![The Great Western Woodlands (GWW) TERN (Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network) SuperSite. Scope of the Great Western Woodlands TERN SuperSite (yellow circle), including parts of the intact Great Western Woodlands landscapes and fragmented Western Australian (WA) wheatbelt. SuperSite monitoring infrastructure shown: core flux tower site in the north-east (green circle) and five associated plot networks (Nutrient Network [yellow bullseye] and Drought-Net [blue bullseye]) experiments, Mulga-line transect (pink circles), South West Australian Transitional Transect (SWATT, yellow diamonds), Gimlet fire-age plots (orange circles). Map from Google Earth.](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Suzanne-Prober/publication/377079931/figure/fig1/AS:11431281215440631@1704242069242/The-Great-Western-Woodlands-GWW-TERN-Terrestrial-Ecosystem-Research-Network_Q320.jpg)
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JEE Journal of Ecology and Environment
REVIEW
The Great Western Woodlands TERN SuperSite: ecosystem
monitoring infrastructure and key science learnings
Suzanne M Prober1*, Georg Wiehl2, Carl R Gosper2,3 , Leslie Schultz4, Helen Langley4 and Craig Macfarlane2
1
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Environment, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
2
CSIRO Environment, Wembley, WA 6913, Australia
3
Biodiversity and Conservation Science, Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, Kensington, WA 6151, Australia
4
Ngadju Conservation Aboriginal Corporation, Norseman, WA 6443, Australia
ARTICLE INFO
Received October 20, 2023
Revised November 17, 2023
Accepted November 17, 2023
Published on December 22, 2023
*Corresponding author
Suzanne M Prober
E-mail suzanne.prober@csiro.au
Ecosystem observatories are burgeoning globally in an endeavour to detect national and
global scale trends in the state of biodiversity and ecosystems in an era of rapid envi-
ronmental change. In this paper we highlight the additional importance of regional scale
outcomes of such infrastructure, through an introduction to the Great Western Woodlands
TERN (Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network) SuperSite, and key findings from three gra-
dient plot networks that are part of this infrastructure. The SuperSite was established in
2012 in the 160,000 km2 Great Western Woodlands region, in a collaboration involving 12
organisations. This region is globally significant for its largely intact, diverse landscapes,
including the world’s largest Mediterranean-climate woodlands and highly diverse sand-
plain shrublands. The dominant woodland eucalypts are fire-sensitive, requiring hundreds
of years to regrow after fire. Old-growth woodlands are highly valued by Indigenous and
non-Indigenous communities, and managing impacts of climate change and the increas-
ing extent of intense fires are key regional management challenges. Like other TERN Su-
perSites, the Great Western Woodlands TERN SuperSite includes a core eddy-covariance
flux tower measuring exchanges of carbon, water and energy between the vegetation
and atmosphere, along with additional environmental and biodiversity monitoring around
the tower. The broader SuperSite incorporates three gradient plot networks. Two of these
represent aridity gradients, in sandplains and woodlands, informing regional climate adap-
tation and biodiversity management by characterising biodiversity turnover along spatial
climate gradients and acting as sentinels for ecosystem change over time. For example,
the sandplains transect has demonstrated extremely high spatial turnover rates in plant
species, that challenge traditional approaches to biodiversity conservation. The third gradi-
ent plot network represents a 400-year fire-age gradient in
Eucalyptus salubris
woodlands.
It has enabled characterisation of post-fire recovery of vegetation, birds and invertebrates
over multi-century timeframes, and provided tools that are directly informing manage-
ment to reduce stand-replacing fires in eucalypt woodlands. By building regional part-
nerships and applying globally or nationally consistent methodologies to regional scale
questions, ecological observatories have the power not only to detect national and global
scale trends in biodiversity and ecosystems, but to directly inform environmental decisions
that are critical at regional scales.
Keywords: ecological change, ecosystem observatory, eddy-covariance flux tower, Great
Western Woodlands, spatial analogues, SuperSite, Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network
Introduction
There is burgeoning investment in national and global
scale ecological monitoring infrastructure. These ecosys-
tem observatories are critical for detecting and responding
to ecological change in an era of rapid land use and envi-
ronmental change (Borer et al. 2014; Caddy-Retalic et al.
2017; Cleverly et al. 2019; Loescher et al. 2022; Thorpe et al.
2016). Such infrastructure and networks aim to unify sam-
pling methodologies and support regular data collection,
particularly towards detection of national and global scale
trends in the state of biodiversity and ecosystems. Here, we
aim to highlight the additional importance of regional
scale outcomes of such networks, through an introduction
ISSN: 2288-1220
https://doi.org/10.5141/jee.23.072
(2023) 47:27
Copyright © 2023 The Author(s) Open Access
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
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The publisher of this article is The Ecological Society of Korea in collaboration with The Korean Society of Limnology.
Page 2 of 10
Prober et al. Journal of Ecology and Environment (2023)47:27
to the Great Western Woodlands TERN SuperSite, part of
Australia’s national ecosystem observatory known as the
Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network (TERN). We de-
scribe the core infrastructure and partnerships involved in
the Great Western Woodlands TERN SuperSite, and high-
light science learnings to date from a subset of this infra-
structure: three gradient plot networks as examples of re-
gional scale outcomes.
TERN SuperSites are temporally intensive long term eco-
system observatories, that aim to facilitate a mechanistic
understanding of ecosystem processes and how they are
changing over time. There are currently 16 SuperSites es-
tablished in core biomes across Australia. TERN SuperSites
aim to include: (1) a core field site representing an Austra-
lian biome, with flux tower and base station; (2) at least
one gradient transect (topographical or ecological); and (3)
affiliated studies, including student projects (Karan et al.
2016). The Great Western Woodlands TERN SuperSite was
established in 2012, centred on a 160,000 km2 region in
south-western Australia known as the Great Western
Woo d lands (Fig. 1).
The Great Western Woodlands are globally significant
in supporting largely intact, diverse landscapes including
the world’s largest extant Mediterranean-climate wood-
land, in mosaic with mallee (lignotuber-resprouting euca-
lypt shrublands), highly diverse sandplain shrublands,
ironstone and greenstone ranges and salt lakes (Watson et
al. 2008). The region is bound to the north by a transition
to the
Acacia
dominated rangelands (mulga), to the east by
the Nullarbor (treeless) Plain, and to the south and west by
the extensively cleared agricultural Western Australian
(WA) wheatbelt. The eucalypt woodlands of the Great
Western Woodlands are unusual in that they grow to over
20 m tall at mean annual rainfall at as low as 220 mm
(Prober et al. 2012). Unlike most eucalypts, the dominant
eucalypts in these woodlands are non-resprouters, and take
hundreds of years to regrow from dense seedling recruit-
ment following stand-killing fires (Gosper et al. 2018; Yates
et al. 1994). The old-growth woodlands are highly valued
by Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities, and
managing impacts of climate change and the apparently
increasing extent of large, intense fires are major ecological
management challenges (Prober et al. 2012).
Great Western Woodlands
TERN SuperSite Goals
The Great Western Woodlands TERN SuperSite is stra-
tegically placed to contribute standardised data to national
ecological data streams from a remote, semi-arid environ-
ment, at the same time as informing key management
challenges within this globally significant area. Major re-
gional scale goals include detecting temporal ecological
change, characterising and managing fire regimes and fa-
cilitating adaptation of biodiversity and ecosystems in the
Great Western Woodlands to a changing climate. The
Great Western Woodlands TERN SuperSite also crosses
into the adjacent WA wheatbelt, to enable contrasts be-
tween the relatively intact Great Western Woodlands, and
the adjacent, highly cleared and degraded landscapes of
otherwise similar ecosystems in the WA wheatbelt.
The SuperSite includes a core flux tower site with associ-
ated monitoring infrastructure near the northern eucalypt
woodland boundary, a major ecotone between eucalypt
woodlands and Mulga (
Acacia
) woodlands. This location
was chosen as representative of an extensive, relatively in-
tact old-growth eucalypt woodland landscape, and in the
expectation that it might be an early sentinel of impacts of
climate change. Around this core site is a series of six long-
term plot networks falling mostly within the circle of 200
km radius that defines the SuperSite (Fig. 1). The core f lux
tower and plot network infrastructure has helped to con-
centrate associated research projects in the Supersite (e.g.,
Andrew and Fox 2020; De Kauwe et al. 2019; Gosper et al.
2019a, 2019b; Prober et al. 2013, 2016; Raiter et al. 2017,
2018a, 2018b; Zanne et al. 2022), helping to fulfill the three
core goals of SuperSites.
Fig. 1 The Great Western Woodlands (GWW) TERN (Terrestrial
Ecosystem Research Network) SuperSite. Scope of the Great West-
ern Woodlands TERN SuperSite (yellow circle), including parts of
the intact Great Western Woodlands landscapes and fragmented
Western Australian (WA) wheatbelt. SuperSite monitoring infra-
structure shown: core flux tower site in the north-east (green cir-
cle) and five associated plot networks (Nutrient Network [yellow
bullseye] and Drought-Net [blue bullseye]) experiments, Mul-
ga-line transect (pink circles), South West Australian Transitional
Transect (SWATT, yellow diamonds), Gimlet fire-age plots (orange
circles). Map from Google Earth.
Page 3 of 10
Prober et al. Journal of Ecology and Environment (2023)47:27
Flux Tower and Base Station
To support research at the core f lux tower site, we part-
nered with the WA Department of Biodiversity, Conserva-
tion and Attractions (DBCA) to establish the 36 m ed-
dy-covariance flux tower (measuring exchanges of carbon,
water and energy between the vegetation and atmosphere,
Fig. 2), a Field Studies Centre and accommodation facility
and other infrastructure on the Credo Proposed Conserva-
tion Reserve (hereafter Credo). This former pastoral lease
is now managed for conservation by DBCA.
The Credo flux tower site (35 km from accommodation
facilities) has a mean annual rainfall and temperature of
260 mm and 19°C, and occurs on relatively flat terrain
(draining very gently to the east). The regolith beneath the
eucalypt woodlands in the region is deeply (>40 m) weath-
ered (Anand and Paine 2002) and a deep (>20 m), hypersa-
line, acidic water table is present (Gray 2001). In much of
the area, the
in-situ
weathered regolith is overlain by sedi-
ments of massive, structureless red clays, often calcareous
in the upper 0.5–2.0 m (Anand and Paine 2002). The soil
sampled at the flux tower soil pit (Fig. 2) is a colluvial red
sandy clay loam at the surface, grading to clay at approxi-
mately 70 cm. The vegetation in a five-kilometre radius
surrounding the flux tower is predominantly open euca-
lypt woodland dominated by the obligate-seeder eucalypt
species
Eucalyptus salmonophloia
(salmon gum),
Eucalyp-
tus salubris
(gimlet) and
Eucalyptus transcontinentalis
(red-
wood), with patches of
Eucalyptus clelandiorum
(blackbutt)
woodland on occasional greenstone bands, and occasional
small patches of
Acacia
spp. (mulga) woodland and treeless
chenopod shrubland where soils become shallow (Figs. 2
and 3).
As well as eddy-covariance flux instruments, the flux
tower site includes a suite of additional monitoring infra-
structure and measurements (Fig. 2), including 30-minute
weather, soil temperature and soil moisture data, bioacous-
tics recordings, phenocam images, digital cover photogra-
phy, field vegetation measurements and depth to water ta-
ble, as summarised in Ta ble 1 (Bissett et al. 2016; Bloomfield
et al. 2018; White et al. 2012; Wiehl et al. 2023; Zanne et al.
2022). The flux data sets have been downloaded more than
3,800 times via the global FLUXNET portal alone since
2016 (https://fluxnet.org/sites/siteinfo/AU-GWW#da-
ta-use-log), and the broader data sets have contributed to over
100 publications worldwide that the authors are aware of.
Plot Networks
The plot networks of the Great Western Woodlands
TERN SuperSite (Tabl e 2) (Borer et al. 2014; Gibson et al.
2017; Gosper et al. 2013a; Yahdjian et al. 2021) have been
established in partnership with a range of organisations,
including Australia’s Commonwealth Scientific and Indus-
trial Research Organisation (CSIRO), TERN, DBCA, the
WA Departments of Jobs, Tourism, Science and Innovation
(DJTSI) and Primary Industries, Innovation and Regional
Development, the University of Western Australia, Mur-
doch University, James Cook University, Edith Cowan
University, Birdlife Australia and the Ngadju Conservation
Aboriginal Corporation. In addition to the six 1 ha plots at
the core SuperSite, the plot networks include two plot net-
works that are part of global experimental networks. These
Fig. 2 Long-term monitoring in-
frastructure at the flux tower site
on Credo Proposed Conservation
Reserve. (A) 36 m tall flux tower,
(B) regularly-monitored core one
hectare
Eucalyptus salmonophloia
AusPlot adjacent to flux tower, (C)
litter traps and dendrometer bands
in the core one hectare
E. salmon-
ophloia
AusPlot, (D) soil pit (to 1.4
m deep) at flux tower site.
Page 4 of 10
Prober et al. Journal of Ecology and Environment (2023)47:27
are a Nutrient Network experiment assessing outcomes of
nutrient enrichment and grazing exclusion in grassy wood-
lands of the wheatbelt edge of the SuperSite (Fig. 3A), and a
Drought-Net experiment in chenopod shrubland assessing
impacts of imposed drought (Fig. 3B). Data from these
global networks have now contributed to over 50 science
publications.
The remaining three plot networks involve three gradi-
ent transects. Transects that traverse climatic or other eco-
logical gradients are recognised as effective platforms for
climate change or other ecological research (Caddy-Retalic
et al. 2017). The gradient plot networks of the Great West-
ern Woodlands TERN SuperSite capture a fire age gradient
in
E. salubris
(gimlet) woodlands, and aridity gradients in
sandplains (South West Australian Transitional Transect,
SWATT) and woodlands (Mulga-line transect).
Mulga-line transect
The Mulga-line transect was established in 2022, as one
of three TERN transects in WA supported by TERN, DJT-
SI, CSIRO, DBCA, Ngadju Conservation Aboriginal Cor-
poration, University of Western Australia, James Cook
University and Edith Cowan University, that aim to pilot
temporal biodiversity monitoring (i.e. regular monitoring
each year) across major climate gradients. These aim to
create temporal and spatial datasets along major climate
gradients to (1) provide an initial characterisation of spatial
climate patterns on three biodiversity groups–plants, ants
and soil microbes, and (2) build up temporal data streams
to detect change in vegetation and biodiversity over time.
The Mulga-line transect has been designed not only to
capture an aridity gradient–ranging from c. 17°C mean
annual temperature and 300 mm mean annual rainfall in
the south to 21°C and 255 mm in the north–but also to
cross the Mulga-line. Hence, seven plots are in
E. salmono-
phloia
(salmon gum) woodland (Fig. 3C) and five in
Acacia
spp. (mulga) woodland (Fig. 3D). We are particularly inter-
ested to detect any evidence that the Mulga-line might
start to move southwards as the climate warms, as is pre-
dicted by ecological modelling, or any other ecological
change attributable to climate change (Prober et al. 2012).
South West Australian Transitional Transect
The establishment of the SWATT transect (Gibson et al.
Fig. 3 Vegetation types included
in the plot networks associated with
the Great Western Woodlands TERN
(Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Net-
work) SuperSite. (A) Nutrient Net-
work site including herbivore ex-
closure in cleared grassy woodland
at Mt Caroline in the Western
Australian wheatbelt, (B) Drought-
Net site with rain-out shelters in
chenopod shrubland at Credo, (C)
Eucalyptus salmonophloia
(salmon
gum) and (D)
Acacia
spp. (mulga)
woodlands of the Mulga-line tran-
sect, (E) sandplain shrublands of
the SWATT (South West Australian
Transitional Transect) transect and
(F) long-unburnt
E. salubris
(gimlet)
woodland of the Gimlet fire-age
plots (estimated time since fire 260–
300 years, Gosper et al. 2013a).
Page 5 of 10
Prober et al. Journal of Ecology and Environment (2023)47:27
Table 1 Long-term monitoring infrastructure at or near the Great Western Woodlands TERN SuperSite flux tower
a
Measure Measurement details Period of
measurement
Continuous to 30 min
Bioacoustics 1. 2 SM2+ Songmeters from Wildlife Acoustics, Inc. installed at two locations
(recordings for 6 hours around sunrise and sunset daily)
2. 4 Bioacoustic recorders (Frontier Labs) installed in pairs (close and distant
to waterway) (recording constantly)
1. 2012–2020
2. 2020–present
Flux instruments 1. Open-path gas analyser (Licor 7500A/RS @36 m)
2. 3D sonic anemometer (CSA CSAT3B @36 m)
2012–present
Weather data 1. Wind direction (WINDSONIC4 @36 m)
2. Temperature and humidity (Vaisala HMP155 @3 m and 36 m)
3. Upwelling and downwelling longwave and shortwave radiation (Kipp and
Zonen CNR4 @36 m)
4. Net radiation (Kipp and Zonen NR Lite 2 @36 m)
5. Rainfall (RIMCO RIM-7499-BOM)
2012–present
Soil heat flux Three heat flux plates (Hukseflux HFP01)
Two averaging soil thermocouple probes (CSA TCAV)
2012–present
Soil moisture and
temperature
1. Soil moisture in two pits at 5, 10, 20, 30, 50, 70, 90 cm (CSA CS616)
2. Soil temperature at 5, 10, 20, 30, 50 cm (CSA 107 temperature probe)
2012–present
Phenocams 1. Timelapse cameras
2. Outdoor Observation and Surveillance Field Camera (CSA CCFC @36 m)
1. 2012–2018
2. 2021–present
(daylight only)
Tree diameter
increment
Logging Band Dendrometer (ICT DBL60). 7
Eucalyptus salmonophloia
, 4
E. salubris
, 4
E. transcontinentalis
, 4
E. clelandiorum
2015–present
Photosynthetically
active radiation (PAR)
Incoming and reflected PAR (LI-190R Quantum Sensor @36 m) 2020–present
Twice yearly
Leaf area index, crown
and foliage cover
Digital cover photography at
E. salmonophloia
plot: 81 images on a 10 ×
10 m grid
2013–present
Depth to water table Sampled from bores at the
E. salmonophoia
and
E. clelandiorum
plots 2014–present
Birdlife Australia bird
monitoring
Up to twice yearly surveys across 26 sites on Credo, including core flux site
TERN AusPlots. Data collected and managed by Birdlife Australia, using
Birdlife Australia 2 ha 20 min standard survey methodology
2014–2024
Litter accumulation 15 Litter traps in each of four 1 ha plots (
E. salmonophloia
plot,
E. salubris
plot,
E. transcontinentalis
plot,
E. clelandiorum
plot)
2013–present
Annual
Vegetation composition
and structure
Standard TERN AusPlot vegetation method (White et al. 2012), September each
year at
E. salmonophloia
TERN AusPlot
2013–present
Occasional
Tree diameter and height All trees in four TERN AusPlots tagged and measured at least 5 yearly:
E. salmonophloia
(2012, 2018, 2023),
E. salubris
(2012, 2023),
E. transcontinentalis
(2018, 2023),
E. clelandiorum
(2013)
2012–present
Baseline soil pit and
chemical sample
Soil physical and chemical description to 1.4 m 2012
AusPlots soil chemistry samples Standard TERN AusPlot method (White et al. 2012); samples stored 2013
AustPlots soil biological samples Standard TERN AusPlot method (White et al. 2012); samples stored 2013
BASE soil biological and
chemical samples
Soil chemistry and genomics at 0–10 cm and 20+ cm (data available from
Biomes of Australian Soil Environments (BASE) soil microbial diversity
database, Bissett et al. (2016)
2013
Leaf physiology Leaf traits leaf nitrogen, phosphorus, leaf mass-per-area, and photosynthetic
parameters on multiple species Bloomfield et al. 2018)
2013–2014
Standardised wood
decomposition rate
Pine blocks deployed in
E. salmonophloia
AusPlot, collected at 12 and
24 months post deployment (Zanne et al. 2022)
2016–2018
Standardised teabag
decomposition rate
Decomposition rate measured on two teabag types over 36 months
(Keuskamp et al. 2013)
2018–2021
Ant composition Sampled in
E. salmonophloia
AusPlot using TERN Australian SuperSites
monitoring protocols (Wiehl et al. 2023)
2011–2012 and
2015
Airborne LiDAR coverage Airborne laser scanning over 5 × 5 km grid centred over flux tower 2012, 2021
TERN: Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network.
aData and meta-data variously available from TERN Data Portal (https://portal.tern.org.au/), as cited, or from the authors.
Page 6 of 10
Prober et al. Journal of Ecology and Environment (2023)47:27
2017) was led by Prof. Stephen van Leeuwen and Dr. Neil
Gibson then based at DBCA, as part of the then TERN
Australian Transect Network. It was designed to include
six sets of plots in the sandplain shrublands (Fig. 3E) of
Great Western Woodlands TERN SuperSite, as well as cap-
turing two sandplains in the mesic far south-west and two
desert sites in the north east. The SWATT extends for over
1,200 km and covers a rainfall gradient of 1,235 mm. It has
a unique design developed to test rates of species turnover
in sandplains, which are known to be extremely diverse. To
achieve this there are sixteen plots at different distances
apart at each of ten locations, i.e. 160 plots altogether. This
transect similarly aims to characterise spatial change with
climate, and in particular, whether species turnover rates
vary with aridity. Monitoring has included plants and soils,
with key results demonstrating (1) a very high rate of com-
plete effective plant species turnovers (Whittaker’s
β
W-1,
averaging 2.5 every 10 km); (2) consistent high rates of
turnover at all locations along the transect, i.e. indepen-
dent of the aridity gradient or edaphic factors (Gibson et
al. 2017). From a management perspective these results in-
dicate that reserve-based conservation strategies are un-
likely to effectively conserve species in the south-western
Australian sandplains. Rather, they emphasise the impor-
tance of off-reserve management and for minimising dis-
turbance footprints in intact landscapes, especially given
projected climate change.
Gimlet fire-age plots
The third set of gradient plots were established by
CSIRO, DBCA, and TERN in response to increasing recog-
nition of the significance of the Great Western Woodlands
Table 2 Plot network infrastructure associated with Great Western Woodlands TERN SuperSite
Plot network Key partnerships Plot and measurement details Period of measurement
Core SuperSite
Hectare plots TERN, CSIRO, DBCA 6 standard 1 ha TERN AusPlotsa in vegetation
types surrounding flux tower (
Eucalyptus
salmonophloia
,
Eucalyptus salubris
,
Eucalyptus
transcontinentalis
, and
Eucalyptus clelandiorum
woodland, chenopod shrubland,
Acacia
woodland), biannual to 5 yearly measures on
eucalypt woodland plots as Table 1
2013–present
Global networks
Nutrient Network Global NutNet consortium,
CSIRO, Mt Caroline property
owners
Standardised experimental design and monitoring
following Nutrient Network protocols (Borer
et al. 2014) Includes annual measurement of
floristic composition and biomass, irregular soil
and other measures
2008–present
Drought-Net Global Drought-Net consortium,
DBCA, CSIRO, TERN, Murdoch
University
Standardised experimental design and monitoring
following Drought-Net protocols (Yahdjian et al.
2021). Includes annual measurement of floristic
composition and biomass, irregular soil and
other measures
2015–present
Gradient plots
South West Australian
Transitional Transect
DBCA, TERN, CSIRO Four standard TERN 1 ha AusPlots with nested
20 × 20 plots at each of 10 locations along the
1,200 km transect (total 160 plots)
Measured in 2013,
1 ha plots repeated
in 2022
Mulga-line transect CSIRO, TERN, DBCA, DJTSI,
University of Western Australia,
James Cook University, Edith
Cowan University, Ngadju
Conservation Aboriginal
Corporation
12 standard 1 ha TERN AusPlots along a 700 km
transect along an aridity gradient and crossing
the ecotone between eucalypt and
Acacia
dominated woodland. Additional annual
monitoring of vegetation, soil microbes, and ants
2022–present
Gimlet fire-age plots CSIRO, TERN, DBCA, Ngadju
Conservation Aboriginal
Corporation, DPIIRD, Birdlife
Australia
76 × 0.25 ha plots across a gradient of times since
stand-replacement fire in woodlands dominated
by
E. salubris.
Base measures include vegetation
floristics, cover and structure, with visual Vesta
fuel assessment, 20-min 2-ha bird survey,
ants, drone- and airborne-based LiDAR, plant
biomass at a sub-set of plots
First established
2010–2012, various
measures since,
ongoing
TERN: Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network; CSIRO: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation; DBCA: Department of
Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions; DJTSI: Department of Jobs, Tourism, Science and Innovation, DPIIRD: Department of Primary Industries,
Innovation and Regional Development.
aTERN AusPlots are standard 1 ha plots using methodology described in White et al. (2012).
Page 7 of 10
Prober et al. Journal of Ecology and Environment (2023)47:27
as the world’s largest extant temperate woodland, the value
of old-growth stands to Indigenous and non-Indigenous
communities, and the significant emerging threat of in-
creases in intense fires (Prober et al. 2012). In contrast to
other semi-arid eucalypt woodland communities, the
dominant Great Western Woodlands woodland eucalypts
are obligate-seeders with fires being stand-replacing.
Hence, old-growth woodland values are potentially being
degraded through a recent spate of large wildfires likely
linked to climate change (Prober et al. 2012; Yates et al.
1994).
The 76 permanently-marked Gimlet fire-age plots (e.g.
Fig. 3F) were established across a time since fire chronose-
quence in woodlands dominated by
E. salubris
(gimlet). A
key early achievement was establishment of a method for
ageing individual trees and stands, via a tree size-age mod-
el calibrated by growth ring counts and satellite imagery
(Gosper et al. 2013a). This established that old-growth
stands had a time of origin (last stand-replacement fire) up
to 450 years previously. The early goals of the plot network
were to understand changes in biodiversity and ecosystem
processes over exceptionally long timeframes, and hence
potential impacts of increases in fire under climate change.
Vascular flora, birds and ants have been sampled on the
Gimlet fire-age plots. Key findings were that (1) some spe-
cies and functional groups of biota were associated with
specific periods of time since fire; (2) post-fire changes in
the composition of communities extends over multi-centu-
ry time frames; (3) for birds and flora, species richness
peaked in old-growth woodlands (woodland age is contin-
uous, but here we refer to old-growth as being >~140
years); and (4) for birds most species of conservation sig-
nificance were associated with old-growth woodlands
(Gosper et al. 2013c, 2015, 2019a, 2019b). An important
implication of these studies is that old-growth woodlands
have greater conservation value and that once burnt, recov-
ery of these values is not feasible over a meaningful man-
agement timeframe, emphasising the importance of mini-
mising fire in currently old-growth stands.
Measurements of vegetation structure and flammable
fuels have revealed that dense regrowth stands (~30 to 120
years since fire) have greater surface litter cover, shrub cov-
er and tree cover (Gosper et al. 2013b, 2014). Thus interme-
diate-aged stands are likely to be more flammable than ei-
ther recently-burnt or old-growth woodlands, which is
consistent with independent calculations of hazard of
burning from remotely-sensed imagery (O’Donnell et al.
2011). The higher flammability of intermediate-aged
woodlands is important because it means that once they
burn, regenerating woodlands are more likely to burn
again, and need to get through that fire trap before fuels
become more spatially disjunct over the course of centuries
in transition to old growth woodlands. Prior fire interval
has a large bearing on standing dead tree and coarse woody
debris piece size. Larger pieces, which provide greater hab-
itat value for fauna and retain greater carbon stocks, occur
after longer fire intervals (i.e. when old-growth woodlands
are burnt; Gosper et al. 2019c).
A collaboration with Ngadju Conservation Aboriginal
Corporation and the University of Bristol has leveraged the
on-ground data of the Gimlet fire-age plots to map wood-
land size and age-class distribution across the Great West-
ern Woodlands. The Gimlet fire-age plots were augmented
with a larger temporary plot network at which tree size and
density data were collected. These field data were linked
across three scales of LiDAR–drone- and airborne-based
LiDAR flown over a subset of the field plots, and LiDAR
data from the GEDI satellite, to effectively extrapolate
field-based tree measures across the Great Western Wood-
lands (Jucker et al. 2023). The spatial data on woodland age
class structure has informed just how much fire there has
been in the last half century–nearly 40% of woodland area
has burnt at least once–while focussing attention on the
~41% of the area still covered in old growth woodlands.
This spatial product is now assisting land managers (in-
cluding State and Indigenous) in targeting fire manage-
ment to reduce fires in priority old-growth woodlands.
Finally, we are now using the gimlet and other woodland
plots and the subsequent age-class mapping work to ex-
plore options for a carbon methodology based on reducing
the amount of fire in the Great Western Woodlands. Pre-
liminary data indicates there is a substantial increase in
biomass carbon along the sequence from young to old-
growth woodland, as would be expected. If economically
significant quantities of carbon can be sequestered or re-
tained in woodlands with changes in fire regimes, and fire
management can successfully shift fire regimes in a desir-
able direction, it could provide a pathway to fund fire
management, provide employment opportunities and sup-
port biodiversity and cultural values.
Conclusions
This paper for the first time introduces the suite of eco-
logical monitoring infrastructure and data streams of the
Great Western Woodlands TERN SuperSite. This includes
standardised core monitoring at an eddy covariance flux
tower, and series of plot networks using standardised mon-
itoring methodologies. Our synthesis showed that gradient
plots, designed to capture spatial gradients (in fire age and
aridity) represent an effective monitoring design, enabling
shorter term outcomes informed by spatial gradients whilst
building up longer-term data streams to detect temporal
change. We emphasise that all research infrastructure and
data described are available for collaborative research, in-
cluding data accessible from the TERN Data Portal (https://
portal.tern.org.au/).
Page 8 of 10
Prober et al. Journal of Ecology and Environment (2023)47:27
An important but often overlooked element of ecological
monitoring observatories is their regional scale outcomes
and partnerships. Here we demonstrated how infrastruc-
ture can be designed to inform nested scales, from regional
to national and global, through applying globally or na-
tionally consistent methodologies to regional scale ques-
tions, and building regional partnerships. This led to posi-
tive outcomes informing conservation planning in the
highly diverse WA sandplains, and better outcomes for fire
management in fire sensitive old growth woodlands, with
knowledge relevant to climate adaptation management ex-
pected as results from the Mulga-line transect become
available. These regional-scale outcomes include generalis-
able insights (e.g. LiDAR applications, long-term ecology of
woodlands dominated by obligate-seeders, conservation
implications in highly biodiverse landscapes) and contrib-
ute to the >150 regional to global scale publications known
to have included data from the Great Western Woodlands
TERN SuperSite infrastructure.
Abbreviations
TERN: Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network
WA: Western Austra lia
DBCA: Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions
CSIRO: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organi-
sation
DJTSI: Department of Jobs, Tourism, Science and Innovation
DPIIRD: Department of Primary Industries, Innovation and Re-
gional Development
SWATT: South West Australian Transitional Transect
Acknowledgements
The research described involved many individuals in addition to the
authors, including Dr Margaret Byrne and Mr Nigel Wessels
(DBCA), Dr Neil Gibson, Mr Ian Kealley OAM and Dr Rachel Meis-
sner (previously DBCA), Prof. Stephen van Leeuwen (Curtin Univer-
sity), Prof. Jason Beringer and Dr Caitlin Moore (University of West-
ern Australia), Dr Richard Silberstein (Edith Cowan University),
Prof. Will Edwards (James Cook Universit y) and Dr Rachel Standish
(Murdoch University). The Great Western Woodlands TERN Super-
Site includes the traditional lands of a number of First Nations peo-
ples including Ngadju, Wongi and Noongar Nations Peoples.
Authors’ contributions
The Great Western Woodlands TERN SuperSite was initiated by
SMP and CM, with flux tower and instrumentation oversight by CM
and other core f lux site data overseen by GW and SMP; CRG led es-
tablishment of the Gimlet fire-age plots with contributions from
SMP and GW; LS and HL led collaborations with Ngadju Conserva-
tion Aboriginal Corporation; SMP led the writing of this manuscript
with significant contributions from all co-authors.
Funding
The Great Western Woodlands TERN SuperSite has been supported
by the Australian Government through the National Collaborative
Research Infrastructure Strateg y (NCRIS)-enabled Terrestrial Eco-
system Research Network (TERN) and a range of other organisa-
tions, including CSIRO, the Ngadju Conservation Aboriginal Corpo-
ration, and the Western Austra lian Government Depar tments of
Biodiversity Conservation and Attractions; Primar y Industries, In-
novation and Regional Development; and Jobs, Tourism, Science and
Innovation.
Availability of data and materials
The datasets described in this paper are available on the TERN data
portal (https://porta l.tern.org.au/), in cited publications or from the
corresponding author on reasonable request.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
Not applicable.
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