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* nebras.ali@coeduw.uobaghdad.edu.iq
https://wjps.uowasit.edu.iq/index.php/wjps/index
116
Wasit Journal for Pure Science
Journal Homepage: https://wjps.uowasit.edu.iq/index.php/wjps/index
e-ISSN: 2790-5241 p-ISSN: 2790-5233
Comprehensive on Exploring Advanced Ciphering and
Steganography Techniques for Enhanced Data Protection:
Review
Nibras A.Mohammed Ali1*, Sajaa G. Mohammed2, Faisel G.Mohammed3 ,
Firas A.Mohammed Ali4,
1Department Computer Science,
College of Education for Women, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq,
2 Department of Mathematics,
College of Science, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq
3Department OF Remote Sensing and Geographic Information,
College of Science, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq
4Center for Strategic and International Studies,
College of Science, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq
*Nibras A.Mohammed Ali:
DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.31185/wjps.265
Received 11 November 2023; Accepted 14 December 2023; Available online 13 December 2023
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview of data protection challenges
Data protection ensures data security and accessibility, encompassing safeguarding and maintaining operations.
Techniques focus on accessibility and optimizing data administration. Data availability ensures business operations even
in data degradation or loss. Data protection relies on data lifecycle and information lifecycle management, which
automate data transfer and safeguard against failures, malware, virus attacks, and equipment failures[1].
Protecting data and information is of great importance in the modern era to ensure the privacy and security of personal
and public information, despite the fact that life challenges in various fields are many. There are also many difficulties
that are faced in different ways, some of which are shown below[2].
1. The incidence of data leakage and electronic attacks is increasing, as these violations and unauthorised access to
important data lead to identity theft, financial losses, and damage to reputation [3][4].
ABSTRACT: Steganography is the scientific practice of concealing a confidential message within a medium, without
causing any noticeable alteration to the original medium. Steganography allows for the concealment of information
within carrier items, such as photos, videos, sound files, and text files, throughout the process of data transmission.
Within the realm of image steganography, this is a significant issue. The researchers want to enhance the capacity of
concealing data within a host image without introducing any statistical anomalies. Substantial alteration. In the present
digital age, where sensitive information is constantly at risk of unauthorized access, safeguarding data is of utmost
importance. Methods such as ciphering and steganography are crucial for maintaining the confidentiality and
authenticity of data. This study examines advanced encryption and covert communication techniques that enhance
the protection of data. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of current approaches, including their benefits,
drawbacks, and potential applications, through the examination of relevant research publications.
Keywords: encryption; Cyber security; open encryption; hidden communications; Encryption algorithms.
convolutional neural networks; hide pictures; Steganography; Video data masking; Hide texts; electronic watermarks;
Cryptanalysis. Data and information theory.
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2. Companies must comply with data protection legislation such as the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) to
ensure full regulation, and this requires implementing appropriate privacy protocols and practices [5][6].
3. Data minimization is increasingly difficult as data collection occurs on a large scale, requiring us to thoroughly
evaluate the data for legitimate and compliant processing [7][8].
4. External sources used for various data operations by those who work to provide cloud services and third-party
distributors, which increases security risks. This requires organizations and their contractors to have strong data
protection mechanisms [9].
5. Organisations must ensure that users are aware of data processing and have the ability to reject, consent to, or
withdraw it, although consent is complex [3].
6. The mechanism to ensure the protection of personally identifiable information is through anonymization, aliasing
techniques, and strong encryption procedures to prevent the re-identification of personal data [10].
7. In introducing employees, organisations must invest in training them to reduce human errors, ensure greater data
protection, and improve the organisation’s employees’ understanding of different protection methods [11].
8. Ciphering (Encryption): Encryption techniques safeguard confidential information by converting it into an
unreadable form, ensuring data integrity through algorithms that detect unauthorized modifications, and verifying
data origin [12].
9. Importance of ciphering and steganography techniques Ciphering and steganography techniques are vital for
maintaining the security and privacy of information in digital communications and data storage systems [11].
10. Steganography is Covert Communication: Steganography techniques allow for the covert transmission of
confidential information, reducing suspicion and ensuring privacy by minimizing detection by unintended recipients
or eavesdroppers. Protection through Occlusion: Steganography enhances security by concealing hidden information,
making it undetectable during interception, thus protecting it against unauthorized intrusion. Steganography
techniques are crucial for information security preservation, safeguarding sensitive data and confidentiality, and are
utilized in military communications, cyber security, digital forensics, and routine digital communication [13][14].
To address these challenges, a comprehensive approach must be taken that includes robust security methods and
mechanisms, privacy by design mechanisms, regular security audits, and staying current on data encryption
requirements. This is a discourse on the primary research contribution, which is a comprehensive depiction of privacy
research from a transdisciplinary perspective. The paper concludes after presenting this rich image[15][16].
2. CIPHERING TECHNIQUES
Cryptographic algorithms encode and decode data by transforming plaintext into ciphertext using a key. Various forms
of encryption are illustrated in the figure (1):
Figure (1): The Diagram Shows the Different Types of Ciphering in Addition to The Most Important Sub-Algorithms Associated
with Them
2.1 Symmetric Key Encryption
Review popular symmetric key algorithms (e.g., AES, DES), There are many types of symmetric encryption shown as
followed, Symmetric key algorithms are encryption methods that use the same secret key for both encryption and
decryption.
Ciphering Techniques
Symmetric Key
Encryption
Asymmetric Key
Encryption
Homomorphic
Encryption
AES
DES
3DES
RSA
DH
ECC
DSA
Symmetric
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1.The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES): The US government standardized AES in 2001, a block cypher
encryption technology with key sizes of 128, 192, and 256 bits, known for its high security in data encryption [17].
2.The Data Encryption Standard (DES) DES, a popular 1970s and 1980s block cypher encryption technique, uses 64-
bit blocks and a 56-bit key, but is now less recommended due to its small key size. [18][19].
3.The Triple Data Encryption Standard (3DES) The DES technique, which uses three distinct keys to apply the DES
process to each block, enhances security but is still used in outdated systems [20][21].
4. The Two Fish encryption method, a block cypher replacing the Blowfish algorithm, supports key sizes up to 256 bits
while maintaining a fixed block size of 128 bits, offering robust security measures [8].
A symmetric encryption, the key is to identify the strengths and weaknesses. The widely used method of symmetric key
encryption is to use the same key for encryption and decryption operations, with strong and weak points.
Strengths:
1. The symmetric key encryption process is generally faster than the asymmetric key encryption process because it
uses a single key for encryption and decryption.
2. Symmetric-key encryption is one of the easiest types of encryptions to use due to its ease of implementation and
management, using a single key for both decryption and encryption operations [22].
3.Efficiency: The symmetric key encryption method is more efficient due to its advanced use of computational
efficiency and resources compared to asymmetric key encryption [21].
4. Symmetric key encryption is a reliable way to protect sensitive information in data security, but only on the
condition that it is used efficiently, wisely, and with a reliable and strong key [23].
Weaknesses:
1.It is extremely important to distribute keys for secure communication in the symmetric key encryption process,
because the continuity of communication is effectively maintained through insecure means and this can pose challenges
[13].
2.Maintaining key security is very important for symmetric key encryption, as it has become possible for a
compromised key to put the security of encrypted data at risk.
3.The limitations of symmetric key encryption include non-repudiation, which makes it difficult to determine the
sender of a message [24].
4.The process of expanding symmetric key encryption, due to the difficulty of managing it, is limited and the
distribution of many keys is also limited, and this may pose challenges when developing the system to include larger
and broader networks or systems [13].
Symmetric key cryptography is an effective, fast, simple and suitable technique for key management and
distribution, but it is not suitable in cases of non-repudiation or scalability.
2.2 Asymmetric Key Encryption
Show the main common asymmetric algorithms. Public key algorithms, also known as asymmetric key
algorithms, use two distinct keys for decryption and encryption and are widely used in different fields [25].
1.RSA, developed by Shamir, Rivest, and Adleman in 1977, is a well-known method of public key cryptography that
uses large prime numbers to create key pairs and supports up to 4096-bit key sizes [14].
2. Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) is a widely used public-key encryption method due to its efficiency and speed,
particularly in mobile and embedded devices, utilizing shorter key lengths [26].
3.The Diffie-Hellman (DH) protocol is a secure cryptographic technique used for key exchange between parties,
enabling mutually agreed-upon secret keys without physical exchange [27].
4.The Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) is a public-key encryption scheme used to generate digital signatures,
providing dual encryption functionality and digital signature generation alongside other techniques [26].
Popular asymmetric key algorithms consider security, size, speed, compatibility, and key management and
distribution challenges when selecting, ensuring security, compatibility with existing systems, and speed [28].
Strengths and weaknesses of asymmetric key encryption. Asymmetric key encryption, also known as public-key
encryption, is a widely used method that employs two distinct keys for encryption and decryption [29].
Strengths:
1. Asymmetric key encryption simplifies key distribution issues by using the public key of each party involved for
encryption and the private key for decryption [30].
2. Non-repudiation: The utilization of asymmetric key encryption facilitates the achievement of non-repudiation,
hence simplifying the process of establishing the identity of the message sender.
3. Asymmetric key encryption offers scalability, making it ideal for legal contexts, as it doesn't require multiple keys
distribution [31].
4. Security: The use of asymmetric key encryption can provide a high degree of security for secured information,
when implemented correctly and with thoughtful, strong keys.
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Weaknesses:
1. Asymmetric-key encryption is slower than symmetric-key encryption. This is because two separate keys are used
for encryption and decryption [32].
2. Due to the use of two different keys and the need for key management, Asymmetric key encryption becomes more
complex [20].3. Maintaining key security requires asymmetric key encryption in the form of precise keys. If the
private key is lost or stolen, the security of the encrypted data is also compromised [15].
4. It requires larger key sizes than symmetric key encryption and asymmetric key encryption, which makes it difficult
to use on low-power devices [33].
The advantages of asymmetric key encryption are key distribution, non-repudiation, and scalability, while the
disadvantages are that it may become more complex and slower, and this requires careful key management for security
[34].
2.3 Homomorphic Encryption
Symmetric encryption based on basic concepts; symmetric encryption allows mathematical operations to be
performed on encrypted data without the need to decrypt it. This leads to mathematical operations being performed on
the ciphertext and produces the same result as the plain text [35].
• The symmetric algorithm is used in symmetric encryption, in which data is encrypted using the symmetric algorithm,
and this is what makes the ciphertext incomprehensible if we lose the decryption key [36].
• The second basic element is computation, which performs mathematical operations on encrypted data without
having to decrypt it. This preserves encryption and leads to encrypted results[34].
• The third and final principle of symmetric encryption is decryption, which allows the encrypted result to be
decrypted using the decryption key to obtain the same result as the plain text [36].
One of the characteristics of symmetric encryption is that it provides strong data privacy and security by enabling
calculations on confidential data stored on the cloud and in secure messaging applications, and this works to ensure data
confidentiality and privacy without revealing information[37].
Symmetric encryption, its applications, and its limitations, Homomorphic encryption is a secure method that allows
mathematical operations to be performed on encrypted data without the need for prior decryption, while emphasizing
various applications and limitations [38].
1. Cloud computing employs homomorphic encryption techniques to securely process sensitive data, ensuring
confidentiality and providing financial benefits to individuals and organizations [17].
2. Homomorphic encryption allows computations on encrypted data, enabling the examination of confidential
information while maintaining the data's confidentiality [39].
3. Secure messaging: Homomorphic encryption is used in secure messaging applications to perform computations on
encrypted communications while keeping the contents undisclosed to only the intended recipient [16].
Homomorphic encryption is beneficial in financial applications, particularly online banking, as it allows computations
on encrypted data, protecting it from unauthorized access or disclosure [40].
Limitations:
1.Homomorphic encryption's computational complexity can lead to prolonged processing times for encrypted data,
potentially posing limitations in real-time scenarios [15].
2.Homomorphic encryption's security relies on meticulous key management practices, but can be compromised if the
private key is unlawfully obtained [41].
3.Restricted functionality: Homomorphic encryption, a relatively new technology, currently has limitations in its
utility compared to traditional encryption methods.
4.Key Sizes: Homomorphic encryption, unlike standard methods, requires larger key sizes, which can pose
challenges, especially when dealing with low-power devices [17].
Homomorphic encryption is a robust encryption technique with potential applications in data integrity and
confidentiality sectors, but its implementation requires considering its limitations and downsides [42].
3. STEGANOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES
Steganography involves hiding information within a different message or item to evade detection, encompassing
text, images, videos, and audio. It can be extracted upon reaching its intended location. Various forms of encryption are
illustrated in the figure (2) [43]:
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Figure (2): The Diagram Shows the Different Types of Steganography Techniques in Addition to The Most Important Methods
Associated with Them
3.1 LSB Substitution
The fundamental concept behind the LSB approach is to substitute less significant components of the host picture
with segments of confidential information. Presented below is a comprehensive overview of the most significant
categories:
a) Overview of least significant bit (LSB) substitution technique. Spread spectrum-based steganography is a method
used to conceal confidential information by dispersing it over a wide frequency range, typically in audio, image, or video
files through modulation [44].
1. Spread-spectrum modulation is a communication technique that uses a pseudorandom noise pattern to distribute
signal energy over a wider frequency range, ensuring confidentiality [19].
2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) is a type of communication technology that spreads the signal bandwidth
by multiplying it with a pseudo-random noise sequence [19]. This spreads the signal over a wide bandwidth.
3. Spectrum-based Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) steganography changes the signal in a way that
looks like a pseudo-random sequence. This makes it hard to hack, very safe, and very unlikely to be found [45].
4. Limitations of spectrum-based steganography include good signal-to-noise ratio, need for a secret key, and limited
ability to hide data within cover media [19].
Spread spectrum-based steganography provides strong security although steganography requires practical
implementation to address potential limitations, by distributing secret information across different frequencies.
Limitations and effectiveness
It can be defined as spread spectrum based, a method of hiding confidential data by spreading it over a wide frequency
band, with the ability to analyze its effectiveness and limitations[46].
effectiveness:
1. Due to its wide distribution and difficulty of detection, spectrum-based steganography provides high security,
which makes it difficult for attackers to distinguish between coverage media and steganographic data [20].
2. Steganography is resistant to attacks such as compression, visual inspection, and statistical analysis due to the
difficulty of locating hidden data within the cover media [18].
3. Due to the wide bandwidth, spread spectrum-based steganography has a low probability of detection, which makes
it difficult for attackers to detect the presence of hidden data [20].
Limitations:
1. In steganography If the secret key is compromised, the security of the hidden data will also be compromised. It is
a spectrum-based use of a secret key to generate a pseudorandom sequence that is used to distribute secret data across
a cover medium [47].
2. For spectrum-based steganography to be effective, it needs a large spread of signal-to-noise ratio. If the signal-to-
noise ratio is insufficient, this makes it difficult to extract hidden data from the middle of the envelope [15].
3. Its ability to hide information in the middle of the cover is limited. The reason for this is that the amount of
confidential data that can be hidden must be widely spread.
4. Spread spectrum-based steganography is vulnerable to signal processing techniques such as resampling,
compression and filtering which can alter the pseudorandom sequence used to distribute secret data [16].
Spread spectrum-based steganography offers high security and attack resistance, but has limitations such as secret
key requirement, high signal-to-noise ratio, and limited data capacity [47].
Steganography Techniques
LSB
Spread
Spectrum
Transform Domain
Spread-
spectru
m
DSSS
FHSS
DWT
DCT
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3.2 Spread Spectrum Technique
Review of spread spectrum-based steganography; Spread spectrum-based steganography uses spread spectrum
modulation technique to conceal sensitive information in a cover medium like audio, image, or video file across a broad
bandwidth.
1. Steganography based on the spread spectrum uses pseudorandom noise sequence to distribute signal energy across
a broad bandwidth, while confidential data is distributed across the cover medium [21].
2. Spread spectrum modulation involves spreading the spectrum in direct sequence using a pseudorandom sequence,
compounded to disperse it across a broad bandwidth [19].
3. Spread spectrum modulation: Spread spectrum modulation uses pseudorandom noise to distribute signal energy
across a broad bandwidth, while a secret key generates a pseudorandom sequence for confidential data distribution
[21].
4. Spread the spectrum in direct sequence: This spread spectrum modulation uses a pseudorandom sequence to
modulate the signal, which is then compounded to disperse it across a broad bandwidth [19].
5. Frequency-hopping spread spectrum: Spread spectrum modulation uses a pseudorandom sequence to alter signal
frequency, offering high security, resistance to assaults, and low discovery risk in steganography [21].
6. Spread spectrum-based steganography has disadvantages such as a high signal-to-noise ratio, the need for a secret
key, and limited data hiding in the middle of the envelope.
Spread spectrum-based steganography is a secure way to hide confidential information by distributing it across
different frequencies, but it has limitations that require careful consideration [48].
Advantages and disadvantages of spread spectrum technique
Spread spectrum technology is a signal modulation method that distributes signal energy across different frequencies,
and this leads us to present its advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages:
1. Spread-spectrum technologies provide extended security by dispersing signals across a large frequency range,
making them difficult to jam or detect [20].
2. It shows resistance against various forms of interference, such as intentional interference, multipath interference,
and frequency-selective fading.
3. Spread spectrum techniques optimize bandwidth utilization by allowing multiple signals to coexist within the same
frequency band without interference [15].
4. Spread spectrum techniques can enhance signal quality by reducing interference and noise impact.
Disadvantages:
1. Spread spectrum techniques are more complex than conventional modulation methods, requiring additional
hardware and software.
2. Cost: The system's cost may increase due to the additional hardware and software required for deploying spread
spectrum techniques[14].
3. Power usage: Spread spectrum approaches, which use more power than conventional modulation techniques, may
pose issues for battery-operated devices.
4. Limited capacity: Compared to some other modulation techniques, spread spectrum approaches have a limited
capacity for data transmission [17].
Spread spectrum techniques offer high security and interference resistance, but are complex, costly, and require more
power, potentially affecting battery-powered devices and data capacity [49].
3.3Transform Domain Techniques
Examination of transform domain-based steganography (e.g., DCT, DWT), This paper examines transform domain
steganography techniques, which conceal confidential information by transforming cover mediums into specific forms
like images, audio, or video files using the discrete cosine transform, a widely used mathematical technique in
steganography and photo compression [18].
1. The discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is a widely used transform in steganography and signal processing, used to
conceal data by modifying cover media coefficients imperceptibly [14].
2. Transform domain-based steganography offers enhanced security, resilience to signal processing processes, and
substantial data concealment capacity within the cover medium [18].
3. Limitations: Domain-based steganography techniques have limitations such as the need for a suitable cover
medium, a high signal-to-noise ratio, and limited resilience to certain signal processing operations [19].
4. Transform domain-based steganography uses methods like LSB replacement, QIM, and histogram shifting to
conceal confidential information, offering security but with limitations, commonly encoding DCT and DWT.
b) Comparative analysis of different transform domain techniques
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Steganography utilizes transform domain techniques like DCT, DWT, and DFT, with DCT being a widely used
transform in photo, video, and steganography.
1. DCT in steganography effectively conceals data but is vulnerable to statistical analysis attacks and signal processing
techniques like cropping or scaling [22].
2. The discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is a widely used steganography and signal processing method, offering
security and robustness in compression and filtering but being more challenging to implement and less effective in
data concealment [22].
3. DFT analysis of frequency subcomponents of signals offers enhanced confidentiality and resilience, but its adoption
is limited compared to DCT or DWT-based steganography methods, which offer lower information hiding capabilities
[23].
4. DWT and DCT-based steganography techniques use quantization index modulation to encode confidential
information, providing robust security but vulnerable to statistical analysis attacks due to limitations in data
concealment [21].
Steganography employs DCT, DWT, and DFT transformations, with Quantization Index Modulation (QIM) being a
popular method but susceptible to statistical analysis attacks.
4. ADVANCED CIPHERING TECHNIQUES
Symmetric encryption is a method that use a single key for both encrypting and decrypting secure data. Data
undergoes multiple iterations of substitution, transposition, and mixing to enhance its resistance against compromise,
rather than being encrypted only once [50].
4.1 Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)
Introduction quantum key distribution,Quantum key distribution (QKD) is a secure communication method using
photons to represent binary numbers. It allows Alice and Bob to create a secret key, even with an eavesdropper present,
due to the receiver's ability to detect interceptions [19]. Evaluation of QKD's potential for enhanced data protection
Quantum key distribution (QKD) offers enhanced data protection and communication security due to various factors,
making it a promising solution for data protection.
1. Quantum key distribution (QKD) offers robust security due to quantum physics laws, ensuring immediate detection
of potential communication interception, making it impervious to various attacks [25].
2. Key distribution: Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) creates a confidential cryptographic key between two entities,
ensuring safe communication due to its random nature and protection against unauthorized interference [24].
3. Key Renewal: Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) ensures the periodic renewal of a secret key, preventing
unauthorized access and rendering it ineffective for future communication purposes.
4.Application versatility: Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is crucial in fields like banking, military, and healthcare
for protecting data integrity [25].
However, there are some limitations to QKD that need to be considered:
1.The cost of quantum key distribution (QKD) technology remains relatively high in comparison to conventional
encryption methods, hence posing a potential obstacle to its extensive implementation.
2.The deployment of QKD necessitates a specialized infrastructure, posing difficulties in terms of establishment and
upkeep [26].
3.One of the drawbacks of quantum key distribution (QKD) is its distance restrictions, as the communication distance
is constrained by the loss experienced in the transmission medium. The limitations of its use in some applications can
be observed.
4.Technical problems: Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a sophisticated technique that presents several technical
obstacles that need to be addressed. These challenges mostly involve enhancing the efficiency and dependability of
QKD systems [24].
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) offers enhanced data and communication security, but faces financial, infrastructure,
and geographical limitations. Despite these, it's a promising technology with potential for further development.
4.2 Fully Homomorphic Encryption (FHE)
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Overview of fully homomorphic encryption, Fully Homomorphic Encryption (FHE) is a cryptographic technique that
enables computations on encrypted data without decryption, potentially revolutionizing data security and privacy[12].
Fully Homomorphic Encryption (FHE) is a cryptographic framework that uses lattice cryptography to encrypt data using
a public key and homomorphic operations, resulting in an encrypted value that can be decrypted using a private key [17].
Federated learning of heterogeneous ensembles (FHE) exhibits numerous possible applications, which encompass:
1.The use of Fully Homomorphic Encryption (FHE) in cloud computing enables the execution of calculations on
encrypted data, ensuring a robust level of security and privacy for confidential information.
2.Fully symmetric encryption (FHE) is an encryption technology that enables secure sharing of data across multiple
parties by keeping key information confidential.
3. One of the potential applications of fully homomorphic encryption (FHE) is in the field of machine learning, where
it can be used to perform mathematical operations on encrypted data within machine learning models.
Homomorphic encryption (FHE) provides protection for sensitive data and a great deal of privacy, but its widespread
application faces challenges such as overcoming obstacles:
1. Computational operations on encrypted data tend to be slow and require resources. The performance of fully
homomorphic encryption (FHE) is computationally intensive.
2. Implementing fully homomorphic encryption (FHE) requires specialised skills and deep understanding due to its
complex nature [27].
3. Key management is a critical aspect of implementing fully symmetric encryption (FHE).
FHE can improve data privacy and security, as managing public and private keys in large-scale systems is a major
challenge, but it requires problem solving before widespread use.[23]
Challenges and advancements in FHE implementation, Fully Homomorphic Encryption (FHE) offers potential for
encryption, but challenges persist. This discourse discusses obstacles and breakthroughs in implementing FHE for
widespread adoption.
1. Through advances in algorithms and implementation techniques, the performance of fully homomorphic encryption
(FHE), such as parallel computing optimisation and SIMD instructions, has been improved to reduce computational
effort, time, and resource burdens.
2. Implementing fully homomorphic encryption (FHE) requires specialised knowledge due to its complexity. Progress
has been made, with high-level APIs and key management becoming crucial aspects, enhancing ease of use for
developers [22].
3. Key management systems for fully homomorphic encryption (FHE) have made significant progress, employing
key rotation methodologies for secure cryptographic key administration across a given period. [25].
4. Fully Homomorphic Encryption (FHE) introduces noise into encrypted data, potentially deteriorating its quality.
However, advancements in FHE algorithms, such as bootstrapping methodologies, have effectively mitigated noise
accumulation, improving data quality [11].
5. Fully Homomorphic Encryption (FHE) adoption is a young technology with limited resources and skills. The
Homomorphic Encryption Standardization Consortium (HESC) aims to establish standardized guidelines and
protocols for FHE implementation. [18].
In brief, Fully Homomorphic Encryption (FHE) implementation faces challenges like performance, complexity, and
noise buildup. However, progress has been made through enhanced algorithms, methodologies, and management
strategies, resulting in improved performance and usability.
5. ADVANCED STEGANOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES
Steganography involves hiding information within a different message or item to evade detection, encompassing text,
images, videos, and audio, which is then extracted upon reaching its intended location.
5.1 Adaptive Steganography
Discussion on adaptive steganography methods, Adaptive steganography is a technique that customizes the embedding
process to the cover medium's characteristics, enhancing the security of concealed messages. It involves using a cover
media model to determine the upper limit of concealable data, considering factors like color distribution and image
texture, to determine the most suitable positions and quantities of data to be concealed [9]. Adaptive steganography
techniques enhance security and resilience by dynamically adjusting hiding capacity, particularly in cases of significant
variability or noise interference. However, these methods can be more complex and processing-intensive than non-
adaptive methods, limiting their feasibility in specific contexts [49].
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Analysis of their effectiveness against detection algorithms, Adaptive steganography techniques, such as picture and
audio steganography, customize message concealment, increasing complexity for adversaries, and minimizing perceptual
effects [27]. Steganographic techniques cannot guarantee complete security, and advancements in detection algorithms
continue. Adaptive techniques may be more effective, but they are susceptible to detection threats. The effectiveness of
any steganographic technique depends on the algorithm, message size, and media characteristics, making it crucial to
assess its effectiveness in specific environments [9].
5.2 Deep Learning-based Steganography
Deep learning techniques for hiding information, it is a technique that involves training neural networks to learn complex
data representations, as deep learning techniques have shown promising results in the science of data hiding. These
networks are used in tasks like image and audio processing, natural language processing, and speech recognition,
identifying optimal data embedding locations and amounts to minimize perceptual impact [28]. GANs, a deep learning
approach for steganography, involve a generator and discriminator trained in a game-like environment. The generator
creates realistic steganographic images, while the discriminator distinguishes between steganographic and non-
steganographic signals are used for image processing to learn embedding processes, minimizing perceptual quality
impact. While deep learning techniques for steganography are still in development, they show promise for improving
security and robustness. However, evaluation of their effectiveness in specific contexts and awareness of potential
vulnerabilities are crucial [29].
Evaluation of their performance and robustness, Deep learning techniques for steganography are evaluated based on
their ability to conceal information, perceive the medium, and resist attacks. The concept of hiding capacity measures the
amount of data concealed while maintaining acceptable perceptual quality, using metrics like PSNR and SSIM [9].
Steganographic systems' resistance to detection assaults is assessed using metrics like detection error rate and false
positive rate, while deep learning techniques maintain confidentiality of concealed data [25]. In general, Deep learning
methods' effectiveness in steganography depend on neural network complexity, hidden message size, and medium
properties, requiring thorough assessment and experimentation to determine resilience.
6. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION
Comparison of advanced ciphering and steganography techniques. Advanced ciphering and steganography techniques
are used to protect sensitive information from unauthorized access or detection. Ciphering transforms plaintext messages
into ciphertext using a cryptographic algorithm and secret key, allowing secure transmission or storage. Techniques like
AES and RSA provide strong encryption and protect data from unauthorized access. However, ciphering techniques do
not hide the data's existence, making them effective in preventing unauthorized access [25]. Steganography, a non-
technical approach to data protection, conceals messages in cover mediums like images, audio signals, or text documents,
requiring a secret key for recovery. Advanced ciphering and steganography techniques provide robust encryption and
data protection, with the choice depending on application requirements and data nature [28].
The text discusses the use of ciphering and steganography techniques in applications, discussing potential drawbacks and
security requirements that may influence the choice.
Assessment of their strengths, limitations, and trade-off
Assessment of strengths, limitations, and trade-offs can be applied to various topics, such as technologies, methodologies,
or even individuals. Here are some possible examples [41]:
1. Artificial Intelligence (AI)
AI excels in handling large data volumes, executing complex tasks, and acquiring knowledge through experience,
enhancing performance as it progresses.
Limitations: Artificial intelligence (AI) may exhibit biases or produce erroneous outcomes when it lacks enough
training or supervision. Moreover, it is susceptible to potential attacks or manipulation.
Trade-offs: AI's potential for enhanced efficiency in employment can be a potential risk, but it also raises ethical
concerns about potential discriminatory practices [5].
2.Agile Development Methodology
One of the notable strengths of agile development is its ability to provide flexibility and reactivity in adapting to
evolving requirements or shifting priorities. It fosters a culture of collaboration and facilitates effective
communication among team members.
Limitations: The agile development approach may not be suitable for projects characterized by stringent deadlines
or highly rigid criteria. Scaling up for larger enterprises or organizations can present challenges [20].
Trade-offs: The adoption of an agile strategy necessitates a fundamental transformation in the organizational culture
and may not be universally applicable to all project types or teams.
3.Personal Productivity
Sajaa G. Mohammed1 et al., Wasit Journal for Pure Science Vol. 2 No. 4 (2023) p. 116-013
125
Being productive allows individuals to achieve their goals, experience fulfillment, improve time management, and
maintain a healthy balance between professional and personal spheres.
Limitations: Excessive production focus can lead to burnout, disregard for well-being, and impractical expectations,
posing a burden on maintaining high productivity levels [22].
Balancing production with self-care and relaxation can be challenging due to trade-offs. Success requires setting
achievable goals, prioritizing tasks, and considering personal needs and constraints.
Assessing the advantages and disadvantages of a method or technological advancement is crucial, as finding a
universally applicable solution is rare due to varying circumstances. Identification of potential synergies between
different techniques can lead to more effective and efficient solutions. Here are some examples of potential synergies:
4.Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Human Expertise: - AI can analyze large datasets, providing complex insights, but
can also generate biased judgments. Organizations can leverage AI's synergy with human expertise to enhance
decision-making and identify potential challenges [24].
5.Agile Development and Design Thinking: - Agile development and design thinking are key methodologies in
addressing evolving requirements, fostering adaptability and user-friendly products or services through rapid iteration
and testing of solutions [27].
6.Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma: - Lean manufacturing and Six Sigma are methodologies that enhance
production processes, reduce waste, and minimize defects, thereby improving quality, cost reduction, and customer
satisfaction.
7.Mindfulness and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): - Mindfulness and cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) are
therapeutic approaches that enhance self-awareness and master cognitive processes and emotional states by
identifying and modifying negative thought patterns [15].
Identifying potential synergies among strategies involves assessing strengths and limitations of each approach,
integrating them mutually, and potentially improving problem-solving efficiency by leveraging multiple
methodologies.
7. APPLICATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Review real-world applications of advanced ciphering and steganography. Advanced ciphering and steganography are
methodologies employed to safeguard information through the process of encoding, rendering it arduous to decrypt or
detect. The following are examples of practical applications of these concepts in real-world contexts:
1. Advanced encryption techniques and steganography enhance communication security, ensuring confidentiality and
integrity of information between individuals and organizations, including military and governmental entities [9].
2. Digital watermarking is a steganography technique used by stock photography websites to discreetly embed a digital
watermark within images or videos, identifying the media's rightful owner [1].
3. Steganography is a method to protect copyrighted content by embedding a message or copyright details in an
unassuming medium, effectively deterring unauthorized use or distribution.
4.The aforementioned method can be employed for the purpose of surreptitiously transmitting information across security
checkpoints or safeguarding confidential data from unauthorized access [28].
5. Sophisticated encryption techniques and steganography can be used to obfuscate data or alter evidence, posing
challenges for forensic analysts in identifying or retrieving original material. This method can be used by individuals
involved in illicit activities or acts of terrorism to conceal their actions or to protect personal identity.[28].
Advanced ciphering and steganography have lawful applications but can also be used for illicit or malevolent purposes,
necessitating judicious use in line with moral principles
Emerging trends and future research directions
The field of technology is characterized by a continuous evolution of emerging trends and future research paths. Presently,
several areas of attention have gained significant traction.
1. Research in AI and machine learning focuses on improving algorithms and models for complex tasks with precision
and efficiency. Interest is growing in AI systems that can learn from limited data points and exhibit interpretability and
transparency. The development of AI systems is also emphasized for their ability to acquire knowledge from a limited
number of data points [10].
2. The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of interconnected objects that transmit and receive data via the internet.
Current research focuses on improving data transmission and processing methods for efficiency and safety, as well as
exploring new applications in sectors like healthcare, transportation, and smart cities [35].
3. Blockchain technology is a secure, decentralized digital ledger used for transaction storage and tracking. Current
research focuses on its potential applications in finance, supply chain management, and voting systems. The interest is
growing in blockchain systems with enhanced efficiency and scalability [5].
4. The increasing integration of technology in daily life is driving the demand for cybersecurity, with current scholarly
focus on developing methodologies for identifying and mitigating cyber threats and creating new tools for network and
data protection.
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126
5. Quantum computing is a rapidly growing field that utilizes quantum physics principles to perform computational tasks,
with current research primarily focused on improving its capabilities to enhance computational power and efficiency.
Researchers are exploring quantum computing's applications in cryptography and pharmaceutical research, ensuring
responsible and ethical use amidst the constantly evolving technology field.[30]
8. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS
Summary of key findings from the literature review:
1. Research Gaps: Literature reviews can indicate areas within the research that have not been thoroughly examined or
necessitate additional examination.
2. Literature surveys may also reveal divergent outcomes or incongruous findings across several studies, underscoring
promising avenues for future investigation.
3. Prospective Research Directions: Conducting literature reviews might unveil potential avenues for future research,
encompassing unexplored methodologies or technologies that have yet to be thoroughly investigated.
4. Literature reviews can also serve the purpose of identifying developing trends within a particular discipline,
encompassing novel fields of research as well as shifts in research methodology or approaches.
5. The current research has some limitations that can be identified through literature reviews. These limitations encompass
factors such as limited sample sizes, biased samples, and incorrect methodology.
A literature review's primary outcomes depend on the research inquiry and study selection, but it can provide valuable
insights into current research trends, gaps in existing literature, and potential future research directions.
Recommendations for further research and development. The identification of appropriate recommendations for
additional research and development is contingent upon the particular subject matter under investigation. Nevertheless,
presented here are a few overarching suggestions that could potentially be applicable across several research domains:
1. The identification of gaps in the existing literature is a common outcome of literature reviews, indicating areas of
research that have not been well investigated or necessitate additional examination. Researchers have the ability to
priorities the resolution of these gaps by doing novel studies or devising innovative approaches to address these specific
areas.
2. It is imperative to increase the sample sizes in various studies, as a significant number of them possess restricted sample
sizes, hence potentially lacking representativeness of broader populations. Researchers may choose to priorities the
expansion of sample sizes in order to enhance the generalizability of their findings.
3. Longitudinal studies offer a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena over time, compared to cross-sectional
designs, allowing researchers to investigate temporal variations and produce a more thorough understanding of a
particular topic.
4. Researchers have the opportunity to investigate and examine novel procedures and technologies that arise, enabling
them to effectively tackle current research inquiries or formulate fresh research inquiries.
5. It is imperative for researchers to contemplate the ethical ramifications of their work as technology progresses.
Researchers should place a high priority on the examination of the ethical consequences associated with their work as
well as the establishment of ethical rules to govern future research endeavors.
The literature review explores advanced encryption and steganography methods for data security, aiming to fill gaps,
increase sample sizes, conduct longitudinal studies, investigate innovative technologies, and consider ethical
considerations.
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