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Ore Geology Reviews 167 (2024) 105973
Available online 11 March 2024
0169-1368/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
Prolonged exhumation and preservation of the Yuku molybdenum ore eld,
East Qinling, China: Constraints from medium- to
low-temperature thermochronology
Fan Yang
a
,
b
,
c
,
*
, Yameng Wen
a
,
b
, Gilby Jepson
d
, M. Santosh
c
,
e
, Lin Wu
f
, Xiaoming Shen
g
,
Hasnain Ali
a
a
Key Laboratory of Mineral Resources in Western China (Gansu Province), School of Earth Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
b
Key Laboratory of Metallogenic Prediction of Nonferrous Metals and Geological Environment Monitoring (Central South University), Ministry of Education, Changsha
410083, China
c
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
d
School of Geosciences, University of Oklahoma, OK 73019, USA
e
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
f
Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
g
National Institute of Natural Hazards, Ministry of Emergency Management of China, Beijing 100085, China
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Thermochronology
Thermal history modelling
Exhumation and preservation
Yuku Mo ore eld
East Qinling Orogen
ABSTRACT
Molybdenum (Mo) is an important globally strategic metal and mostly occurs as molybdenite (MoS
2
) in diverse
Mo deposits. The Yuku ore eld includes multiple porphyry-skarn Mo deposits and forms a signicant world-class
Mo cluster in the Qinling molybdenum belt, central China. Previous studies on the ore eld were largely related
to its genesis, and did not highlight the post-mineralization modications that are important to formulate pro-
specting strategies. The exhumation and preservation processes of the ore eld through multiple tectonic events
also remain poorly understood. Here, we conducted multi-method apatite U-Pb, ssion-track and (U-Th)/He and
zircon (U-Th)/He medium- to low-temperature thermochronology and related thermal history modelling on
granitoids from the ore-hosting Shibaogou and Yuku plutons in the Yuku ore eld, and integrated published
studies to unravel the post-mineralization exhumation and preservation of Mo deposits. The newly determined
apatite U-Pb (158.3–104.9 Ma), zircon (U-Th)/He (158.2–115.0 Ma), apatite ssion-track (90.8–63.1 Ma), and
apatite (U-Th)/He (67.8–35.3 Ma) ages in this study document multiple cooling pulses during post-magma
emplacement. The low-temperature thermochronological ages of 158.2–35.3 Ma also record the post-
mineralization cooling and exhumation history. The thermal history modelling indicates an Early Cretaceous
(132–125 Ma) rapid cooling pulse, two enhanced (or accelerated) cooling pulses at ca. 125–59 Ma and post-10
Ma, together with a slow cooling or reheating pulse at ca. 59–10 Ma in the Yuku ore eld. The Early Cretaceous
rapid cooling is related to the coeval collisional tectonics of the East Qinling Orogen. The enhanced cooling at ca.
125–59 Ma is triggered by the post-collisional assembly of the North China and Yangtze Blocks, the subduction of
Paleo-Pacic Plate, and the sinistral strike-slip motion of the nearby Tan-Lu Fault Zone. The slow cooling during
ca. 59–10 Ma and the post-10 Ma enhanced cooling are correlated with the extensional tectonics derived by the
subduction of Pacic Plate and the far-eld effects from India-Eurasia collision. The Yuku area underwent lower
exhumation in comparison to the nearby Shibaoguo and Huangbeiling areas in the Yuku ore eld, which thus is
helpful to the preservation of Mo deposits. The un-exhumated areas within 1.0 km at the inner and outer contact
zones between the Yuku pluton and its wall rocks are postulated to be favorable sites for Mo prospecting. In
addition, the un-exhumated areas surrounding other Late Mesozoic plutons in the Luanchuan region are also
suggested to have high potential for Mo exploration.
* Corresponding author at: School of Earth Sciences, Lanzhou University, No.222 South Tianshui Road, Chengguan District, Lanzhou 730000, China.
E-mail address: fanyang@lzu.edu.cn (F. Yang).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Ore Geology Reviews
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oregeorev
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2024.105973
Received 11 October 2023; Received in revised form 22 February 2024; Accepted 5 March 2024
Ore Geology Reviews 167 (2024) 105973
2
1. Introduction
Molybdenum (Mo) has been widely utilized in various industries and
is an important strategic metal (Jiang et al., 2013; Yi et al., 2021). Global
molybdenum reserves are estimated at 180 million tons, with China,
Peru, the United States of America, Chile, and Russia as the major pro-
ducers (Summaries, 2021). China is the largest molybdenum producer
on the global scale and has six major Mo belts in the East Qinling-Dabie,
Xing-Meng, Middle-Lower Yangtze River, South China, Tibet Plateau,
and Tianshan-Beishan (Fig. 1a; Fan et al., 2014), with Mo reserves of 83
million tons (Summaries, 2021). The Qinling Orogen, including various
Mo deposits (e.g. porphyry, skarn, carbonate, uorite, and felsic-quartz
veins), is well-known as the major host of Mo deposits in China (Chen
et al., 2020). The Mo deposits in the Qinling Orogen are dated at ca.
1850 Ma, 1760 Ma, 850 Ma, 430 Ma, 250–200 Ma, 160–130 Ma, and
125–105 Ma, but most of them formed at ca. 160–105 Ma as porphyry-
skarn Mo deposits (Chen et al., 2020). The Mo deposits in the Qinling
Orogen host Mo reserves of almost 10 million tons and mostly belong to
the Jinduicheng and Luanchuan ore clusters (Zhu et al., 2010; Cao et al.,
2015). The Luanchuan ore cluster (more than 2 million tons Mo re-
serves) is divided into the Nannihu and Yuku Mo ore elds, both which
include several Mo deposits (e.g. Nannihu, Shandaozhuang, Yuku) with
Mo reserves of above 0.5 million tons (Fig. 1b-c; Mao et al., 2008; Yang
et al., 2012a; Yang et al., 2020a).
The Yuku Mo ore eld consists mainly of the Dongyuku porphyry-
skarn Mo-W, the Zhongyuku skarn-hydrothermal Zn-S, and the
Fig. 1. (a-b) Tectonic division of China and the East Qinling Orogen (modied after Fan et al., 2014; Yang et al., 2022a); (c) Geological map and known Mo-W-Pb-Zn-
Ag deposits of the Luanchuan ore cluster (modied after Yang et al., 2019). Deposit abbreviations: NNH, Nannihu; LTS, Luotuoshan; MQ, Maquan; SDZ, San-
daozhuang; SFG, Shangfanggou; YHG, Yinhegou; YSA, Yangshuao; LSBG, Lengshuibeigou; YMG, Yumugou; ZZG, Zhazigou; SBG, Shibaogou; ZYK, Zhongyuku; DYK,
Dongyuku; DWG, Dawanggou; YDG, Yindonggou; SDG, Sandaogou; HTC, Hetaocha; HDG, Hongdonggou; BSD, Baishadong; XG, Xigou; JDG, Jiudinggou; BLG,
Bailugou. Pluton abbreviations: NNH, Nannihu; MQ, Maquan; SFG, Shangfanggou; HBL, Huangbeiling; YK, Yuku; SBG, Shibaogou; DP, Daping. Orogen and block
abbreviations: CAOB, Central Asian Orogenic Belt; CCO, Central China Orogen; NCB, North China Block. Age data abbreviation: AUPb, Apatite U-Pb age; ZHe, Zircon
(U-Th)/He age; AFT, Apatite ssion-track age; AHe, Apatite (U-Th)/He age. The apatite U-Pb ages of samples SBG-1, SBG-2, and YK-11 are from Yang et al. (2020a),
other all age data are dated in this study.
F. Yang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 167 (2024) 105973
3
Dawanggou and Yindonggou hydrothermal Pb-Zn-Ag deposits (Fig. 1c).
Previous studies in the Yuku ore eld have focused on the petrogenesis,
tectonic evolution, ore genesis, and exploration of deposits and related
granitic plutons (Yan et al., 2011; Yang et al., 2012a; Cao et al., 2014;
Han et al., 2015; Wu et al., 2015; Jia et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2018; Xue
et al., 2018; Guo et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2020a; Xue et al., 2021a; Xue
et al., 2021b; Qian et al., 2023; Ren et al., 2023). These studies have
claried the origin and ore-forming processes and indicated that an
extensional tectonic setting during Early Cretaceous is responsible for
the formation of these deposits and related plutons in the Yuku ore eld.
However, the post-mineralization exhumation, preservation, and mod-
ications of these deposits and related ore-hosting plutons have not been
elucidated, which have hindered Mo prospecting. Usually, a compre-
hensive understanding of exhumation and preservation processes of ore
deposits is the key factor for prospecting (Zhai et al., 2000). Yang et al.
(2022a) employed apatite U-Pb, ssion-track, and (U-Th)/He triple-
dating and related thermal history modelling to evaluate the exhuma-
tion and preservation of the Yumugou Mo-W deposit in the Yuku ore
eld, but are not representative of the whole Yuku Mo eld. Considering
the global importance and the continuous discovery of Mo resources (e.
g. Shibaogou, Zhazigou) in the Yuku ore eld (Xue et al., 2021a; Xu
et al., 2023), the understanding of the post-mineralization exhumation,
preservation, and modications of the whole Yuku ore eld is very
important to reconstruct the original nature of Mo deposits and to guide
the exploration of Mo resources (Yang et al., 2022a). In addition, the
ore-forming temperatures of the Mo-W-Pb-Zn polymetallic deposits in
the Yuku ore eld are reported at ca. 290–387 ◦C (uid inclusion data:
Duan et al., 2011; Xue et al., 2021a; Xue et al., 2021b; Xu et al., 2023),
which have been recorded by medium- to low-temperature thermo-
chronology (e.g. Ar-Ar, ssion-track, (U-Th)/He) (Yang et al., 2022a; Yu
et al., 2022a).
Regional uplift and exhumation have been found to play key role in
the preservation and modications of ore deposits (Zhai et al., 2000).
Thermochronology is a robust tool to quantitatively determine exhu-
mation (Yuan, 2016; Wang et al., 2008; Yin et al., 2019; Huang et al.,
2021). Apatite is the most commonly used mineral for thermochrono-
logical dating and includes U-Pb, ssion-track and (U-Th)/He isotopic
systems (Chew and Spikings, 2015). Specically, apatite U-Pb (AUPb)
system has a closure temperature of 375–600 ◦C (Kirkland et al., 2018)
or 400–500 ◦C (Chamberlain and Bowring, 2001) and a Pb partial
retention zone of 350–570 ◦C (Cochrane et al., 2014), which has been
dened as a medium-temperature thermochronometer (Chew and
Spikings, 2021). Apatite ssion-track (AFT) system shows a closure
temperature of 90–120 ◦C and a partial annealing zone (APAZ) of
60–120 ◦C (Ketcham et al., 1999). Apatite (U-Th)/He) (AHe) system has
a closure temperature of 55–80 ◦C and a He partial retention zone
(APRZ) of 40–80 ◦C (Wolf et al., 1998). The commonly used zircon (U-
Th)/He) (ZHe) system hosts a closure temperature of 160–200 ◦C and a
He partial retention zone (ZPRZ) of 130–200 ◦C (Reiners, 2005).
Accordingly, the ZHe, AFT, and AHe isotopic systems record cooling
from 200 to 40 ◦C, and are thus used as low-temperature thermo-
chronometers for resolving thermal evolution processes at upper-crustal
and near-surface (Chew and Spikings, 2021). Up to now, several studies
have successfully integrated U-Pb, ssion-track and (U-Th)/He dating of
apatite and zircon to resolve the post-mineralization exhumation,
preservation and modications of ore deposits (Leng et al., 2018; Yang
et al., 2020b; Gong et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2022; Li et al., 2023; Qiu
et al., 2023).
In this study, we collected granite samples from surface outcrops and
drill holes in the Shibaogou and Yuku plutons within the Yuku ore eld,
and performed systematic apatite U-Pb, ssion-track and (U-Th)/He and
zircon (U-Th)/He thermochronological and associated thermal history
modelling investigations. In conjunction with published studies in the
Luanchuan ore cluster, especially the uplift and exhumation of the
Yumugou Mo-W deposit (Yang et al., 2022a), our purpose is to docu-
ment the post-mineralization exhumation and thermal evolution history
of the Yuku ore eld and to elucidate their correlations with regional
tectonic evolution of the East Qinling Orogen during Late Mesozoic to
Cenozoic. In addition, we also evaluated the exhumation degree and
preservation potential of the Yuku Mo ore eld to further guide Mo
prospecting in the Luanchuan region, East Qinling Orogen.
2. Geological background
2.1. Regional geology
The East Qinling Orogen is an important part of the greater Central
China Orogen (CCO) that is sandwiched between the North China and
Yangtze Blocks (Fig. 1a-b; Dong and Santosh, 2016; Dong et al., 2021).
The East Qinling Orogen includes the southern margin of North China
Block, Huaxiong Block, North Qinling Terrane, South Qinling Terrane,
and the northern margin of Yangtze Block from north to south, which are
separated by the Sanbao Fault, Luanchuan Fault, Shangdan Suture, and
Mianlue Suture in sequence (Fig. 1b). Since the Paleozoic, the East
Qinling Orogen underwent two stages of Paleozoic subduction along the
Shangdan Suture, the Triassic collision along the Mianlue Suture, the
Early to Middle Jurassic post-collisional collapse, and the Late Jurassic
to Early Cretaceous compressional deformation (Qiu et al., 2018; Dong
et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2022b). During the Late Mesozoic, the East Qinling
Orogen also witnessed the post-collisional compression-extension and
the back-arc extension derived by the westward Paleo-Pacic Plate
subduction (Li et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2019). In addition, the East
Qinling Orogen is also the major host for Mo resources in China (Fig. 1a;
Chen et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2021), most of Mo deposits in the orogen are
concentrated within the Huaxiong Block and the North Qinling Terrane
(Fig. 1b; Li et al., 2012).
In the East Qinling Orogen, the Luanchuan ore cluster (or named
district) is the most important part of the East Qinling-Dabie Mo belt and
has Mo reserves of over 2 million tons (Fig. 1c; Mao et al., 2008; Yang
et al., 2017). The strata in the cluster are the Guandaokou, Luanchuan,
Taowan, and Kuanping Groups (Fig. 1c; Cao et al., 2015). The lithology
is dominated by the Proterozoic and Paleozoic sedimentary units, which
consists mainly of the Mesoproterozoic marble and mac volcanic rocks,
Neoproterozoic carbonate, clastic and volcanic rocks, and Paleozoic
carbonate and clastic rocks (Fig. 1c). Faults and folds widely developed
in the cluster, which are represented by the major NW-trending Luan-
chuan and Miaozi Faults, along with several NE- and NW-trending sec-
ondary faults (Fig. 1c; Yang et al., 2020a). The intrusive rocks are the
Late Jurassic to Cretaceous (ca. 160–108 Ma) granitic plutons as well as
the Meso- to Neoproterozoic alkaline granite, metagabbro, and syenite
porphyry (Yang et al., 2019). The major deposit types in the cluster
contain porphyry-skarn Mo-W, skarn-hydrothermal Zn-S, and hydro-
thermal Pb-Zn-Ag deposits surrounding Late Jurassic to Cretaceous
granitic plutons (e.g. Nannihu, Yuku, Huangbeiling), which are divided
into the Nannihu and Yuku ore elds (Fig. 1c; Cao et al., 2015).
2.2. Deposit geology
The Yuku ore eld comprises Shibaogou, Huangbeiling, and Yuku
granitic plutons, along with the Dongyuku porphyry-skarn Mo-W, the
Zhongyuku skarn-hydrothermal Zn-S, and the Dawanggou and Yin-
donggou hydrothermal Pb-Zn-Ag deposits (Fig. 1c). Continuous explo-
ration of the ore eld also discovered several new deposits during the
past decade, such as the Yumugou porphyry-skarn Mo-W (Yang et al.,
2022b), the Shibaogou skarn Mo-Pb-Zn (Xu et al., 2023), and the Zha-
zigou skarn W-Mo (Xue et al., 2021a) deposits (Fig. 1c). In combination
with the previously explored Mo-W polymetallic deposits, the Yuku ore
eld shows high Mo-W polymetallic metallogenetic potential (Fig. 1c;
Yang et al., 2020a).
In summary, the Yuku ore eld consists of the Yumugou and Don-
gyuku porphyry-skarn Mo-W, the Zhazigou skarn W-Mo, the Shibaogou
skarn Mo-Pb-Zn (Fig. 2a-c), the Zhongyuku skarn-hydrothermal Zn-S,
F. Yang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 167 (2024) 105973
4
and the Dawanggou and Yindonggou hydrothermal Pb-Zn-Ag deposits
from the center to periphery surrounding the Shibaogou, Yuku, and
Huangbeiling plutons (Fig. 1c). The porphyry-skarn deposits in the
center of these plutons (e.g. Shibaogou, Yuku, Huangbeiling) formed at
the inner and/or outer contact zones between these plutons and their
nearby strata (Cao et al., 2015). The intermediate skarn-hydrothermal
deposits generated along the contact zones between these plutons and
their nearby strata (Yang et al., 2017). The hydrothermal deposits in the
periphery of these plutons formed at the secondary NE-trending strike-
slip and the NWW-trending bedding fault zones (Fig. 1c; Duan et al.,
2010; Cao et al., 2014). The strata in the ore eld are from the Luan-
chuan and Guandaokou Groups and include schist, slate, metasandstone,
dolomite marble, and quartzite. The structure is represented by a series
of NE- and NW-trending secondary faults derived from the regional
major Luanchuan Fault (Fig. 1c). The magmatic rocks contain the major
Late Mesozoic Shibaogou, Yuku, and Huangbeiling granitic plutons and
a few Proterozoic metagabbro, the granitic plutons consist mostly of
granite, monzogranite, and granite porphyry (Cao et al., 2015). The ore-
hosting rocks are dominated by granite, hornfels, skarn, marble, and
metasandstone, their major ore minerals are molybdenite, scheelite,
sphalerite, galena, and pyrite (Yang et al., 2022b). The detailed ore-
forming features and stages of these ore deposits in the Yuku ore eld
are outlined in TSGEI (2009), Yan et al. (2011), Cao et al. (2015), Xue
et al. (2021a), Yang et al. (2022b), and Xu et al. (2023).
3. Sampling and petrography
Eleven representative samples were collected from the Yuku ore
Fig. 2. Representative eld photographs of the Shibaogou Mo-Pb-Zn deposit (a-c) as well as the Shibaogou (d-e, g-i) and Yuku (f) plutons. Abbreviations: MMEs,
mac microgranular enclaves.
Table 1
Locations and details of samples from the Shibaogou and Yuku plutons.
Sample
No.
Location Coordinate Elevation Rock type
SBG-1 Shibaogou
pluton outcrop
N 33◦50
′
15.23
″
; E
111◦31
′
40.25
″
1021 m Porphyritic
monzogranite
SBG-2 Shibaogou
pluton outcrop
N 33◦51
′
48.32
″
; E
111◦31
′
55.19
″
1059 m Porphyritic
monzogranite
YK-11 Yuku pluton
outcrop
N 33◦51
′
51.37
″
; E
111◦29
′
54.70
″
1158 m Granite
19SBG-
1-1
Shibaogou drill
hole ZK7007
N 33◦51
′
10.66
″
; E
111◦32
′
10.94
″
447 m Biotite granite
19SBG-
1-2
Shibaogou drill
hole ZK7007
N 33◦51
′
10.66
″
; E
111◦32
′
10.94
″
442 m Porphyritic
biotite granite
19SBG-
1-3
Shibaogou drill
hole ZK7007
N 33◦51
′
10.66
″
; E
111◦32
′
10.94
″
436 m Porphyritic
biotite granite
19SBG-
1-4
Shibaogou drill
hole ZK7007
N 33◦51
′
10.66
″
; E
111◦32
′
10.94
″
430 m Porphyritic
biotite granite
19SBG-
2-1
Shibaogou drill
hole ZK7007
N 33◦51
′
10.66
″
; E
111◦32
′
10.94
″
620 m Skarn
19SBG-
2-2
Shibaogou drill
hole ZK7007
N 33◦51
′
10.66
″
; E
111◦32
′
10.94
″
608 m Skarn
19SBG-
2-3
Shibaogou drill
hole ZK7007
N 33◦51
′
10.66
″
; E
111◦32
′
10.94
″
607 m Skarn
19SBG-
2-4
Shibaogou drill
hole ZK7007
N 33◦51
′
10.66
″
; E
111◦32
′
10.94
″
603 m Skarn
F. Yang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 167 (2024) 105973
5
eld, the details and locations are included in the Table 1.
The monzogranites (SBG-1, SBG-2) from the surface outcrops in the
Shibaogou pluton are pink to gray color and medium-coarse grained,
and show porphyritic texture (Fig. 1c, Fig. 2d-e). They consist mainly of
coarse-grained K-feldspar phenocrysts in a groundmass of medium- to
ne-grained K-feldspar, plagioclase, quartz, and biotite (Fig. 3a). The K-
feldspar phenocrysts are mostly subhedral to euhedral and contain
several quartz and biotite inclusions, with a size of 0.5–2.0 cm (Fig. 3a).
The biotite displays strong interference colors and hosts some titanite
inclusions (Fig. 3a).
The granite (YK-11) from the surface outcrops in the Yuku pluton is
pink color and ne-grained and displays granular texture (Fig. 1c,
Fig. 2f). It consists of ne-grained K-feldspar, plagioclase, quartz, and
biotite, together with minor molybdenite and pyrite (Fig. 3b-c). The
biotite underwent strong alteration (Fig. 3b).
The biotite granites (19SBG-1-1, 19SBG-1-2, 19SBG-1-3, 19SBG-1-4)
from the drill hole ZK7007 in the Shibaogou pluton are gray color and
show porphyritic texture (Fig. 1c, Fig. 2g-h). They are composed of the
phenocrysts of subhedral to anhedral K-feldspar, hornblende, and
quartz, in a groundmass of ne-grained felsic minerals, biotite, horn-
blende, and some accessory minerals (e.g. titanite) (Fig. 3d-f). The
biotite granites also show pyrite and molybdenite mineralization
(Fig. 3g). The molybdenite displays euhedral texture and mostly
intergrows with pyrite (Fig. 3g).
The skarns (19SBG-2-1, 19SBG-2-2, 19SBG-2-3, 19SBG-2-4) from the
drill hole ZK7007 in the Shibaogou pluton are greenish and include
garnet, tremolite, diopside, epidote, and quartz (Fig. 1c, Fig. 2i). The
garnet in the sample 19SBG-2-2 occurs as megacrysts and shows crystal
zoning texture (Fig. 2i, Fig. 3h), whereas other skarn samples mostly
have ne-grained garnets (Fig. 3i).
4. Analytical methods
4.1. Apatite U-Pb and ssion-track double dating
Apatite grains were separated via standard mineral separation pro-
cedures at the Yu’neng Geological and Mineral Separation Survey
Centre, Langfang, China, and then mounted in an epoxy and polished to
expose their interiors. The 5.5 mol/L HNO3 solution for 20 s at 21 ◦C was
utilized to etch apatite grains for visualizing spontaneous ssion tracks
(Donelick et al. 2005). The ssion-track, conned ssion-track length,
Dpar, and transmitted images of each apatite were measured and
captured using an automatic counting routine in the Fast Tracks soft-
ware after imaged on a Zeiss AXIO Imager M2m Autoscan System.
Apatite U-Pb (AUPb) and ssion-track (AFT) double dating were
performed on same-grain using a New Wave 213 ablation system
Fig. 3. Photomicrographs (a-b, d-f, h-i: cross-polarized light; c, g: reected light) of the Shibaogou (a, d-i) and Yuku (b-c) plutons. Mineral abbreviations: Kfs, K-
feldspar; Pl, plagioclase; Qtz, quartz; Bt, biotite; Ttn, titanite; Hbl, hornblende; Grt, garnet; Tre, tremolite; Di, diopside; Ep, epidote; Mo, molybdenite; Py, pyrite.
F. Yang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 167 (2024) 105973
6
coupled to an Agilent 7900 Quadrupole ICP-MS (LA-ICP-MS) at the
Adelaide Microscopy, University of Adelaide, Australia (SBG-1, SBG-2,
YK-11) and a Photon Machine Analyte G2 Excimer 193 nm laser abla-
tion system connected to a Thermo Element single collector High Res-
olution ICP-MS at the Arizona LaserChron Center, University of Arizona,
USA (19SBG-1-2, 19SBG-1-4). The spot size of ablations was set as ~ 30
μ
m, the NIST 610 and Madagascar (474.2 ±0.4 Ma; Thomson et al.,
2012) standards were employed to correct instrumental drift and down
hole fractionation. The Mt. McClure Mountain apatite (524.0 ±0.12
Ma; Schoene and Bowring, 2006) and Durango apatite (31.4 ±0.18 Ma;
McDowell et al., 2005) standards were used to correct downhole U-Pb
fractionation, mass bias, and intra-session instrument drift, following
the analytical steps outlined by Jepson et al. (2021). The “VizualA-
ge_UcomPbine” Data Reduction Scheme (DRS) in Iolite (Paton et al.
2011; Chew et al. 2014) was selected for data reduction. An in-house R
script based on the equations of Hasebe et al. (2004) was used to
calculate AFT central ages. The IsoplotR (Vermeesch, 2018) and Radi-
alPlotter (Vermeesch, 2009) software were selected to process AUPb and
AFT age data.
4.2. Zircon (U-Th)/He thermochronology
Zircon grains were separated using standard rock crushing and heavy
liquid separation procedures at the Yu’neng Geological and Mineral
Separation Survey Centre, Langfang, China. Zircon (U-Th)/He (ZHe)
dating (samples SBG-1, SBG-2) was measured at the National Institute of
Natural Hazards, Ministry of Emergency Management, China. More than
70
μ
m diameter of 3–5 euhedral zircon grains without visible inclusions
and internal fractures were selected and measured under microscopes
for dating. Each grain was wrapped in a platinum capsule for thermal
outgas, He extraction and measurement were determined by a Prisma-
PLus QME 220 quadrupole mass spectrometer. U-Th determination were
analyzed on a coupled Agilent 7500 quadrupole ICP-MS, following the
procedure noted by Wu et al. (2018). The Helioplot (Vermeesch, 2010)
and alpha emission following the procedure of Gautheron and Tassan-
Got (2010) were used to calculate and correct age data. The Penglai
zircon (4.4 ±0.1 Ma; Li et al., 2017) with a weighted mean age of 4.11
±0.08 Ma was used as a reference standard.
4.3. Apatite (U-Th)/He thermochronology
Apatite (U-Th)/He (AHe) dating was conducted at the National
Institute of Natural Hazards, Ministry of Emergency Management, China
(SGB-1, SBG-2), the Arizona Radiogenic Helium Dating Laboratory,
University of Arizona, USA (19SBG-1-2), and the Ar-Ar and (U-Th)/He
geochronology lab, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese
Academy of Sciences (YK-11). 3–5 euhedral apatite grains in each
sample, without visible inclusions inside, were selected and measured
under microscopes for dating. Each apatite grain was wrapped in a
platinum capsule and loaded on laser chamber and was thermally out-
gassed under vacuum at ~900 ◦C for 5 min. U-Th determination were
analyzed on a coupled Agilent 7500 quadrupole ICP-MS, following the
detailed steps (Shen et al., 2022). The Durango apatite (31.4 ±0.18 Ma;
McDowell et al., 2005) with a weighted mean age of 32.0 ±0.42 Ma and
the MK-1 apatite (18.0 ±0.4 Ma; Wu et al., 2021) with a weighted mean
age of 18.1 ±0.8 Ma were used as reference standards to verify
analytical accuracy. Age was calculated using the
α
-ejection correction
factor (Farley et al., 1996) and the procedure noted by Gautheron et al.
(2009).
4.4. Low-temperature thermal history modelling
The QTQt (5.6.0) software based on Bayesian transdimensional
Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) was used to construct the thermal
history models (Gallagher, 2012), through inputting the newly acquired
AUPb, ZHe, AFT, and AHe age data along with conned ssion-track
lengths in this study. Noted that partial abnormal AHe age data are
excluded during thermal history modelling (see 6.1 Thermochrono-
logical age interpretation). The ssion-track annealing model (Ketcham
et al., 2007), the radiation damage accumulation and annealing model
(Flowers et al., 2009), and the kinetic parameter of Dpar (Donelick et al.,
2005) were selected during modelling. The constraints of the AUPb ages
(400 ±50 ◦C) from this study and Yang et al. (2020a) together with of
the published molybdenite Re-Os ages (500 ±50 ◦C) in the Shibaogou
(147.4 ±7.2 Ma; Xu et al., 2023) and Yuku (146.3 ±0.9 Ma; Li et al.,
2015) areas, and the present temperature constraints of 10 ±10 ◦C were
adopted to constrain thermal cooling paths. The expected models from
the QTQt (5.6.0) software were utilized to decipher the thermal evolu-
tion history of each sample, the modelling procedures are outlined in
Glorie et al. (2019).
5. Results
5.1. Apatite U-Pb thermochronology
Sixty apatite grains from the samples 19SBG-1-2 and 19SBG-1-4 were
analyzed for U-Pb and the age data are provided in the Supplementary
Table 1. The apatite U-Pb ages of samples SBG-1, SBG-2, and YK-11 were
reported at 157.0 ±31 Ma, 140.5 ±6.6 Ma, and 133.0 ±11 Ma (Yang
et al., 2020a).
The apatite grains are brownish to colorless and transparent to
translucent, and show prismatic to irregular shapes. Under transmitted
light images, apatite grains are homogeneous gray and structureless, and
present minor mineral inclusions and fractures (Fig. 4a-c).
Thirty apatite grains from the sample 19SBG-1-2 yielded a linear
array in Tera-Wasserburg space, with a lower intercept age of 158.3 ±
15.9 Ma (MSWD =0.8) and
207
Pb corrected
206
Pb-
238
U ages of
164.2–150.7 Ma (Fig. 4d). Thirty apatite grains from the sample 19SBG-
1-4 yielded a lower intercept age of 104.9 ±26.7 Ma (MSWD =1.1),
with
207
Pb corrected
206
Pb-
238
U ages of 109.6–99.8 Ma (Fig. 4e).
5.2. Apatite ssion-track thermochronology
A total of 207 apatite grains from the samples SBG-1, SBG-2, YK-11,
19SGB-1–2 and 19SBG-1–4 were selected for ssion-track dating and the
dataset is given in the Supplementary Table 2.
The apatite grains are colorless and transparent to translucent, with a
size of 50–200
μ
m and aspect ratios from 4:1 to 1:1. Under transmitted
light images, the etched apatite grains show several semi-tracks and etch
pits on surface (Fig. 4a-e). The conned ssion-tracks of the samples
SBG-1 (n =113), SBG-2 (n =196), and YK-11 (n =115) (Fig. 5) were
measured for modelling thermal history. Most of these tracks are track-
in-track (TINTs) or track-in-cleavage (TINCLEs) (Fig. 4a-c).
Forty apatite grains from the sample SBG-1 yielded an AFT central
age of 79.1 ±2.2 Ma, a mean track length (MTL) value of 12.59 ±1.49
μ
m, and Dpar values of 0.86–1.71
μ
m (Fig. 5a, f). Seventy apatite grains
from the sample SBG-2 show a MTL value of 12.63 ±1.65
μ
m and Dpar
values of 0.76–2.79
μ
m, and yielded an AFT central age of 77.9 ±1.5 Ma
(Fig. 5b, g). Thirty-eight apatite grains from the sample YK-11 yielded an
AFT central age of 63.1 ±2.3 Ma and a MTL value of 12.90 ±1.34
μ
m,
with Dpar values of 0.75–2.29
μ
m (Fig. 5c, h). Twenty-nine apatite
grains from the sample 19SBG-1-2 yielded an AFT central age of 90.8 ±
4.6 Ma and Dpar values of 2.79–3.14
μ
m, without measured MTL data
(Fig. 5d). Thirty apatite grains from the sample 19SBG-1-4 did not yield
conned ssion-track length data, however, gave an AFT central age of
77.6 ±3.3 Ma, with Dpar values of 1.85–3.95
μ
m (Fig. 5e).
All analyzed samples have P(
χ
2) values ranging from 0.13 to 0.70,
which are higher than 0.05 and thus pass the
χ
2 test (Fig. 5a-e), sug-
gesting a single population of apatite.
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5.3. Zircon (U-Th)/He thermochronology
Eight zircon grains from the samples SBG-1 and SBG-2 were selected
for (U-Th)/He dating and the data are included in the Supplementary
Table 3.
Sample SBG-1 yielded four single-grain ZHe ages of 158.2 ±3.0 Ma,
143.1 ±2.7 Ma, 127.2 ±2.4 Ma, and 115.0 ±2.1 Ma (Fig. 6a). Sample
SBG-2 yielded four single-grain ZHe ages of 157.9 ±2.7 Ma, 128.9 ±
2.0 Ma, 122.6 ±2.2 Ma, and 121.2 ±2.1 Ma (Fig. 6b).
5.4. Apatite (U-Th)/He thermochronology
Fourteen apatite grains from the samples SBG-1, SBG-2, 19SBG-1–2,
and YK-11 were employed for (U-Th)/He dating and the dataset is
presented in the Supplementary Table 4.
Sample SBG-1 yielded three single-grain AHe ages of 100.0 ±2.1
Ma, 67.8 ±1.5 Ma, and 35.3 ±0.8 Ma (Fig. 6c). Sample SBG-2 yielded
four single-grain AHe ages of 264.1 ±5.8 Ma, 122.9 ±2.8 Ma, 65.9 ±
1.7 Ma, and 63.0 ±1.4 Ma (Fig. 6d). Sample 19SBG-1–2 yielded three
single-grain AHe ages of 248.4 ±2.6 Ma, 196.6 ±2.0 Ma, and 114.8 ±
1.2 Ma (Fig. 6e). Sample YK-11 yielded four single-grain AHe ages of
340.7 ±18.9 Ma, 219.4 ±11.7 Ma, 103.5 ±5.4 Ma, and 56.6 ±3.0 Ma
(Fig. 6f).
5.5. Low-temperature thermal history modelling
Based on the newly measured conned ssion-track length data
(Fig. 5f-h), the samples SBG-1, SBG-2, and YK-11 were used for model-
ling thermal history (Fig. 7a-d). Noted that partial thermal cooling paths
in samples SBG-2 and YK-11 beyond the zones of ZPRZ, APAZ, and
APRZ, which would not be adopted in the study.
Sample SBG-1 yielded a rapid cooling phase during the ZPRZ at ca.
132–125 Ma, an enhanced (or accelerated) cooling phase during the
upper ZPRZ, APAZ, and APRZ at ca. 125–76 Ma, and a slow cooling
phase during the upper APRZ at ca. 76–10 Ma before an enhanced
cooling phase through the upper APRZ since 10 Ma to surcial tem-
perature (Fig. 7a, d). Sample SBG-2 yielded a rapid cooling phase during
the ZPRZ at ca. 132–125 Ma and an enhanced cooling phase through the
upper ZPRZ, APAZ, and APRZ at ca. 125–59 Ma (Fig. 7b, d). Sample YK-
11 yielded an enhanced cooling phase through the APAZ and APRZ at ca.
Fig. 4. Representative apatite semi-track and conned ssion-track images (transmitted light; a-e) and U-Pb Terra-Wasserburg Concordia plots (d-e) of the Shi-
baogou and Yuku plutons. Abbreviation: TINTs, track-in-track; TINCLEs, track-in-cleavage. The circles on the apatite surface show analytical positions.
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Ore Geology Reviews 167 (2024) 105973
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76–59 Ma, a slow reheating phase during the upper APRZ to ca. 10 Ma,
and an enhanced cooling during the upper APRZ since 10 Ma to surcial
temperature (Fig. 7c, d).
6. Discussion
6.1. Thermochronological age interpretation
Usually, the same-mineral age derived from low closure temperature
dating system should be younger than or consistent with that from its
high closure temperature dating system (Chew and Spikings, 2015;
Huang et al., 2021). In contrast, the newly acquired single-grain ZHe
ages of 158.2–115.0 Ma in this study (Fig. 6a-b) are consistent or post-
date with published zircon U-Pb ages of 157.0–145.3 Ma (Liu, 2007;
Yang et al., 2012b; Bao et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2018) in the Shibaogou
pluton (Supplementary Table 5). The newly determined AFT central
ages of 90.8–63.1 Ma in this study (Fig. 5a-e) are all younger than same-
sample apatite U-Pb ages of 158.3–104.9 Ma in the Shibaogou and Yuku
plutons (Fig. 4d-e; Yang et al., 2020a). However, most newly analyzed
single-grain AHe ages of 340.7–100.0 Ma in these samples are distinctly
older than the same-sample AFT central ages (90.8–63.1 Ma) and apatite
U-Pb ages (158.3–104.9 Ma) (Figs. 4-6; Yang et al., 2020a), only a few
apatite grains yielded young single-grain AHe ages of 67.8–35.3 Ma in
this study (Fig. 6). In the diagrams of AHe age versus eU and radium
values (Fig. 8), no distinct correlations are shown in between, and thus
the inuence of radiation damage and grain sizes on AHe ages cannot be
evaluated in this study (Farley, 2000; Recanati et al., 2017). Neverthe-
less, the presence of U/Th-rich inclusions (Fitzgerald et al., 2006), high
Fig. 5. Radial plots with Dpar values as color scale for apatite ssion-track ages (a-e) and conned ssion-track length histograms (f-h) of the Shibaogou and Yuku
plutons. Abbreviation: MTL, mean track length.
F. Yang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 167 (2024) 105973
9
Fig. 6. Temporal variation of zircon (a-b) and apatite (c-f) (U-Th)/He ages in the Shibaogou and Yuku plutons.
Fig. 7. Thermal history models of expected thermal history probability density maps (a-c) and the integration of expected models (d) of the Shibaogou and Yuku
plutons. The grey envelope represents the 95% condence intervals.
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Ore Geology Reviews 167 (2024) 105973
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Fig. 8. Plots of apatite (U-Th)/He ages versus eU and radius values for the Shibaogou and Yuku plutons.
F. Yang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 167 (2024) 105973
11
eU (Flowers et al., 2007), and high equivalent sphere radius (House
et al., 2002) in apatite could generate old AHe ages. Despite the apatite
grains used for AHe dating have been carefully detected, the invisible U/
Th-rich inclusions hosted in apatite cannot be fully avoided during
dating. In addition, a few apatite grains in the samples SBG-2, 19SBG-1-
2, and YK-11 show unusually high eU and radius values (Fig. 8d, e, g),
which also may lead to generate old AHe ages in this study. Thus, the old
single-grain AHe ages of 340.7–100.0 Ma do not represent the true
cooling processes and were excluded from further discussion (Fig. 6c-f).
In general, closure temperature of each dating system may be dened
as its temperature at the time corresponding to its apparent age (Dodson,
1973). Integrated with the parent/daughter ratio and known decay
constant of dating mineral, the timing of mineral cooled below its
closure temperature of dating system can be determined (Meinhold,
2010; Yang et al., 2023). Thus, the newly obtained AUPb (158.3–104.9
Ma; Fig. 4), ZHe (158.2–115.0 Ma; Fig. 6), AFT (90.8–63.1 Ma; Fig. 5),
and AHe (67.8–35.3 Ma; Fig. 6) ages in this study could be interpreted as
multiple cooling pluses after the emplacement of the Shibaogou and
Yuku plutons. Based on previous studies related to uid inclusions and
zircon-biotite thermobarometers in the Yuku ore eld, the major ore-
forming temperatures of the Chitudian Zn-Pb, the Zhazigou W-Mo, the
Yuku Mo, and the Shibaogou Mo-Pb-Zn deposits were determined in the
range of ca. 290–340 ◦C (Duan et al., 2011), 300–380 ◦C (Xue et al.,
2021a), 309–361 ◦C (Xue et al., 2021b), and 303–387 ◦C (Xu et al.,
2023), respectively. The formation temperatures of the ore-hosting
Huanbeiling, Yuku, and Shibaogou plutons were estimated to be ca.
670–1006 ◦C (Qian et al., 2023; Wu et al., 2015), 762–966 ◦C (Wu et al.,
2015; Xue et al., 2018), and 776–915 ◦C (Xue et al., 2018), respectively.
In combination with the closure temperatures of the AUPb (375–600 ◦C;
Chamberlain and Bowring, 2001; Kirkland et al., 2018), AHe
(160–200 ◦C; Reiners, 2005), AFT (90–120 ◦C; Ketcham et al., 1999),
and AHe (55–80 ◦C; Wolf et al., 1998) dating systems, the acquired
multiple thermochronological ages (158.3–35.3 Ma) in this study sug-
gest protracted post-magma cooling after the emplacement of the Shi-
gaogou and Yuku plutons. Coupled with the ore-forming temperatures
of 290–387 ◦C for the Mo-W-Pb-Zn polymetallic deposits (Duan et al.,
2011; Xue et al., 2021a; Xue et al., 2021b; Xu et al., 2023) in the Yuku
ore eld, the low-temperature ZHe, AFT, and AHe ages also recorded
post-mineralization cooling and exhumation history.
6.2. Tectonic evolution and exhumation history
In the expected thermal models of this study (Fig. 7d), the Shibaogou
pluton yielded a rapid cooling phase at ca. 132–125 Ma, an enhanced
cooling phase at ca. 125–59 Ma, a slow cooling phase at ca. 59–10 Ma,
and an enhanced cooling phase after 10 Ma. The Yuku pluton yielded
two enhanced cooling phases at ca. 76–59 Ma and post-10 Ma, and a
slow reheating phase in between. The Huangbeiling pluton in the Yuku
ore eld has been reported in two rapid cooling phases at ca. 125–100
Ma and 73–50 Ma, along with a slow cooling phase (100–73 Ma) in
between (Fig. 1c; Yang et al., 2022a). As a result, we could conclude that
the whole Yuku ore eld underwent a rapid cooling phase at ca.
132–125 Ma, following by an enhanced cooling phase at ca. 125–59 Ma,
a slow cooling or reheating phase at ca. 59–10 Ma, and an enhanced
cooling phase after 10 Ma (Fig. 7d).
Published studies indicated that the Luanchuan region in the East
Qinling Orogen was under compression during ca. 160–125 Ma corre-
lated with the syn- and post-collision between the North China and
Yangtze Blocks (Dong et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2019; Qian et al., 2022;
Qian et al., 2023). The prolonged collisional tectonics usually cause
rapid uplift and exhumation of terranes along with rapid cooling of
upwelling magma (Corti et al., 2003; Spikings and Simpson, 2014).
Thus, the rapid cooling during ca. 132–125 Ma in the Yuku ore eld
could be related to the coeval collisional tectonics in the East Qinling
Orogen. During ca. 125–108 Ma, the Luanchuan region underwent
tectonic transition from compression to extension, which is evidenced
by the N-S trending post-collisional extension between the North China
and Yangtze Blocks, along with the E-W trending back-arc extension
derived by the Paleo-Pacic Plate subduction (Liu et al., 2017; Yang
et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2019). The extensional tectonics in the East
Qinling Orogen resulted in asthenospheric upwelling, mac magmatic
underplating, and crustal melting beneath the Luanchuan region at this
time (Li et al., 2018). The extensional tectonics also can trigger rapid
cooling and exhumation of terranes (Hennig et al., 2017). Accordingly,
the early phase of enhanced cooling at ca. 125–108 Ma in the Yuku ore
eld is the response to the extensional tectonics induced by the post-
collisional assembly of the North China and Yangtze Blocks and the
subduction of Paleo-Pacic Plate (Yang et al., 2019).
During the Late Cretaceous-Early Paleogene, the Qinling Orogen
evolved into orogenic collapse and depression (Dong et al., 2016). The
multi-direction extension of Eastern China caused multiple transitions
from tension to pression in the Qinling Orogen and the nearby Tan-Lu
Fault Zone at this time (Mercier et al., 2013). The Paleo-Pacic Plate,
including the Izanagi and Kula plates, underwent a rapid N- or NW-
directed oblique subduction beneath the Eurasian Plate until ca. 60
Ma and was changed into a west-northwestward orthogonal subduction
at ca. 85–64 Ma (Engebretson et al., 1985). The nearby continental-scale
NNE-striking Tan-Lu Fault Zone underwent the sinistral strike-slip mo-
tion at ca. 65–55 Ma (Xu and Zhu, 1994; Wang et al., 2019). Therefore,
the Late Cretaceous to Paleogene (ca. 108–59 Ma) enhanced cooling in
the Yuku ore eld might be derived by the multi-direction subduction of
Paleo-Pacic Plate and the sinistral strike-slip motion of the nearby Tan-
Lu Fault Zone (Yang et al., 2022a).
Since the Early Paleogene, the Pacic Plate was orthogonally sub-
ducted west-northwestward at ca. 64–53 Ma, and then obliquely sub-
ducted northward beneath the eastern Asia at ca. 53–48 Ma
(Engebretson et al., 1985). The Pacic-Eurasia subduction and the India-
Eurasia collision jointly promoted the Paleogene regional extension in
Eastern China (Molnar and Tapponnier, 1977; Tapponnier et al., 1982;
Wang et al., 2019). Suo et al. (2020) suggested that the Neogene
extensional tectonics in Eastern China are associated with the subduc-
tion retreat of Pacic Plate. The Neogene tectonics in Eurasia also have
been ascribed to the Pacic Plate motion changes (Hall, 2002). Yang
et al. (2020b) also proposed that the Mesozoic-Cenozoic multiple cool-
ing in Eastern China were induced by the successive westward subduc-
tion of the Paleo-Pacic Plate and the Pacic Plate, along with the far-
eld effects from India-Eurasia collision (Grimmer et al., 2002; Chang
et al., 2018). Accordingly, the slow cooling during ca. 59–10 Ma and the
post-10 Ma enhanced cooling in the Yuku ore eld can be correlated
with the subduction of Pacic Plate and the far-eld effects from India-
Eurasia collision. The slow reheating in the Cenozoic in the Yuku ore
eld can be associated with the burial of coeval sedimentary in the
Luanchuan region (Jiang et al., 2011).
6.3. Preservation potential and mineral exploration
The mineral-pair and thermal history modelling methods (Ding et al.,
2007), and the geothermal gradient of 35 ◦C/km (Ren, 1999) were
adopted to calculate cooling rate, exhumation rate, and exhumation
depth in this study. The closure temperatures of different dating systems
and related calculating equations are referred to Yang et al. (2022a).
Considering the ore-forming temperatures of 290–387 ◦C (uid inclu-
sion data: Duan et al., 2011; Xue et al., 2021a; Xue et al., 2021b; Xu
et al., 2023) and ore-forming ages of 151.2–141.5 Ma (molybdenite Re-
Os dating: Mao et al., 2008; Zhang, 2014; Li et al., 2015; Xue et al.,
2021c; Yang et al., 2022b; Xu et al., 2023) for the Mo-W-Pb-Zn poly-
metallic deposits in the Yuku ore eld (Fig. 9a-c), only the low-
temperature ZHe, AFT, and AHe ages (ca. 158.2–35.3 Ma) with
closure temperatures of 40–200 ◦C can be used to evaluate the post-
mineralization exhumation and preservation in this study (Figs. 5-6;
Chew and Spikings, 2021).
Based on the thermal history modelling method (Fig. 7d), the
F. Yang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 167 (2024) 105973
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Shibaogou pluton underwent a rapid cooling rate of 8.6 ◦C/Ma, an
exhumation rate of 0.245 mm/yr, and an exhumation depth of 1.7 km at
ca. 132–125 Ma, following by a slow cooling rate of 1.5 ◦C/Ma, an
exhumation rate of 0.043 mm/yr, and an exhumation depth of 2.9 km at
ca. 125–59 Ma. The Yuku pluton shows an intermediate cooling rate of
4.7 ◦C/Ma, an exhumation rate of 0.134 mm/yr, and an exhumation
depth of 2.3 km at ca. 76–59 Ma. Through the calculation of mineral-
pair method (Fig. 9a-b), the Shibaogou shows a relatively rapid mean
cooling rate of 1.7 ◦C/Ma, a mean exhumation rate of 0.049 mm/yr, and
an exhumation depth of 2.6 km at ca. 134.3–81.4 Ma, together with a
slow cooling rate of 1.3 ◦C/Ma, an exhumation rate of 0.037 mm/yr, and
an exhumation depth of 0.9 km at ca. 81.4–58.0 Ma. The Yuku pluton
underwent a rapid cooling rate of 4.6 ◦C/Ma, an exhumation rate of
0.132 mm/yr, and an exhumation depth of 0.9 km at ca. 63.1–56.6 Ma.
Integrating the results from the mineral-pair and thermal history
modelling methods, the exhumation depths of the Yuku and Shibaogou
plutons could be approximately constrained in the range of 0.9–2.3
(mean: 1.6) km and 3.5–4.6 (mean: 4.1) km, respectively. The exhu-
mation depth of the Huangbeiling pluton in the Yuku ore eld has been
reported at ca. 0.9–5.6 (mean: 3.3) km (Fig. 9c; Yang et al., 2022a).
In the Yuku ore eld, published studies employed the uid inclusion
data to determine the ore-forming depths of the Yuku porphyry Mo, the
Zhazigou skarn W-Mo, and the Shibaogou skarn Mo-Pb-Zn deposits at
ca. 1.0–2.8 km (Xue et al., 2021b), 1.1–2.8 km (Xue et al., 2021a), and
0.5–2.5 km (Xu et al., 2023), respectively. The ore-forming depths in the
Yuku ore eld are lower than the nearly Shangfanggou porphyry-skarn
Mo-Fe (6.6–7.8 km; Yang et al., 2013) and Nannihu porphyry Mo (~3.0
km; Yang et al., 2012a) deposits in the Nannihu ore eld (Fig. 1c). But,
the ore-forming depths in the Yuku ore eld are consistent with the
reported ore-forming depths of most porphyry Cu-Mo-Au (most 1–6 km;
Seedorff et al., 2005) and skarn (1–4 km) (Kwak, 1987; Meinert et al.,
2005) deposits. Based on the biotite all-aluminum thermobarometer
(Uchida et al., 2007), the emplacement depths of the ore-hosting Yuku
(or named Zhongyuku), Huangbeiling, and Shibaogou plutons in the
Yuku ore eld are previously dened at ca. 0.2–5.3 (mean: 2.9) km (Wu
et al., 2015; Xue et al., 2018), 0.3–4.6 (1.8) km (Wu et al., 2015; Qian
et al., 2023), and 1.5–4.0 (2.7) km (Xue et al., 2018), respectively. Zhang
et al. (2011) proposed that the emplacement depth of ore-hosting pluton
is the maximal ore-forming depth of magmatic-hydrothermal deposits.
In contrast, the ore-forming depths of the Yuku and Zhazigou Mo-W
deposits (uid inclusion data: 1.0–2.8 km; Xue et al., 2021a; Xue
et al., 2021b) and the Shigbaogou Mo-Pb-Zn deposit (0.5–2.5 km; Xu
et al., 2023) are lower than the emplacement depths of the Yuku (biotite
all-aluminum thermobarometer: 0.2–5.3 km, mean: 2.9 km; Wu et al.,
2015; Xue et al., 2018) and Shibaogou (1.5–4.0 km, mean: 2.7 km; Xue
et al., 2018) plutons, which suggest that the reported ore-forming depths
in the Yuku ore eld are reliable.
In comparison with the newly determined exhumation depths of the
Yuku (0.9–2.3 km, mean: 1.6 km) and Shibaogou (3.5–4.6 km, mean:
4.1 km) plutons in this study (Figs. 7, 9), the Shibaogou area underwent
a greater exhumation and might not have adequate potential for the
preservation of Mo deposits, whereas the Mo mineralization in the Yuku
area was well preserved and may have more than 1 km depth for Mo
prospecting (Fig. 10). Due to lack ore-forming depth information from
the Yumugou Mo-W deposit in the Huangbeiling area, Yang et al.
(2022a) relied on published uid inclusion data of the nearly Nannihu
and Shangfanggou porphyry-skarn Mo deposits to constrain the ore-
forming depth of the Yumugou deposit at ca. 3–7 km (Yang et al.,
2012a; Yang et al., 2013). In contrast with the exhumation depth of ca.
0.9–5.6 (mean: 3.3) km in the Yumugou Mo-W deposit, Yang et al.
(2022a) also proposed that more than one kilometer depth is preserved
Fig. 9. Temperature-time paths of multiple geochronological systems of the
Shibaogou (a), Yuku (b), and Huangbeiling (c) plutons and related deposits.
Zircon U-Pb age data sources: Liu, 2007; Yang et al., 2012b; Bao et al., 2014;
Zhang, 2014; Li et al., 2015; Xue et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018; Guo et al.,
2020; Qian et al., 2022; Qian et al., 2023. Molybdenite Re-Os model age data
sources: Mao et al., 2008; Zhang, 2014; Li et al., 2015; Xue et al., 2021c; Yang
et al., 2022b; Xu et al., 2023. AUPb age data sources: Yang et al., 2020a; Yang
et al., 2022a. AFT and AHe age data source: Yang et al., 2022a. All the data
sources are available in the Supplementary Table 5.
Fig. 10. Schematic exhumation, preservation and modications of the Yuku
pluton and related deposits in the Yuku ore eld.
F. Yang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 167 (2024) 105973
13
for Mo prospecting in the Huangbeiling area. This also can be evidenced
by the emplacement depths of the Huangbeiling pluton (biotite all-
aluminum thermobarometer: 0.3–4.6 km, mean: 1.8 km; Wu et al.,
2015; Qian et al., 2023) and the exhumation depths of the Yumugou Mo-
W deposit (0.9–5.6 km, mean: 3.3 km; Yang et al., 2022a) in the Yuku
ore eld (Fig. 9c).
Overall, the Yuku area underwent relatively lower exhumation and
has high potential for the preservation and exploration of Mo resources
in the Yuku ore eld (Figs. 9, 10). Generally, porphyry deposits are
hosted within 1 km at inner/outer contact zones between intrusions and
their wall rocks, whereas skarn deposits mostly generate within 500 m in
these contact zones (Ye et al., 2014). Thus, the un-exhumated areas
within 1.0 km at the inner and outer contact zones between the Yuku
pluton and its wall rocks (Fig. 10) are postulated as the most important
sites for Mo prospecting in the Yuku ore eld. Similarly, the un-
exhumated areas within 1.0 km surrounding other Late Mesozoic plu-
tons (e.g. Nannihu, Majuan) in the Luanchuan region are also important
for prospecting new Mo resources in the East Qinling Orogen.
7. Conclusion
The newly determined AUPb (158.3–104.9 Ma), ZHe (158.2–115.0
Ma), AFT (90.8–63.1 Ma), and AHe (67.8–35.3 Ma) ages in the Shi-
baogou and Yuku granitic plutons represent multiple post-magma
cooling pulses in the Yuku ore eld. The low-temperature ZHe, AFT,
and AHe ages also recorded the post-mineralization cooling and exhu-
mation history.
The Yuku ore eld underwent a rapid cooling phase at ca. 132–125
Ma, an enhanced cooling phase at ca. 125–59 Ma, a slow cooling or
reheating phase at ca. 59–10 Ma, and an enhanced cooling phase after
10 Ma. The Early Cretaceous rapid cooling can be correlated with coeval
collisional tectonics of the East Qinling Orogen. The enhanced cooling at
ca. 125–59 Ma could be derived by the post-collisional assembly of the
North China and Yangtze Blocks, the subduction of Paleo-Pacic Plate,
and the sinistral strike-slip motion of the Tan-Lu Fault Zone. The slow
cooling at ca. 59–10 Ma and the post-10 Ma enhanced cooling are
related to the extensional tectonics induced by the subduction of Pacic
Plate and the far-eld effects from India-Eurasia collision.
The Yuku area underwent lower exhumation compared to the Shi-
baogou and Huangbeiling areas in the Yuku ore eld. The un-exhumated
areas within 1.0 km at the inner and outer contact zones between the
Yuku pluton and its wall rocks have good potential for the preservation
and exploration of Mo resources. In addition, the un-exhumated areas
surrounding other Late Mesozoic plutons in the Luanchuan region are
also speculated to be the important prospecting sites for new Mo
resources.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Fan Yang: Investigation, Formal analysis, Visualization, Methodol-
ogy, Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Writing – original draft,
Writing – review & editing. Yameng Wen: Investigation, Visualization.
Gilby Jepson: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing. M. San-
tosh: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing. Lin Wu: Data
curation, Resources. Xiaoming Shen: Data curation, Resources. Has-
nain Ali: Investigation, Visualization.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to inuence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
We thank Prof. Stijn Glorie for his help during apatite ssion-track
dating at the Adelaide Microscopy, and Mr. Xuhuang Zhang for his
help in the eld work. The editors and two anonymous reviewers are
also acknowledged for their suggestions to improve this paper. This
study was co-sponsored by the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (42202077), the Open Research Fund Program of Key Laboratory
of Metallogenic Prediction of Nonferrous Metals and Geological Envi-
ronment Monitoring (Central South University), Ministry of Education
(2022YSJS19), the Natural Science Foundation of Gansu Province
(22JR5RA440), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Uni-
versities (LZUJBKY-2022-42), and the Guiding Special Funds of “Double
First-Class (First-Class University & First-Class Disciplines)”
(561119201) of Lanzhou University, China.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2024.105973.
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