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MycoIndia Journal of Indian Fungi
https://mycoindia.org/
1
Insights on marine fungal research
in India
Rohit Sharma1, Belle Damodara Shenoy2,
Kandikere Ramaiah Sridhar3
1Centre for Biodiversity Exploration and Conservation,
Tilhari, Mandla Road, Jabalpur 482021, Madhya Pradesh,
India, Email: rsfungus@gmail.com, 2CSIR-National Institute
of Oceanography, Regional Centre, 176, Lawson’s Bay
Colony, Visakhapatnam 530017, Andhra Pradesh, India,
Email: shenoynio@gmail.com, 3Department of Biosciences,
Mangalore University, Mangalore, Mangalagangotri,
Karnataka, India, Email: kandikeremanasa@gmail.com
Abstract
In this article, we present our insights on the ecological
roles and biotechnological potential of marine fungi
along India's diverse coastline. Our aim is to shed light
on existing research gaps and underscore the pressing
need for further exploration in this domain. We
advocate for interdisciplinary research, heightened
conservation endeavours, and enhanced public and
policy awareness to harness the yet untapped potential
of marine fungi for sustainable development and
ecological well-being. Furthermore, we present a ten-
point program aimed at catalysing future research
efforts and fostering collaboration within the field of
marine mycology in India. It is important to note that
while our article offers valuable insights, it is not
intended to serve as a comprehensive review paper.
Keywords: Biodiversity, Deep Ocean Mission, Coastal
biodiversity, Marine biotechnology, Matsya 6000
Citation: Sharma R, Shenoy BD, Sridhar KR (2024) Insights
on marine fungal research in India. MycoIndia 2024/04.
Received: 26.03.2024 | Accepted: 30.03.2024 | Published:
30.03.2024 | Handling Editor: Dr. K. Manjusha
Copyright: ©2024 Sharma, Shenoy, Sridhar. This is an open-
access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use,
distribution, or reproduction in other forums is permitted,
provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and
that the original publication in this journal is cited, in
accordance with accepted academic practice. No use,
distribution, or reproduction is permitted which does not
comply with these terms.
1. Introduction
At a time when the equilibrium between nature and
human activities is increasingly fragile, it is vital to
acknowledge that oceans cover approximately 71% of
Earth's surface, leaving just 29% as land. The
distribution of Earth's waters is led by the Pacific Ocean
at 52%, followed by the Atlantic at 25%, and the Indian
Ocean at 20%. Additionally, ice, groundwater, and
surface waters like rivers and lakes hold smaller
fractions of the total water (Webb 2024). It is believed
that life on Earth originated in the ocean's high-pressure
depths around 3 billion years ago (Isabelle et al. 2006).
The ocean's stratification includes the epipelagic
(euphotic) zone, where sunlight supports
photosynthesis; the mesopelagic (dysphotic) zone with
limited light, inhibiting photosynthesis; and aphotic
zones (bathypelagic, abyssopelagic, and hadopelagic),
devoid of light and characterized by extreme pressure,
supporting specially adapted organisms (Webb 2024).
Although the euphotic zone has been the most
accessible and has been extensively studied, the depths
of the aphotic zone hold many unexplored mysteries
(Koslow 2007).
Marine ecosystems are known for their vast
biodiversity, with an estimated 2.2 million species that
remain largely unexplored and undocumented (Mora et
al. 2011). Fungi, notably, have carved out a niche within
these habitats, appearing in a multitude of forms,
including mycelial microfungi, single-celled yeasts,
zoosporic fungi of Chytridiomycota, and even lichens.
This diversity greatly enhances our understanding of the
complexity and breadth of marine life (Cunliffe 2023).
2. Marine fungi
Marine fungi are grouped into two main types: obligate,
which complete their life cycle exclusively in marine
settings and often require salt to thrive, and facultative,
which are versatile enough to grow in both saltwater and
freshwater environments, as well as on land. The
facultative fungi, in particular, are noted for their
adaptability, inhabiting a range of terrestrial and aquatic
niches. Some workers prefer a different terminology,
marine-derived fungi that grow or sporulate, live
symbiotically, or are adapted to survive in marine
habitats (Pang et al. 2016).
Marine fungi play versatile ecological roles, serving as
parasites that infect phytoplankton, saprobes that
decompose organic material, and participants in
symbiotic relationships, notably with seaweeds. Their
pivotal contribution to marine ecosystems influences
the populations of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and
marine animals, alongside the biochemical dynamics of
marine sediments (Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer 1979,
Damare et al. 2006). Climate change is linked to
increased disease prevalence, where environmental
MycoIndia Journal of Indian Fungi
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fungi, including marine varieties, are increasingly
identified as pathogenic. A notable case is Candida
auris, a recently recognized multi-drug resistant fungus,
originally found in the marine environment off the
Andaman Islands before its pathogenic properties were
understood (Arora et al. 2021).
Marine fungi thrive on diverse organic substrates, from
sponges to zooplankton, affected by oceanic salinity
levels. However, research has traditionally focused on
brackish waters and shorelines, limiting our grasp of
their broader distribution. Recently, Calabon et al.
(2023) have shown a significantly greater diversity
within marine fungi, especially in the Ascomycota
group, than previously known. Furthermore, mangrove
decomposition has proven to be a vital substrate,
supporting a rich fungal community that, in some cases,
surpasses diversity found on driftwood (Hyde and
Pointing 2000, Sarma and Devadatha 2020, Devadatha
et al. 2017-2019, 2021a, b).
3. Historical perspective
The foundational work on the taxonomy of marine fungi
by Sutherland (1915) and Sparrow (1936) laid the
groundwork for future explorations in this field. A
landmark achievement came with Roth et al. (1964),
who were the pioneers in isolating deep-sea fungi from
extraordinary depths of up to 4,450 meters. Building on
this, Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer (1979) extended the
research by successfully isolating marine fungi from
submerged wood located between 500 and 3,000 meters
beneath the sea surface. Initially focused on temperate
regions, the scope of marine fungal research broadened
significantly to include tropical areas across the
Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, thanks largely to
the influential contributions of Kohlmeyer and
Kohlmeyer (1979).
The 1990s witnessed significant advancements, with
Lorenz and Molitoris (1992) and Raghukumar and
Raghukumar (1998) furthering the exploration of
marine fungi through deep-sea sampling and cultivation
under high-pressure conditions. Additionally, Damare
et al. (2006) conducted a comprehensive study on
culturable fungi from deep-sea sediments in the Central
Indian Ocean Basin, enriching our understanding of
marine fungal diversity and ecological roles.
4. Marine fungal research in India
India's extensive coastline, stretching approximately
7,516 km across both the East and West Coasts, features
a diverse range of habitats including estuaries, lagoons,
mangroves, backwaters, salt marshes, rocky and sandy
coasts, and coral reefs. This rich tapestry of marine
ecosystems supports a wide variety of life forms, from
algae and phytoplankton to zooplankton and coral reefs,
forming a dynamic marine environment. Prominent
Indian researchers such as B. D. Borse, T. S.
Suryanarayanan, K. R. Sridhar (the third author), V. V.
Sarma, Seshagiri Raghukumar, Chandralata
Raghukumar, and P. Manimohan have made significant
contributions to the study of marine fungi, uncovering
its complex interactions within these ecosystems.
Recent efforts by researchers of CSIR-National Institute
of Oceanography have further expanded our knowledge
through detailed studies of deep-sea sediments and
tarballs (Damare et al. 2006, Shenoy et al. 2024),
highlighting the ongoing research into marine
mycology.
Varada Samir Damare of Goa University is at the
forefront of exploring thraustochytrids, a group of
fungoid protists (Damare and Raghukumar 2006),
marking an important area of study within marine
biology. Additionally, the CSIR-National Institute of
Oceanography, with its headquarters in Goa and
regional centres in Mumbai, Kochi, and
Visakhapatnam, plays a crucial role in marine research.
Its vessels, CRV Sindhu Sankalp and RV Sindhu
Sadhana, are instrumental in conducting deep-sea
expeditions and collecting samples, further advancing
our understanding of India's marine fungal diversity.
Marine fungal research in India has significantly
progressed from early studies on basic substrates like
marine water and driftwood (Raghukumar 1973,
Prasannarai and Sridhar 2001, 2003) to exploring
diverse environments such as mangroves and
hydrothermal vents, incorporating advanced techniques
like molecular phylogeny and bioprospecting (Reverter
et al. 2020, Hosseini et al. 2022). Historical overviews
by Sarma (2021), Borse and Sarma (2021), and Pang et
al. (2023) trace these advancements. Early taxonomic
studies identified species from fishing boats (Becker
and Kohlmeyer 1958, Kohlmeyer 1959, Kohlmeyer et
al. 1967, Jones 1968), while recent studies highlight the
ecological importance of mangroves (Kohlmeyer and
Vittal 1986, Ravikumar and Vittal 1991, Sarma and
Vittal 1998-1999, 2000-2004, Sridhar 2013). Research
on solar salterns demonstrates the prevalence of
Aspergillus, highlighting the industrial significance of
halotolerant fungi (Suryanarayanan et al. 1996,
Thirunavukkarasu et al. 2017, Suryanarayanan and
Ravishankar 2023). Additionally, novel genera and
species discovered by V. V. Sarma and B. Devadatha
(Dayarathne et al. 2017, 2020a, b) have enriched our
understanding of marine fungal diversity, ecology and
their biotechnological applications.
MycoIndia Journal of Indian Fungi
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5. The focal issues
5.1 Deep-sea fungi
The deep sea, with its low temperatures, high pressure,
darkness, and scarcity of nutrients, poses an extreme yet
fascinating environment for scientific exploration,
especially in the study of marine fungi with unique
survival strategies and potential for bioprospecting. In
the Central Indian Basin, research by Damare et al.
(2006) has successfully isolated various fungal species
under these harsh conditions, yet Alisea longicolla
stands out as the sole reported deep-sea endemic fungus
(Nagano et al. 2019). The study of deep-sea sediments
reveals significant insights into evolutionary timelines,
although challenges such as limited sampling resources
hinder research progress. Collaborations with
institutions like the CSIR-National Institute of
Oceanography and innovative approaches to sampling
are critical for advancing this field.
5.2 Marine fungal cultures
Marine fungal studies typically begin with isolating
fungi from seawater and other samples, and transferring
them to high-salt media to mimic their habitats.
Understanding the nutrient compositions of marine
waters is vital for growth media, crucial for fungal
preservation and research. Maintaining live cultures for
physiology, biochemistry, and industrial applications
faces challenges like viability loss during storage and
diminished bioactivity (Nakagiri 2012). Research into
preservation methods, cryoprotectants, and novel
isolation media is essential. Establishing a national
culture collection dedicated to marine fungi could aid in
their conservation, taxonomy, and bioprospecting.
5.3 Embracing NGS tools
Recent studies leveraging next-generation sequencing
(NGS) have unveiled the presence of pathogenic fungi,
such as Candida tropicalis and Aspergillus
penicillioides, on Indian beaches, highlighting the
predominance of Ascomycota in these coastal
ecosystems. Chopra et al. (2024) identified these
species at Ramakrishna Beach in Visakhapatnam, while
Shenoy et al. (2024) explored fungal diversity within
tarballs at tourist beaches in Goa, uncovering a
significant presence of Aspergillus species. Tarballs,
resulting from oil spills and posing health and
ecological risks, suggest that these fungi may play
important roles in crude oil bioremediation,
underscoring the necessity of ongoing research and
environmental monitoring.
5.4 Fungi in marine biotechnology
Marine fungi are pivotal in synthesizing secondary
metabolites like steroids, alkaloids, and terpenoids,
which are crucial for their anti-tumor, anti-cancer, and
antimicrobial properties (Devi and Thakur 2022, Kamat
et al. 2020). These fungi, thriving under extreme
conditions such as high salinity and pollution, exhibit
diverse bioactivities, including antioxidative and anti-
inflammatory effects (Simmons et al. 2005, Leman-
Loubière et al. 2017). Studies have shown that over
1000 natural secondary metabolites from marine-
derived fungi have been examined, yet only a fraction
from obligate marine fungi have been explored for their
potential (Overy et al. 2014, 2019). Thraustochytrids,
for example, are exploited for omega-3 PUFA
production, which is beneficial for both health and
aquaculture (Raghukumar 2008). Marine fungi also
contribute to emerging fields like plastic degradation
and cosmeceuticals (Zeghal et al. 2021, Agrawal et al.
2018a, b). Despite the extensive marine ecosystem, the
full potential of marine fungi, particularly in
bioprospecting and pharmaceutical applications,
remains largely untapped (Sarma, 2019, Sarma and
Jeewon 2019).
6. Future directions
Sustained coastal research in India holds paramount
importance for healthcare, conservation, and industrial
advancements. The Deep Ocean Mission, spearheaded
by India’s Ministry of Earth Sciences, endeavours to
unlock the mysteries of the deep sea through initiatives
such as Samudrayaan and Matsya 6000, thereby
significantly contributing to the exploration of marine
fungal biodiversity. Despite the immense expanse of the
marine environment, the identification of marine fungal
species remains limited, underscoring the need for
intensified exploration efforts. Notably, marine fungi
present a wealth of biotechnological potential, with the
capability to yield bioactive compounds crucial for
healthcare and various industrial applications.
Effective collaboration among mycologists,
biochemists, and bioinformaticians holds the key to
expediting the discovery of natural products derived
from marine fungi. To this end, we advocate for a
comprehensive ten-point program aimed at advancing
marine fungal research in India (Table 1). By
implementing these strategic initiatives, we hope for
ground-breaking opportunities in marine mycology,
particularly for aspiring young scientists.
Acknowledgment
The authors thank Dr. K. Manjusha, Dr. Sunil K.
Deshmukh, Dr. Rajesh Jeewon, Prof. T. S.
Suryanarayanan, Prof. D. Jayarama Bhat, Prof. V. V.
Sarma, Dr. Patricia Vélez Aguilar, Dr. K. C.
Rajeshkumar, Dr. Varada Samir Damare, and Dr. B.
Devadatha for their constructive criticism, which
greatly improved the manuscript.
MycoIndia Journal of Indian Fungi
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Table 1: A ten-point program for advancing marine
fungal research in India
Theme
Description
Infrastructure
development for
marine mycology
Enhance existing research
facilities to support advanced
studies in marine mycology,
including the acquisition of
state-of-the-art equipment for
deep-sea sampling, high-
pressure culturing, and
molecular analysis.
National
repository and
database
Establish a comprehensive
national repository and
database for marine fungi,
which would catalog and
provide access to information
on species discovered, their
genetic data, metabolites, and
ecological importance.
Research funding
and grants
Secure increased funding and
grant opportunities
specifically earmarked for
marine fungal research to
support exploration,
biodiversity studies, and the
development of
biotechnological applications.
Collaborative
research programs
Foster interdisciplinary and
international collaborations to
leverage diverse expertise in
taxonomy, ecology,
molecular biology, and
biotechnology, aiming to
address complex questions
and applications in marine
mycology.
Capacity building
and training
Develop specialized training
programs and workshops to
equip early-career scientists
and researchers with skills in
modern techniques such as
next-generation sequencing,
bioinformatics, and culturing
under extreme conditions.
Public-private
partnerships
Encourage collaborative
projects between academic
institutions and industries to
drive the applied research and
commercialization of marine
fungal discoveries,
particularly in
pharmaceuticals, agriculture,
and bioremediation.
Exploration and
biodiversity
studies
Dedicate efforts to explore
less studied marine habitats
along the Indian coastline,
including deep-sea
environments, mangroves,
and coral reefs, to discover
new fungal species and
understand their roles in
marine ecosystems.
Innovative
preservation
techniques
Innovate and improve
methods for the preservation
of marine fungi to ensure the
long-term viability of cultures
for research and
biotechnological exploitation,
exploring new
cryopreservation techniques
and growth media.
Biotechnological
and
pharmaceutical
research
Intensify the bioprospecting
of marine fungi for novel
secondary metabolites with
potential applications in
medicine, agriculture, and
various industries, focusing
on antimicrobial, anticancer,
and anti-inflammatory
compounds, as well as
industrially relevant enzymes.
Environmental
and conservation
initiatives
Integrate marine fungal
research into broader
environmental monitoring
and conservation strategies,
recognizing the critical role of
fungi in marine ecosystems.
This includes assessing the
impact of climate change on
marine fungal diversity and
the potential of fungi in
ecosystem restoration and
pollution mitigation.
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