
49
12
South East
47
11.5
Total
410
100
Source: Field Study, 2022
The number of respondents from Nigeria's six geopolitical zones is represented in the table above. The
highest were from the North Central with a total of 152 (37.1%). This was followed by respondents from
the North East who accounted for 57 (13.9%) respondents. Respondents from the North West were 53
(12.9%), while the South East region accounted for 11.5% (47). South South region accounted for 12.7%
(52) while 12% (49) were from the South West region.

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Table 4: Educational qualification of respondents
Educational Level
Frequency
Percentage (%)
BA/BSC/HND
162
39.5
MA/MSc/Med
109
26.6
OND
70
17.1
Others
57
13.9
PhD
12
2.9
Total
410
100
Source: Field Study, 2022
Table 4 shows the educational level of the respondents. Out of the 410 respondents, 12 (2.9%) had a Ph.D,
26.6% (109) had Masters, while the highest educational level category was a Bachelor's degree with 162
(39.5%) respondents. OND holders were 17.1% (70) respondents and Others were 57 (13.9%). Others
may include O-level certificates and trade certificate holders.
Table 5: Showing disaggregation of the different areas of journalism practice.
Practice Areas
Frequency
Percentage (%)
News/Politics/Current Affairs
124
30.2
Development
83
20.2
Feature/Opinion
71
17.3
Sports
42
10.2
Health
41
10
Investigative/Crime
29
7.1
Others
20
4.9
Total
410
100
Source: Field Study, 2022
The various areas of journalism practice by respondents are captured above. The highest area of practice
is News/Politics/Current Affairs with 124 (30.2%) respondents, while the least is Others with 20 (4.9%)
respondents. Others include respondents who listed PR/Advertising, Finance and Environment as their
areas of practice. 83 (20.2%) respondents listed Development Journalism as their practice area, 71 (17.3%)
listed Feature/Opinion, 42 (10.2%) respondents listed Sports, and 41 (10%) listed Health. Further, 29
(7.1%) respondents listed Investigative/Crime as their area of practice.

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Table 6: Media platform
Media Platform of Operation
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Online/Digital (Blogs, Webpages, Twitter etc.)
146
35.6
Print
96
23.4
Radio
83
20.2
TV
75
18.3
Others
10
2.4
Total
410
100
Source: Field Study, 2022
From the data collected, 146 (35.6%) respondents work for Online/Digital platforms, including blogs,
webpages, Twitter and other social media platforms. Online/Digital platforms had the highest response.
96 (23.4%) are in Print, 20.2% are on Radio, while 75 (18.3%) used the medium of TV for operation. Ten
(2.4%) listed others as their platform of operation. Others include respondents who are into journalism
(media) consultancy and respondents who combined all or some of the platforms in their work.
Table 7: Respondents’ years of experience.
Years of Experience
Frequency
Percentage (%)
6 – 10
143
34.9
0 – 5
128
31.2
11 – 15
69
16.8
16 – 20
32
7.8
26 years and above
22
5.4
21 – 25
16
3.9
Total
410
100
Source: Field Study, 2022
The years of experience of respondents are captured in Table 7.143 (34.9%) respondents have between 6
to 10 years of work experience, making that category the highest. The lowest category is 21 to 25 years
with 16 (3.9%) respondents. 128 (31.2%) respondents have between 0 to 5 years of work experience, 69
(16.8%) have between 11 to 15 years, 32 (7.8%) have between 16 to 20 years, while 26 years and above
category has 22 (5.4%) respondents.

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Table 8: Respondents’ rating of essential components of good governance.
Essential Components of Good Governance
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Rule of Law
306
74.6
Transparency
287
70
Participation
279
68
Accountability
271
66.1
Equity and Inclusiveness
201
49
Responsiveness
186
45.4
Effectiveness and Efficiency
178
43.4
Consensus Oriented
124
30.2
Source: Field Study, 2022
Table 8 shows respondents' ratings of the eight identified essential components of good governance. 306
(74.6%) said that the Rule of Law is the most essential component of good governance. Rule of Law
scored the highest among the eight components of good governance. This was followed by Transparency
with 287 (70%), Participation – 279 (68%), Accountability – 271 (66.1%), Equity and Inclusiveness –
201 (49%), Responsiveness – 186 (45.4%), Effectiveness and Efficiency – 178 (43.4%). Consensus
Oriented 124 (30.2%) scored the lowest among the components of good governance.
Table 9: Rating of Nigerian journalists as watchdogs of good governance
Good Governance Rating
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Moderately rated
154
37.6
Highly rated
142
34.6
Lowly rated
82
20
No idea
32
7.8
Total
410
100
Source: Field Study, 2022
Table 9 above shows the assessment of Nigerian journalists as watchdogs of good governance. 154
(37.6%) of respondents moderately rated Nigerian journalists, scoring the highest rating. 142 (34.6%)
highly rated journalists, while 82 (20%) lowly rated them. The lowest rating was 32 (7.8%) of respondents
who said they had no idea.

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Table 10: How Nigerian journalists fared as watchdogs of good governance between Goodluck
Jonathan and Muhammadu Buhari administrations
Good Governance Rating between Administrations
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Goodluck Jonathan
342
83.4
Muhammadu Buhari
68
16.6
Total
410
100
Source: Field Study, 2022
From the data collected, 342 (83.4%) respondents said Nigerian journalists fared better as watchdogs of
good governance under the administration of Goodluck Jonathan compared to 68 (16.6%) who said
Nigerian journalists fared better under the administration of Muhammadu Buhari.
Table 11: Perception of Nigeria’s performance based on the following indices of Good Governance
Indices
Very Poor
Poor
Fair
Good
Excellent
Total
Participation
37 (9%)
127(30.9%)
161
(39.2%)
84
(20.4%)
1 (0.24%)
410
(100%)
Rule of Law
51 (12.4%)
110
(26.8%)
164
(40%)
83
(20.2%)
2 (0.48%)
410
(100%)
Transparency
54 (13.1%)
116
(28.2%)
149
(36.3%)
90
(21.9%)
1 (0.24%)
410
(100%)
Responsiveness
49 (11.9%)
97 (23.6%)
175
(42.6%)
87
(21.2%)
2 (0.48%)
410
(100%)
Consensus
Oriented
42 (10.2%)
110
(26.8%)
163
(39.7%)
94
(22.9%)
1 (0.24%)
410
(100%)
Equity and
Inclusiveness
56 (13.6%)
104
(25.3%)
157
(38.2%)
93
(22.6%)
0 (0%)
410
(100%)
Effectiveness
and Efficiency
50 (12.1%)
108
(26.3%)
157
(38.2%)
94
(22.9%)
1 (0.24%)
410
(100%)
Accountability
71 (17.3%)
102
(24.8%)
146
(35.6%)
88
(21.4%)
3 (0.73%)
410
(100%)
Source: Field Study, 2022
Table 11 above shows respondents’ perception of Nigeria’s performance based on the indices of good
governance.

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Table 12: Political era that has fared well in good governance.
Good Governance Rating
between Administrations
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Goodluck Jonathan
346
84.4
Muhammadu Buhari
64
15.6
Total
410
100
Source: Field Study, 2022
When asked about the political era that has fared well in good governance, 346 (84.4%) respondents said
Goodluck Jonathan’s administration, while 15.6% (64) respondents said the administration of
Muhammadu Buhari.
Table 13: Possible challenges Nigerian journalists face in serving as watchdogs of good governance.
Challenges Nigerian journalists face while serving as
watchdogs of Good Governance
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Poor work environment/equipment of Nigerian journalists
319
77.8
Widespread corruption in the society
315
76.8
The influx of quacks and pseudo-professionals into the
journalism profession
289
70.5
Poor education and training of Nigerian journalists
287
70
Weak enforcement of journalism ethics
216
52.7
Lack of professional ideology
203
49.5
Inadequate collaboration by journalists with other relevant
sectors like the criminal justice system
186
45.4
Others
7
1.7
Source: Field Study, 2022
Respondents had diverse views on the possible challenges Nigerian journalists face in serving as
watchdogs of good governance. Poor work environment/equipment of Nigerian journalists was cited as
the highest possible challenge with 319 (77.8%) respondents. Closely following is widespread corruption
in the society with 76.8% (315) respondents. The lowest possible challenge cited by respondents was
Others, 7 (1.7%). Some examples mentioned as Others by respondents include violation of the human and
professional rights of Nigerian journalists, poor and non-remuneration of journalists leading to sensational
reporting and fear of government in power. Also named was the lack of independent press and press
freedom leading to insecurity of journalists.
The influx of quacks and pseudo-professionals into the journalism profession was cited by 289 (70.5%)
respondents, 287 (70%) respondents mentioned poor education and training of Nigerian journalists, and
weak enforcement of journalism ethics was stated by 216 (52.7%) respondents. Lack of professional

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ideology was noted by 203 (49.5%) respondents as a possible challenge Nigerian journalists face in
serving as watchdogs of good governance. 186 (45.4%) respondents indicated inadequate collaboration
by journalists with other relevant sectors like the criminal justice system.
Table 14: Suggestions on mitigating challenges Nigerian Journalists face in serving as watchdogs of good
governance.
Mitigating Challenges Nigerian Journalists Face in Good
Governance Watchdog Role
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Professionalize journalism by removing quacks and
pseudo-professionals
331
80.7
Provide continuous education and training on the
watchdog duty of journalists
312
76.1
Provide special funds to support investigative reports
294
71.7
Enable opportunities for journalists to collaborate and
partner with relevant sectors also playing watchdog roles
251
61.2
Promote independent press and press freedom
251
61.2
Provide structures that promote the safety of journalists
227
55.4
Punish unethical practices by practitioners, including
delisting from the profession
223
54.4
Others
3
0.7
Source: Field Study, 2022
Table 14 above shows suggestions on what could mitigate the challenges faced by Nigerian journalists in
serving as watchdogs of good governance. 331 (80.7%) of respondents recommended professionalising
journalism by removing quacks and pseudo-professionals noting that it would go a long way. This
suggestion has the highest numbers/percentage. The next recommendation is providing continuous
education and training on the watchdog duty of journalists with 312 (76.1%) respondents. 294 (71.7%)
respondents submit that providing special funds to support investigative reports would help.
251 (61.2%) respondents considered that enabling opportunities for journalists to collaborate and partner
with relevant sectors and also playing watchdog roles would help in achieving the watchdog role of
Nigerian journalists. Promoting independent press and press freedom was cited by 251 (61.2%)
respondents, while 227 (55.4%) respondents said providing structures that promote the safety of
journalists is key. 223 (54.4%) respondents stated that punishing unethical practices by practitioners,
including delisting erring practitioners from the profession would help in promoting journalists as
watchdogs for good governance. 3 (0.7%) respondents, representing Others, suggested that providing
insurance cover for journalists and encouraging patriotism among journalists would help in achieving the
watchdog role of Nigerian journalists.

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DISCUSSION
The study's objectives were divided into two. The first aim was to investigate how Nigerian journalists
rate their role as watchdog for good governance in Nigeria. The other objective was to examine the extent
to which Nigerian journalists score Nigeria based on the eight variables for good governance.
Reviewing the first objective which was to investigate how Nigerian journalists rate their role as watchdog
of good governance in Nigeria, it is important to note that globally the media, press, is considered what
the Victorian writer, Thomas Carlyle called the “Fourth Estate of the Realm.” This implies that the media
working as a constitutional watchdog, plays a crucial role in the workings of democratic governance
(Newton, 1995). In the world today, the increasing demand for the media to safeguard democratic
processes and institutions and a mechanism for the promotion of good governance is documented. In
Nigeria, the media has been instrumental in exposing and engendering popular action against
misgovernance, mismanagement, corruption and undemocratic practices.
Findings from this study show that Nigerian journalists positively rated their role in promoting good
governance as a significant number of the respondents either “moderately” or “highly” rated their
watchdog role. It is a combination of the “moderately” and “highly” rated scores that informed the view
of a positive rating on the watchdog role. This positive rating supports ACE's (2022) assertion that in
modern politics and civilisation, the media plays a key role in promoting and maintaining openness within
democratic processes, often referred to as the 'watchdog' function of the media. The media aids in
preventing and examining claims of wrongdoings. This watchdog role incorporates the accountability of
officials during and after their tenure and extends to the entire procedural structure or framework.
Francke (1995), a professor of communication, also supports this position with his assertion that the
influence of mass media on public life, further depicted by the watchdog responsibility of the media, is
presumed to be crucial to democracy. It is noteworthy that respondents also agreed, and this duty aligns
with the social responsibility of the media. In other words, the position of scholars and findings from this
study reinforce the premise of the Social Responsibility Media Theory that posits that the media is obliged
to be responsible to society for carrying out certain essential functions of mass communication.
Additionally, this theory places a burden on media practitioners by demanding socially responsible media
practice, agreed to by respondents of this study.
The wider implication of the moral responsibility on the media to continue to play the watchdog role is
that it helps the media to introspect, keep the government in check, give a voice to the citizenry, protect
the constitution and promote democratic principles. Practitioners should constantly be aware of this
burden in practising the media profession if a fair and egalitarian society is to be achieved. This is the

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social responsibility of the media. On the contrary, abdicating this noble watchdog responsibility means
that recklessness and lawlessness would become the order of the day. An unaccountable government is a
tyrannical government. Such a government would oppress and suppress the governed. This point
corroborates the assertion of Munoriyarwa, (2018) cited in Gainaka, Alsagoff and Akmar, (2020) that
individuals in places of authority, whether within the government or as private individuals, hold
substantial power and influence. This informs objective and astute scrutiny of their activities to measure
their actions and prevent possible breaches of public trust. Therefore, the media, acting as a link between
the public and the government, is equipped to execute the role of upholding the public interest by holding
those delegated with governance responsibilities accountable. This underscores the significance of media
freedom in fulfilling this critical societal responsibility.
The second objective of the study was to examine the extent to which Nigerian journalists score Nigeria
based on the eight variables of good governance. The eight variables of good governance are participation,
rule of law, transparency, responsiveness, consensus-oriented, equity and inclusiveness, effectiveness and
efficiency and accountability. The survey results showed that with a combination of “Fair” and “Good”
scores, Nigerian journalists rated the West African country above average on all the eight variables of
good governance. In other words, the “Above Average” rating from the survey meant that Nigeria’s scores
in both “Fair” and “Good” were pooled and considered as “Above Average” ratings. However, considered
independently as “Fair” or “Good,” Nigeria fared poorly in all eight indices according to the survey. For
example, on participation, Nigeria scored 39.2% as “Fair” and 20.4% as “Good.” On Rule of Law, “Fair”
was 40%, while “Good” was 20.2%. Accountability was 35.6% for “Fair,” while “Good” garnered 21.4%.
In none of the eight indices of good governance did Nigeria score average (50%) or above when the
variables of “Fair,” “Good” or “Excellent” were considered independently.
Rating Nigeria as above average on all the eight variables of good governance may suggest that the
country is on course to achieving good governance. Findings from the study posit that Nigeria still has a
lot of room to cover in achieving good governance. Having fared poorly in the independent consideration
of each of the variables, concerted efforts should be made to promote good governance. The government
can use the variables of good governance highlighted in this study as a scorecard in assessing its
performance. The media can also continue to play a role in this regard by constantly highlighting the need
for the government to promote and ensure good governance.
Enhancing good governance is one of the ways to ensure that citizens participate or are represented in
governance, take ownership of government programmes and projects, and have their rights protected by
law. Also, good governance would ensure that the government uses the commonwealth to address
society’s needs and is accountable in that process. The absence of these has grave consequences as disquiet

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and avoidable unrest would distract and detract the government from functioning well. Without a doubt,
these agitations would also negatively impact national development.
Further, it is crucial to note that of the eight identified essential components of good governance,
respondents did not all agree on the significance of all eight essential components in assessing good
governance. They had various views on each component. For example, “Rule of Law” was considered the
most essential component of good governance while “Consensus Oriented” was considered the least.
Respondents did not agree that all the eight identified indices of good governance apply equally. Some
were either not considered a component or considered as less essential.
Comparatively, Goodluck Jonathan’s administration scored higher than that of Muhammadu Buhari in an
assessment of a political era that performed well in good governance, and how Nigerian journalists fared
as watchdogs of good governance between both administrations. It may be argued that the poor
performance of Buhari’s administration on the good governance scoresheet has also negatively impacted
other areas of governance including citizen apathy and poverty rate.
On the possible challenges Nigerian journalists face in serving as watchdogs of good governance, the
majority of respondents identified “poor work environment/equipment of Nigerian journalists’ as the
major challenge. Also, very much mentioned was ‘widespread corruption in the society.’” Interestingly,
“influx of quacks and pseudo-professionals into the journalism profession” and “poor education and
training of Nigerian journalists” ranked third and fourth positions respectively.
The majority of the respondents stated that to mitigate the challenges Nigerian journalists face in serving
as watchdogs of good governance, there is a need to professionalise journalism by removing quacks and
pseudo-professionals, providing continuous education and training on the watchdog duty of journalists
and providing special funds to support investigating reports. The above arguments support the positions
of scholars like Gainaka, Alsagoff and Akmar (2020), Palmer, Toff, and Kleis Nielsen (2020) and Tran
Thuy-Anh (2015).
CONCLUSION
The results of this survey indicated that Nigerian journalists positively rate their roles in acting as
watchdogs of good governance. Nigerian journalists have played and continue to play commendable roles
in advancing good governance, combating corruption, and protecting democratic systems and values.
Before Nigeria's independence, the Nigerian press was vocal and active in condemning colonial rule and
advocating for self-rule. The media is also credited with uncovering, reporting and highlighting public
and private sector corruption and government ineptitude and malpractices. Continually, the media,

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especially social media, has become a veritable platform and functional public sphere to inform and
engage the citizenry. Media reports have been influential reference points in national discourse. Like some
media practitioners would want to brag, “ignore the media at your detriment,” many players at the
corporate level, policy and bureaucracy have therefore learnt not to disregard the media.
The gate-keeping and agenda-setting functions of the media have also empowered the media to become a
powerful component of governance. Social media has provided opportunities for citizens to learn, unlearn,
relearn, reshape and evolve. Considered collectively (on fair and good scales), journalists in Nigeria rated
the country above average on all the eight variables of good governance. However, considered
independently as “Fair” or “Good” scores, Nigeria fared poorly in all eight indices according to the survey.
This indicates that as an emerging democracy, a lot of work is required to enhance good governance and
improve democratic outcomes. Journalists maintained that the poor work environment under which they
operate is a major challenge in the discharge of their functions. They also argued that removing quacks
would help professionalise the media, and give it the needed impetus to act in their watchdog role.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The subsequent recommendations will support and enhance the role of Nigerian journalists as watchdogs
for good governance:
1. Media unions or guilds such as the Nigerian Union of Journalists or the Nigerian Guild of Editors
amongst others should remove or delist quacks and pseudo-professionals as this would sanitise
and professionalise the media.
2. Media owners and development partners should provide continuous education and training to
media practitioners on the watchdog duty of journalists.
3. Media owners and development partners should provide special funds or grants to support
investigative reports by media practitioners.
4. Governments (at national and sub-national levels) and regulatory agencies should promote
independent press and press freedom by enacting and enforcing laws on media rights.
5. Governments (at national and sub-national levels) and regulatory agencies should provide
opportunities for journalists and media practitioners to collaborate and partner with relevant
sectors also playing watchdog roles.

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