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https://doi.org/10.1177/09596836241236344
The Holocene
1 –11
© The Author(s) 2024
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DOI: 10.1177/09596836241236344
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Introduction
Rivers are notoriously effective at reworking terrace sequences,
eroding, and redepositing their alluvium (Grant, 1985; Lespez
et al., 2011; Nanson and Huang, 2018; Phillips and Jerolmack,
2016). An endorheic basin is one in which the river system within
the domain is not connected to any other external river body such
as a river or ocean but rather brings the river together in the form
of a lake or marsh (Meybeck, 2003; Vii, 2007; Yapiyev et al.,
2017). As a river flows from the mountains to the lake, the amount
of erosion and deposition changes. This changes what the river
looks like from its source to its ends. In its upper-middle course,
a river erodes vertically creating steep valleys and terraces, and
erodes laterally causing the river to start meandering (Faisal and
Hayakawa, 2022). By the time the river reaches its lower course,
the eroded material (sediment) carried by the river begins to be
deposited in the terminal lakes. These processes create variation
in geomorphology across the basin and in such cases fluvial geo-
morphic features are informative for exploring the evolution of
river systems, especially in the Holocene.
Climate change is thought to have been the cause of wide-
spread episodes of river erosion during the Holocene
(Brakenridge, 1980). It affects the erosive capacity of the river
through intermediaries such as (1) the base level, (2) a change in
precipitation and discharge, (3) the river’s sediment load, and (4)
the vegetation cover in the catchment (Giguet-Covex et al., 2011).
A crucial question is whether the river dynamics during the
Holocene have been sensitive to millennial and centennial climate
variability or whether they have been conditioned by other factors’
influence (Li et al., 2020a; Tucker and Slingerland, 1997). Most of
the world’s classic civilization centers such as China, Mesopota-
mia, are close to the modern active river branches, or former river
branches of the Late-Holocene (Lu et al., 2022). Long-sustained
coeval geomorphological and human activity has taken place, cre-
ating spatially extensive and continuous fluvial archives
(Piccarreta et al., 2011; Stinchcomb, 2012; Wohl, 2006). In these
areas rivers continuously changed their course and networks due
to avulsion, creating new and abandoning older channels. In addi-
tion in these areas cultures changed, and distinct cultural periods
emerged and succeeded (Yang et al., 2020). Even though land use
and climate are not independent, they change at different spatial
and temporal scales, exerting a complex driving pattern on fluvial
systems (Yu et al., 2016). When addressing long-term interactions
between past climate, human activities, and geomorphological
processes, it is fundamental to fully understand erosion and sedi-
mentation’s spatial and temporal dynamics.
The evolution of river systems under the
influence of climate change and human
activities in the endorheic zones during
the Holocene
Mingjun Gao,1 Yu Li,1,2 Zhansen Zhang,1 Junjie Duan,1
Yaxin Xue,1 Simin Peng,1 Hao Shang1 and Shiyu Liu1
Abstract
Endorheic river basins and their terminal lakes are highly sensitive to climate change and human activities. Based on chemical and pollen indicators, lake
level, and erosion/accumulation rates of rivers, we explore the phasing of the evolution of the river system in the Hexi Corridor during the Holocene. The
results suggest that climate change dominated the evolution of the river system during the early-Mid-Holocene. Entering the historical period, humans
began to have an impact on runoff, water resources, and lake evolution, and since 1000 BP, anthropogenic perturbations recorded by regional proxies
increased and humans dominated the migrations of river . In addition, we discuss the widespread erosion of rivers in the global endorheic zone and the
impact of human activities in this context and found the timing of human influence on river evolution is not the same in different regions.
Keywords
accumulation, erosion, human-river relationship, lake sediment, the Hexi Corridor, the historical period
Received 18 August 2023; revised manuscript accepted 8 January 2024
1 College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University,
China
2 Key Laboratory of Western China’s Environmental Systems (Ministry
of Education), China
Corresponding author:
Yu Li, Key Laboratory of Western China’s Environmental Systems
(Ministry of Education), 222 South Tianshui Road, Lanzhou 730000,
Gansu, China.
Email: liyu@lzu.edu.cn
1236344HOL0010.1177/09596836241236344The HoloceneGao et al.
research-article2024
Research Paper
2 The Holocene 00(0)
A “whole catchment” tactic is essential if we are to better
understand our fluvial systems more fully (Macklin and Lewin,
2008). The study of the impacts of human activities and climate
change on the evolution of river systems requires an interdisci-
plinary approach integrating geological and archeological datas-
ets derived from fluvial archives to elucidate geomorphic
processes between erosion-prone rivers’ upper course and sedi-
ment-dominated rivers’ lower course (Mather et al., 2017). Here,
the development of ancient civilizations and the prosperity of the
Silk Road coincide with changes in the flow, channel dimensions,
and caudal lakes of the major rivers of the Hexi Corridor over the
past 10,000 years. In this context, the work of this paper concen-
trates on reviewing previous geomorphological studies in the
Hexi Corridor. In addition, this paper attempts to review some
major aspects of the Shiyang-Shule-Heihhe river system and to
assess the variability of changes in the downstream tailrace taking
into account the regional climatic similarities in the upper reaches.
This paper also discusses aspects of human activities that have
influenced regional river changes over the last 2000 years, which
can help us to maximize the discussion of factors influencing the
evolution of global instream flow.
Material and methods
Setting
The Hexi Corridor lies between 36°N and 41°N and 93°E and
104°E. Sandwiched between the Qilian Mountains and a series of
deserts on the northern border of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, this
corridor is the most convenient route between northern China and
Central Asia. It is located at the boundary between the typical arid
to semi-arid region, the westerly wind region, and the East Asian
summer monsoon region (Figure 1) (Zhang et al., 2015). The Shi-
yang River, Heihe River, and Shule River originate in the Qilian
Mountains, and each sink into a catchment basin in the lower
course of them, forming a complete endorheic basin (or convert to
groundwater). After the river flows out of the mountain, it will
diffuse during the flood period and form a vast alluvial fan. When
the flow is stable there is a fixed channel, which is usually on the
alluvial fan, but at the same time, there are diversions of the river
due to various reasons. In the middle-lower course, the location
and volume of channel and terminal lakes also change continu-
ously in response to changes in the upper course. The runoff of the
three inland rivers is the main source of water for grasslands and
farms in the Hexi Corridor and as such, it has historically hosted
both farming and nomadic civilizations. The corridor represents
the easiest passage between northern China and Central Asia, and
therefore, formed the basis for the famous Silk Road, which has
been an important route for traders and the military for almost a
millenium.
River erosion/deposition and ancient lake extent
To widen our knowledge of the Holocene fluvial in the Hexi Cor-
ridor, based on previous field surveys, river downcutting, and
accretion rates have been calculated to understand the state of
water and sand transport in rivers. Since this comes from our pre-
vious work, the rate calculation is described in detail in the refer-
ences (Li et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2016). Shore chronology
results for the palaeolake Zhuyeze Lake and Juyanze Lake (Sup-
plemental Table 4) are obtained from the published literature (Jin
et al., 2015; Long et al., 2012).
Proxies and lithology
Climate change in the Hexi Corridor over the past 10,000 years is
reconstructed using representative high-resolution paleoclimate
proxies, including ice cores and lake sediments (Figure 1). In
addition, we collected chronological, literature, and paleoenvi-
ronmental proxy data from the published literature in the study
area that has a continuous chronological sequence and no deposi-
tional interruptions (Supplemental Table 2). The dating data are
dominated by 14C dating and OSL dating sequences, and data that
are not corrected for 14C dating are processed using Calib 8.1.
Social history data
For the effects of climate change on human societies, a large body
of literature and local chronicles are surveyed to obtain the most
reliable information on changes in population size over time
Figure 1. Study region and sampling site. All data are taken from published papers, and these sediment samples were collected from outcrop
profiles and excavated lake profiles of the region. The sampling strategy can be found in the corresponding references (Supplemental Table
1–2, Supplemental Figure 1). 1: HX, 2: ZJDZ, 3: XQ, 4: SKJ, 5: JTL, 6: JDT, 7: HSH, 8: XH, 9: SANDG, 10: SIDG, 11: WDG, 12: LDG, 13:
QDG, 14: BDG, 15: JDG, 16: SHIDG, 17: AX, 18: Xiazhuangzi, 19: Lijiatai, 20: Gulangxian, 21: Niujuangoutai, 22: Qiaoerlun, 23: Shagouhe,
24: Niufangzicao, 25: Sigouzhaizitan, 26: Xiwan, 27: Sigouzhaizi, 28: Qingdabantan, 29: Yezhigou, 30: Shanggoudadui, 31: Kangningqiao, 32:
Donghucun, 33: Ningchanhulinzhan, 34: Shuixiakou, 35: Huangyanghequshouxia, 36: Xitaozigou.
Gao et al. 3
(Cheng, 2007; Jiang, 2008; Zhang and Qi, 1998). As the data
relating to the various factors analyzed are discontinuous, it is not
possible to obtain complete data from 2 AD to 1998 AD. Instead,
the available data are summarized to provide an average of 40
cycles (every 50 years). In the absence of data for 50 years, we
used interpolation between adjacent periods to estimate the miss-
ing data. Ancient site data from Gao and Li (2023).
Result
Evolution of river systems
During the Holocene, there was widespread downcutting of riv-
ers in the Hexi Corridor, creating river terraces (Supplemental
Table 3). The formation of terraces generates large quantities of
sediment that are carried by rivers to accumulate in the middle
and downstream reaches of the river, where they form terminal
lakes and lake sediments in the area. In the Early to Middle
Holocene, the erosion rate was low in the upper reaches of the
river in the Hexi Corridor, but the accumulation rate was high in
the middle and downstream reaches (Table 1). Zhuyeze Lake
reached a high lake level in the Shiyang River, and alluvial pro-
files on the Shule River flood fan show high TOC (Total Organic
Carbon) and pollen (Figure 2e, f and j). Since the Late-Holocene,
lower deposition rates and changes in lake sediment lithology
and deposition rates have occurred in the downstream area of the
Hexi Corridor (Tables 1 and 2). Zhuyeze Lake began to retreat
during this period, with a decrease in TOC and an increase in
Chenopodiaceae pollen content (Figure 2g, h and j). In contrast,
Juyanze Lake reached a high lake level and high A/C and TOC
(Figure 2c, d and i). JDG showed a gradual rise in TOC and pol-
len in the Shule River (Figure 2e and f).
Human activity
During the Neolithic period, ancient sites were mainly located in
the southeastern part of the Hexi Corridor, with a few in the north-
western part, and they were all located at high altitudes (Figure
3a). During the Bronze Age, ancient sites were widely distributed
throughout the region, and the average altitude has decreased
compared to the previous period (Figure 3b). The Hexi Corridor
was formally incorporated into the political system of the Central
Plains Dynasty (88 BC). During the Han Dynasty, ancient cities
were scattered around the Han Great Wall, and during the Tang
Dynasty, they were reduced and mainly distributed in the east of
the Hexi Corridor, but in the Qing Dynasty, the number of ancient
cities proliferated and were distributed along the outer side of the
Ming Great Wall (Figure 3c). Regarding the spatial distribution of
oases, oases were scattered in the lower reaches of the rivers
Table 1. Erosion and accumulation rates of sections and study sites (Li etal., 2015; Wang etal., 2016).
Position Section Period/Cal 14Cage
(BP)
Erosion rates
(cm/year)
Accumulation
rates (cm/year)
Period/Cal 14Cage
(BP)
Erosion rates
(cm/year)
Accumulation
rates (cm/year)
Early and middle
Holocene
Late-Holocene
Upper
reaches
HX 3325–9640 0.062 0.029 0–3325 0.062 0.027
ZJDZ 4089–12,740 0 0.111 0–4089 0.845 0.09
Xiazhuangzi N/A 0 0 0–968 0.217 0
Lijiatai N/A 0 0 0–2105 0.095 0
Gulangxian N/A 0 0 0–1224 0.245 0
Niujuangoutai N/A 0.245 0 N/A 0.245 0
Qiaoerlun N/A 0 0 0–320 0.512 0
Shagouhe 3000–4464 0.056 0 0–3000 0.056 0
Niufangzicao 3000–4412 0.068 0 0–3000 0.068 0
Sigouzhaizitan 3000–6897 0.029 0 0–3000 0.029 0
Xiwan N/A 0 0 0–1232 0.183 0
Sigouzhaizi N/A 0 0 0–1154 0.104 0
Yezhigou 3000–11,250 0.04 0 0–3000 0.04 0
Shanggoudadui 3000–7296 0.03 0 0–3000 0.03 0
Kangningqiao 3000–10,200 0 0.011 0–3000 0.199 0.011
Donghucun 3000–3611 0.036 0 0–3000 0.036 0
Ningchanhulinzhan N/A 0.087 0 N/A 0.087 0
Shuixiakou 3000–14,700 0.014 0 0–3000 0.014 0
Huangyanghequshouxia N/A 0.136 0 N/A 0.136 0
Middle
reaches
JDT 3694–9012 0 0.101 0–3694 0.123 0
HSH 4408–9041 0 0.107 0–4408 0.116 0
XH 4706–7357 0 0.066 0–4706 0.028 0
SANDG 2222–3696 0 0.23 0–2222 0.15 0
SIDG 2222–3696 0 0.2 0–2222 0.14 0
WDG 2222–3696 0 0.16 0–2222 0.1 0
LDG 2222–3696 0 0.26 0–2222 0.17 0
QDG 2222–3696 0 0.29 0–2222 0.19 0
BDG 2222–3696 0 0.13 0–2222 0.09 0
JDG 2228–13,408 0 0.03 0–2228 0.07 0.05
SHIDG 3000–12,288 0 0.06 0–3000 0.74 0.06
AX 2100–10,328 0.01 0.02 0–2100 0.01 0
Downstream
reaches
XQ 3777–13,621 0 0.082 N/A 0 0
SKJ N/A 0 0.007 N/A 0 0.007
JTL 6853–7580 0 0.131 N/A 0 0
4 The Holocene 00(0)
during the Han Dynasty, During the Tang Dynasty, the area of
oases shrank (Figure 3d and e). The peak of the oasis area was
reached in the Qing Dynasty, and the oases in this period were
mainly concentrated in the plain area in the middle reaches of the
river (Figure 3f).
Discussion
River evolution in response to climate change in the
Hexi Corridor during the Holocene
In the endorheic basin, sediments are usually subjected to erosion
in areas of high relief, such as upper river valleys, and carried by
rivers to accumulate in the middle and lower reaches (Hu et al.,
2006). Tectonic activity is usually considered the dominant factor
in the geomorphological evolution process on long time scales;
while on shorter time scales (Millennial or centennial-scale), cli-
mate change is also one of the important controlling conditions
for geomorphological evolution . Climate change affects river
runoff and sediment loads through changes in precipitation, evap-
oration, effective humidity, and vegetation cover, thereby control-
ling the processes of river erosion and accumulation (Gao et al.,
2017). Records from the Greenland Ice Core and the Cariaco
Basin indicate an increase in temperature in the North Atlantic
region since the last deglacial (Liu et al., 2007; Shen et al., 2005).
According to the Donggot Cave, Huguangyan Maar Lake, and
Qinghai Lake records, the intensity of the Asian summer winds
gradually increased from the LGM (Late Glacial Maximum) and
lasted until the Middle Holocene period (Dykoski et al., 2005;
Yancheva et al., 2007). In contrast, there is an out-of-phase of the
effective humidity change between the westerly and monsoon
regimes, based on the Central Asian arid zone lake records and the
Holocene climate simulations (Chen et al., 2008; Li et al., 2020b).
The Hexi Corridor is the northwestern edge of the modern Asian
summer winds, and the region is also influenced by the westerlies,
and water vapor transport is also mainly derived from them (Li
et al., 2020).
In the Shiyang River basin, the strong Asian monsoon in the
Early and Middle Holocene resulted in high river flow and strong
hydrodynamic conditions, which led to enhanced lateral erosion
but reduced vertical erosion while allowing the river to transport
large amounts of sediment (Figure 2m). A large amount of sedi-
ments accumulated in the middle and lower reaches and formed
the stable terminal lake Zhuyeze Lake, which had a high lake
level and was enriched with elements and pollen in lake sedi-
ments during this period (Figure 2h and j). In the Shule River
basin, the rivers carried sediments that accumulated in the middle
reaches of the rivers and formed temporary rivers and lakes on the
left side of the floodplain fan (Mao, 2008). As the climate warms
and becomes wetter, rainfall in the basin increases, plant cover
rises, the submerged level of the flood fan rises, and the ground-
water overflow zone moves toward the middle of the flood fan
(Mao, 2008). The weakening of the monsoon in the
Late-Holocene resulted in droughts and reduced river flows,
which enhanced vertical downcutting of rivers but reduced sedi-
ment transport capacity (Figure 2a, b and m). From about 3000
BP, the accumulation rate of the sediments, elements, and spores
in the lower reaches decreased, and the terminal lake gradually
shrunk in the Shiyang River Basin (Figure 2h and j). Aridification
in the Shule River basin began as late as about 2000 BP, and the
erosion rate was low (Table 1) ( Li et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2016).
Based on the expansion-retreat study of Yanchi Lake in the mid-
dle part of the Hexi Corridor during the Holocene, Li et al found
the Asian summer wind boundary may have oscillated in the Hexi
Corridor on the millennial scale (Li et al., 2013). The main influ-
ence of the Late-Holocene Asian summer winds retreated to the
eastern section of the Hexi Corridor, and the western section was
mainly controlled by the westerlies, so that the Early and Middle
Holocene Shule River was controlled by the monsoon, and the
Late-Holocene Shule River Basin was mainly controlled by the
wetter westerlies.
In the middle and Late-Holocene, the lake level in the Juyanze
Lake was higher, and no stable lakeshore embankment was found
after 1600 BP (Wei, 2019). Based on the lake sediments and
loess-palaeosoil records, combined with modeling results, it is
shown that the westerlies-influenced area was arid in the Early
Holocene, with a wetting trend in the Middle and Late-Holocene
(Chen et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2017a). On the
one hand, winter solar radiation in the Northern Hemisphere grad-
ually increased during the Late-Holocene (Wang and Feng, 2013),
which led to an increase in winter temperatures in the North
Atlantic (Davis et al., 2003) and allowed more water vapor to
enter the westerlies system, which brought precipitation to the
downwind inland areas (Wang et al., 2013). Moreover, warmer
continental temperatures in winter create more cyclonic activity
inland, which enhances westerly flow disturbances and increases
Figure 2. Proxy records of Holocene climate change from the
Hexi corridor. (a) The reconstructed annual precipitation by tree-
ring record from Qilian Mountains (Yang etal., 2014). (b) The gray
line is δ18O of the DLH tree-ring (Yang etal., 2021). The orange line
is the mean fitting curve calculated.(c)-(d) A/C and TOC of G36
from Juyanze Lake (Hartmann and Wünnemann, 2009; Herzschuh
etal., 2004). (e)-(f) TOC and pollen concentration of JDG (Mao,
2008). (g) Chenopodiaceae percentage of QTH02 (Li etal., 2009).
(h) TOC of QTH01 from Zhuyeze Lake (Li etal., 2012). (i) Changes
in lake levels in the Zhuyeze Lake (Long etal., 2012). (j) Changes in
lake levels in the Juyanze Lake (Jin etal., 2015). (k) δ18O of Guliya
ice core (Thompson etal., 1997). (l) Wetness index in westerly
region (Chen etal., 2008). (m) Central Asian Monsoon Mean
Humidity Index (Herzschuh etal., 2006).
Gao et al. 5
convective precipitation (Chen et al., 2008). On the other hand,
the intensity of summer solar radiation in the Northern Hemi-
sphere tended to decrease during the Middle and Late-Holocene
(Berger and Loutre, 1991; Wang et al., 2013), and the difference
between winter and summer solar radiation became smaller,
which led to an increase in precipitation and a decrease in
Table 2. Changes in lithology and accumulation rate of lake sediments in the Hexi Corridor and their surrounding areas since the Holocene.
Name accumulation
rate (mm/a)
Average
accumulation
rate (mm/a)
Lithology in the
Late-Holocene
Accumulation
rate in the
Late-Holocene
(mm/a)
Lithology in the
Mid-Holocene
Accumulation
rate in the
Mid-Holocene
(mm/a)
Lithology
in the Early
Holocene
Accumulation
rate in the Early
Holocene (mm/a)
Zhuyeze
Lake
0.28–1.57 0.55 Top Eiloan,
Alluvial
sediments
1.57 Peat,
Lacustrine
sediments
0.28, 0.39 Sand layers,
Lacustrine sedi-
ments
2.32, 0.36
Yanchi
Lake
0.08–0.52 0.23 Top eiloan, 0.13 Peat,
Lacustrine
sediments
0.33, 0.08 Peat.
Lacustrines edi-
ments
0.52
Huahai
Lake
0.07–1.17 0.63 Alluvial
sediments
1.17 Clay sediments 0.63 Clay sediments 0.59
Juyanze
Lake
0.19–1.38 0.77 Sand layers,
Slit sediments
1.37 Sand Layers,
Lacustrine
sediments
1.29, 0.73 Lacustrine sedi-
ment,
Alluvial sedi-
ments
0.32
Yitang
Lake
0.48–1.96 0.92 Clay sediments 0.83 Clay sediments,
Slit sediments
1.37 Clay sediments,
Slit sediments
2.07
Figure 3. Ancient site in the Hexi Corridor between Neolithic to Historic Period (a–c) and the extent of the Heihe Oasis in the historical
period (d–f).
6 The Holocene 00(0)
evaporation in the Juyanze Lake region, increasing effective
humidity. Thus, the middle to Late-Holocene was a wetter period
in the Juyanze Lake, with high lake levels (Figure 2i and l).
Human-river relationships in the Late-Holocene of
the Hexi Corridor
The mountains, alluvial fans, rivers, and terminal lakes constitute
a nearly ideal environment for flood agriculture, and the spring
and summer floods produced by melting glaciers and snow pro-
vide a reliable source of water for irrigation. Local precipitation
and glacial meltwater vary with climate change, thus affecting the
flow in the Hexi Corridor, which has a significant impact on the
water supply of human settlements in the Hexi Corridor. We have
mapped the impact of human activities on rivers at different times
in the Hexi Corridor (Figure 4). Since the Late-Holocene, human
activities in the Hexi Corridor have shown complex features and
stage changes (Li, 2009, 2011). After entering the historical
period, with the increase of population and structural changes in
the Hexi Corridor, its mode of production experienced several
iterations in different dynasties, with a progressively strong influ-
ence on rivers.
The alluvial fan situated before the mountains in the Hexi Cor-
ridor displays substantial loess accumulation, accompanied by
deep undercutting of the river valley. Settling in the alluvial pla-
teau provides a strategic escape from flooding, offering ample
available water resources. Downstream of the alluvial fan, the
river channel undergoes intensive scouring, resulting in signifi-
cant soil and water erosion and the formation of the Gobi Beach.
Progressing further downstream, the river channel tends to stabi-
lize, giving rise to the oasis in the river valley, and eventually
culminating in the formation of the caudal lake area in the lower
part of the river. The diverse water conditions in these regions
influenced human settlements during that era. In areas surround-
ing terminal lakes or featuring favorable conditions on the allu-
vial terrace, human communities engaged in deforestation,
initiated crop cultivation, and began smelting activities. This
marked the onset of a relatively advanced agricultural economy in
these regions. (Dong et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2020). On the edge
of the desert, where water is scarce, human beings are mainly
engaged in the graze way of life, with few scattered sites (Yang
et al., 2020). When the climate becomes cold and dry, river sys-
tems shrink and land degradation occurs (Hou et al., 2012; Shen
et al., 2005), agricultural culture is completely replaced by animal
husbandry culture. During the early Late-Holocene, human pro-
duction activities can have an impact on the surface environment
and rivers, such as vegetation community reduction, land degra-
dation, increased erosion rate, and pollution, but to a small extent
(Figure 4) (Ren et al., 2021, 2022; Yang et al., 2017, 2019).
Human production activities and settlement reflected the depen-
dence on rivers, and the diversion of rivers and the reduction of
water volume affected the livelihoods of humans in the region,
thus contributing to the evolution of civilization.
The construction of the Hexi Corridor expanded over the past
2000 years due to bank stabilization, construction of canals,
drainage construction of reservoirs and other measures (Wu and
Guo, 1996). In a previous study, we used PLR (Piecewise Linear
Regression) to analyze the inflection point in the evolution of
lakes in the Hexi Corridor, the period when the Han Dynasty
began to rule the Hexi Corridor (Li et al., 2023). We analyzed the
anthropogenic signals expressed in the sediment proxies of the
Hexi Corridor and found that MS (Magnetic Susceptibility) and
CaCO3 in the Yanchi Lake and the median grain size of the
Zhuyeze Lake show an increasing trend in the Tang and Qing
Dynasties, which may be attributed to the reduction of the regional
vegetation cover and soil erosion due to the population boom in
the Hexi Corridor since there were no sudden change points in
temperature and precipitation at this time (Figure 5a–f and i) (Hou
et al., 2012; Li et al., 2012; Marcott et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2005;
Yu et al., 2006). The TOC of the Zhuyeze Lake during the Tang
Dynasties is a sudden increase that may be attributed to the favor-
able conditions of regional vegetation due to anthropogenic
development at that time, while the subsequent decrease is due
the rebels and nomadic domination (Figure 5g) (Li et al., 2017).
Figure 4. The impact of human activities on rivers at different times in the Hexi Corridor.
Gao et al. 7
The TOC of Yitang Lake has become less coherent with climate
since 3000 BP, possibly related to disturbances from increasing
anthropogenic activities in the region (Figure 5h) (Zhao et al.,
2015). Reconstructions of human water use and lake water over
the past 2000 years also suggest that human water use in the upper
and middle reaches alters downstream runoff into the lake, which
in turn affects lake evolution (Figure 5j and k) (Lu et al., 2015).
Studies on the contribution of human activities to lake changes
during the historical period showed that the magnitude of human
activities in the lower Shiyang River lakes was 28% throughout
the historical period, and as high as 88% since the Qing Dynasty,
and the increase in population was the main reason for the rapid
shrinkage and even sanding of the lakes in the later period (Figure
5f) (Wang et al., 2009). From the point of view of the process of
lake evolution in Northwest China, the rate of drying and shrink-
ing of lakes in the past 2000 years has far exceeded that of the
natural period, and the lakes in the Hexi Corridor and its sur-
rounding areas have receded significantly, with the Zhuyeze
Lake, Yanchi Lake, Huahai Lake, and Jiayanze Lake drying up
rapidly (Table 2)(Wang et al., 2002).
Taking the Shule River as an example, we specifically review
the dynamic process of the river over the past 2000 years. There
should be at least three directions of runoffs on the alluvial flood
fan of the Shule River: northeast, north, and northwest during the
Han Dynasty, each flowing into a different area. Diverting water
for irrigation, and changing the landscape led to a decline in the
groundwater level during the 1900–1500 BP (Mao, 2008). People
redevelopment the western and northern parts of the floodplain
fan in the Tang Dynasty, resulting in reduced runoff to the north-
east. The Hexi Corridor was occupied by ethnic minorities at the
end of the Tang Dynasty. Destruction of agricultural land and
waterways coupled with differences in livelihoods have led to the
abandonment of oases and desertification (Li, 2003). After the
Tang Dynasty, the northwestern runoff gradually declined and
finally ceased to flow, the northeastern runoff gradually became
the largest one, and the northward runoff was more or less stable
(Zhang, 2010). Human activity was weak during this period, and
river evolution is largely attributable to intrinsic behavior. During
the Qing Dynasty, the Changma Dam was built at the mouth of
the Shule River, making it possible for the Shule River to flow
only to the northeast, and due to the lack of water, the ancient
oasis to the northwest was completely desertified (Zhang, 2010).
The study of the Hongshuiba River in the Hexi Corridor also
shows that human activities were synchronous with northward
migrations at 1100 BP (Pan et al., 2023). In the field investigation
of the Hongshui River, we also found that the lateral erosion of
the Hongshui River cut off the Great Wall of Han and that this
lateral rerouting of the river is likely to have been affected by
human-induced land-cover changes, and this kind of erosion has
also been found in the study of the Loess Plateau (Figure 3e)
(Zhao et al., 2022).
The evolution of rivers as a result of the interaction
between climate change and human activity in the
global endorheic zone during the Holocene
The majority of global endorheic zones are situated in arid and
semi-arid regions, encompassing approximately one-fifth of the
world’s land area (Meybeck, 2003). These zones have distinctive
characteristics: being inland and bounded by topographic barri-
ers, they lack hydrological connections with the ocean, resulting
in a relatively independent hydrological cycle system. Simultane-
ously, their susceptibility to climate change and human activities
is heightened due to water scarcity, wherein even minor fluctua-
tions in water quantity within the basin can trigger the expansion
or retreat of terminal lakes (Meybeck, 2003). We chose Lake Titi-
caca and the Tarim Basin to review the evolution of the river sys-
tem during the Holocene period and to compare them with the
fluvial zone of the Hexi Corridor.
Lake Titicaca is located at the northern end of the endorheic
Altiplano basin high in the Andes on the border of Peru and
Bolivia. The lake has been an important resource for people living
in the region for millennia and is sensitive to climate variability on
interannual to millennial timescales (Baker et al., 2005). The
archeological record points to signs of human activity in this area
dating back to around 10,000 BP, evidence of early human settle-
ment is found in the form of primitive tools and artifacts discov-
ered near the lake, suggesting that the lake’s early inhabitants
relied heavily on hunting, gathering, and fishing for sustenance
(Bruno, 2014). The lacustrine sedimentary record of Lake Titicaca
generally indicates the low water level phenomenon of the lake in
the early and Middle Holocene (Baker et al., 2005; Mourguiart
et al., 1998; Wirrmann, 1987). This period of long-term falling
lake levels has been attributed to reduced intensity of the SASM
(South American Summer Monsoon) and lower amounts of pre-
cipitation (Baker and Fritz, 2015). Archeological research has
documented the emergence of hunter–forager populations during
this period, although population densities remained low largely
Figure 5. Changes in paleoenvironmental proxies from typical
records since the Holocene. (a) Average annual temperature
anomaly in the northern hemisphere (Hou etal., 2012) (b)
Reconstructed precipitation over the Tibetan Plateau (Marcott
etal., 2013). (c) Dongge Cave δ18O (Wang etal., 2005). (d)- (e)
CaCO3 and MS from Yanchi Lake (Yu etal., 2006). (f)- (g) TOC
and Medium diameter from Zhuyeze Lake (Li etal., 2012; Li etal.,
2017). (h)TOC of Yitang Lake (Zhao etal., 2015). (i) Population
of the Hexi Corridor over the past 2000 years. (j)- (k) Changes in
elements of the reconstructed catchment water balance over the
past 2000 years in the midstream and downstream of Heihe River
(Lu etal., 2015).
8 The Holocene 00(0)
(Capriles, 2014; Gayo et al., 2015). The Late-Holocene was a time
of sweeping transformation on two counts: the lake heights went
from decreasing to increasing, and the pattern of human liveli-
hoods transitioned from hunting-feeding to an agro-pastoral life
(Bruno, 2014; Capriles, 2014). The consistency between changes
in the lake stage and shifts in livelihoods, suggests that the changes
in the availability of water and arable land had consequences for
people who resided around the lake. During this period, humans
cultivated potatoes, quinoa, and maize along the fertile shores of
the lake, and the domestication of llamas and alpacas also began
during this period, providing a reliable source of wool, meat, and
transport (Bruno, 2014). Changes in lifestyles have enhanced the
impact of human activities, and Paduano et al suggested that the
maximal pollen percentage of Chenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae
and the increase in Pediastrum abundance is due to human distur-
bance during the Late-Holocene (Paduano et al., 2003). Hippe et al
used a multi-nuclide approach to quantifying soil erosion and
found that compared to the Late Pleistocene-Holocene, the Late-
Holocene erosion rate was an order of magnitude faster evident
(Hippe et al., 2021). It is well established that soils become vulner-
able to rain splash and sheetwash erosion when subjected to fire,
grazing, or cultivation, which disrupt the capacity of plants to bind
the soil. Thus, erosive change was linked to human activities such
as deforestation, land clearance for agriculture, and herding inten-
sification in the Late-Holocene of Lake Titicaca basin.
The Tarim River stands as the principal river in the Tarim Basin,
with Lop Nur serving as the ancient river’s terminal lake and the
depositional center of the entire basin. Findings indicate that the
climatic attributes of the Tarim Basin are predominantly influenced
by the westerly belt, exhibiting primarily synchronized periods of
cold-wet and warm-arid conditions. These climatic variations play
a crucial role in shaping the patterns of river runoff and lake levels
in the region (Jia et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2016a; Yang et al., 2013).
The Xiaohe culture was an early bronze culture in the region, disap-
pearing in 3300 BP and the desiccation of the lake and the reduction
of the surface water resources corresponded to the decline of the
Xiaohe culture and the abandonment of the area (Zhang et al.,
2017b). An arid environment existed between 3500–2600 BP and
standing surface water was minimal or absent. The multi-proxy
records of Lop Nur show that humid conditions between 2300 BP
and 2100 BP, supported the ancient Loulan Kingdom until aridifi-
cation began (Liu et al., 2016b, 2016c; Yang et al., 2006). The his-
torical changes in the lake level were coincided with the ancient
Loulan Kingdom’s collapse, showing that the dynamics of hydro-
logical conditions in the catchment may have a direct influence on
the fall of human settlement in drylands (Li et al., 2018; Shao et al.,
2022). Scholars have actively debated the factors contributing to
changes in water resources. The suggested reasons for its decline
encompass climate change, marked by aridification, shifts in the
course of the Tarim River, abandonment of the ancient Silk Road
route, and diverse human activities, including conflicts, wars, and
disputes over water for both irrigation and domestic needs (Mischke
et al., 2019; Xie et al., 2021; Xu et al., 2017). In the Qing Dynasty,
extensive farmland was cultivated in the middle and upper reaches
of the Tarim River, resulting in a diminished downstream water
flow. Subsequently, after the 1950s, both the human population and
land reclamation activities experienced a notable increase (Yu
et al., 2016). Aside from the construction of diversion canals,
humans are inclined to erect barrages within rivers. This human
intervention has led to alterations in the natural fluvial processes
and morphology of the Tarim River, contributing to a reduction in
the diversity of the river system. (Yu et al., 2016).
By comparing the Holocene river’s evolution in the three
regions, we find that the impacts of climate change on river evolu-
tion are macroscopic and continuous, while the influences of
human activities are local and disconnected, which is consistent
with findings from other endorheic regions, such as Aral Sea,
Ebinur Lake, Murray River and rivers in the arid southwest of the
USA (Graf, 1988; Maheshwari et al., 1995; Sala, 2019; Wang et al.,
2021). In contrast to the Hexi Corridor and the Tarim Basin, the
Lake Titicaca area appears to experience less impact from human
activities. This discrepancy is likely attributed to the higher altitude
and comparatively more humid climatic conditions in the Lake Titi-
caca region, in contrast to the arid climate and delicate ecosystems
found in the Tarim Basin and the Hexi Corridor. Additionally, the
extended history of human activities in the Lake Titicaca area may
contribute to a more harmonious coexistence with the environment,
leading to reduced disturbances compared to the regions with a
more recent and intensive history of human intervention. During
the Holocene, human adaptations have primarily been attuned to
the evolution of rivers. Humans engage in localized modifications
through the allocation of water resources, which exert a noticeable
influence on regional human endeavors and environmental changes.
However, their impact is not significantly pronounced on the
broader allocation of water resources across the entire basin or the
overall evolution of the river system. With the progression of tech-
nology and increased utilization of tools, human activities such as
dam construction, irrigation, and vegetation destruction through
cultivation are prone to disrupt the delicate equilibrium between
sediment flux and the transporting force driven by river discharge
(Russell et al., 2021). This disturbance can result in a sequence of
processes, including vertical erosion-deposition-lateral erosion
alternation (Best, 2019; Chen et al., 2021; Gibling, 2018; Knox,
2001), and ultimately lead to outcomes such as channel abandon-
ment, terminal lake droughts, among others (Wang and Li, 1983;
Zhang, 2001). However, the influence of human activities on the
environment varies across regions due to disparities in the stages of
human civilization evolution. Agricultural civilizations typically
exert a more significant transformation on the environment com-
pared to pastoralism. Moreover, the timing of the Industrial Revo-
lution and the level of technological development play crucial roles
in determining the magnitude of the impact of contemporary human
activities. In general, human-managed river systems initiate at
diverse times in different regions, and as human intervention inten-
sifies in river and sediment systems, the variability in river evolu-
tion becomes more pronounced.
Conclusion
We examine the development of river systems in the Holocene
era within the Hexi Corridor. The comprehensive records and
findings contribute to unraveling the intricate dynamics of river
evolution across various stages, offering insights that form a
foundation for understanding global endorheic zone river evolu-
tion. The findings indicate that climate change played a pivotal
role in shaping the Hexi Corridor’s river system during the
Holocene. Early human activities involved localized modifica-
tions through water resource allocation, minimally impacting
the overall basin’s water configuration and river evolution.
Notably, human influence on the river system in the Hexi Cor-
ridor gained prominence around 1000 BP, marking a stage of
human domination. While the evolutionary stages of rivers in
the Hexi Corridor share similarities with those in the global
endorheic zone, the timing of human intervention in river evolu-
tion differs.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support
for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: We
acknowledges the support by the National Natural Science Foun-
dation of China, No. 42371159, 42077415; the Second Tibetan
Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (STEP), No.
2019QZKK0202.
ORCID iD
Yu Li https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3381-5372
Gao et al. 9
Supplemental material
Supplemental material for this article is available online.
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