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v
Contents
Acknowledgment
Preface
i
iii
1 Crop Rotation Strategies for Sustainable Vegetable
Farming
Riya Pandey, Swagat Ranjan Behera, Himanshu Bhatt
and Vatsala Tewari
1-19
2 Allelopathy and Its Effect in Vegetable Crops
Production
Debanjan Baul
20-32
3 Nursery Management: From Sowing to
Transplanting
Riya Pandey, Swagat Ranjan Behera, Vatsala Tewari
and Priyanka Khairiya
33-47
4 Planting Techniques: Sowing, Spacing and Soil
Considerations
Riya Pandey, Swagat Ranjan Behera, Priyanka Khairiya
and Vatsala Tewari
48-71
5 Nutrient Management: Fertilization and Soil
Enrichment Strategies
Riya Pandey, Swagat Ranjan Behera, Priyanka Khairiya
and Krisanu Golui
72-94
6 Nutrient Management: Fertilization and Soil
Enrichment Strategies in Vegetables
D. Srikanth, G. Sivakoteswara Rao, R. Gowtham Kumar
and Lopamudra
95-107
7 Watering Wisely: Irrigation Methods for Healthy
Crop Growth
Sumanth B T, S Joginder Singh, Ramesh and Matam
Jayanth Kumar
108-141
8 Weed Management Strategies for Maintaining Crop
Health
S Joginder Singh, Sumanth B T, Ramesh and Matam
Jayanth Kumar
142-155
9 Pest And Disease Control: Integrated Approaches for
Healthy Yields
Sunita Dhar and Priyanka Boruah
156-164
48
49
1. Timing:
a) Seasonal timing: Vegetable seeds should be sown according to the
appropriate season for the specific crop and local climate. Some
vegetables are best suited for spring planting, while others thrive in
the fall or even over the winter in mild climates. The seasonal timing
for sowing vegetable seeds largely depends on the local climate, the
specific vegetable crop(s) under consideration, and whether they are
to be sown directly in the field or started indoors. Here is a general
guideline for seasonal timing based on typical growing seasons:
i. Spring sowing:
Spring is the primary planting season for many vegetables in most
regions.
Cool-season vegetables, such as lettuce, spinach, pea, radish and
carrot, can be directly sown in the field or transplanted (cole crops)
as soon as the soil can be worked and temperatures begin to rise
50
above freezing. These crops tolerate cooler temperatures and may
even benefit from a touch of frost.
Warm-season vegetables, including tomato, eggplant, pepper, okra
and cucurbits, are typically started indoors as seedlings in late winter
or early spring and transplanted into the main field after the last
expected frost date. Transplanting provides a head start on the
growing season for crops that require warmer temperatures.
ii. Summer sowing:
In some regions with mild winters, certain vegetables can be sown
directly in the field during the summer for a fall harvest. This
includes crops like beans, beetroot and some early varieties of
cabbage and cauliflower.
Additionally, succession planting of short-season crops like lettuce,
radish, and bush beans can be done throughout the summer to ensure
a continuous harvest.
iii. Fall sowing:
In areas with long growing seasons or mild winters, fall (autumn) is
an excellent time to sow cool-season crops. As the temperatures
begin to cool down, these crops can thrive.
Crops like kale, collard greens, spinach and some varieties of carrot
and radish can be sown in late summer or early fall for a fall and
winter harvest.
Garlic and onions are typically planted in the fall for harvesting in
the following year (spring).
iv. Winter sowing:
In regions with mild winters, some cool-season vegetables can
be grown throughout the winter. Protective measures like row
covers or cold frames can help extend the growing season.
Winter sowing is ideal for crops like kale, Swiss chard and
certain types of lettuce.
b) Frost dates: It is important to keep a note of the last expected frost
date in the region, as planting too early can expose tender seedlings
to frost damage. Conversely, waiting too long can reduce the growing
season.
51
2. Sowing methods:
a) Direct sowing: Some vegetable crops, like lettuce, root crops (carrot,
beetroot, turnip and radish), okra, pea and beans, are typically
directly sown in the main field where they will grow to maturity.
Proper seed depth, spacing and planting depth are taken into
consideration for each crop.
i. Broadcasting
ii. Drilling
iii. Dibbling
The direct-seeded crops are grown on flat beds, raised beds or ridges.
Raised beds or ridges are prepared to a height of 15-20 cm.
The beds/ridges are separated by making furrows of 30-45 cm width
for providing irrigation.
Leafy vegetables, like spinach, mustard, amaranth, coriander,
fenugreek etc., are sown by broadcasting the seeds, however, the
crops sown in the rows grow better than the ones broadcasted.
Growing of vegetables in rows is advantageous for taking up
intercultural operations like hoeing-cum-weeding, fertilizer
application and irrigation along with easy harvesting.
Fertilizers are applied in the rows by mixing them thoroughly with
the soil. Proper care should be taken so that the seeds do not come in
direct contact with fertilizers.
The seeds should be treated with fungicide(s) before taking up
sowing to minimize the incidence of seed-borne diseases.
The seeds of garden pea, French bean, okra, beet leaf, spinach,
cluster bean and cowpea etc. should be sown directly in the rows.
Pre-soaking of seeds of pea, French bean and okra in water for
overnight before sowing gives better germination. The seeds which
float on the surface of water should be discarded.
Sowing of seeds of root vegetables is generally done on ridges but
sometimes on flat beds also. The seeds of root vegetables or any
small-seeded vegetables are mixed with fine sand to regulate their
sowing.
Pre-germinated seeds of cucurbits also enhance better crop stand.
52
Most of the commercial vegetable growers use machine planter to
sow the seeds.
Machines do the sowing operations much better and more rapidly
than hand sowing.
The common seed drills open the furrows, drop the seeds and cover
it simultaneously, i.e., in a single operation.
These drills can be calibrated to sow at various rates and at desired
depth.
By regulating the seed rate through mechanical methods, thinning
operation can be reduced to the minimum.
Seed sowing by hand is commonly practised in home gardens as well
as when the quantity of seed to be sown is less.
A garden line or marker should be used to provide straight row
furrows to do hand sowing.
The furrows are made with the rake or with the corner of an ordinary
hoe or with a heart shaped hoe attached with plough or teeth of a
wheel hoe.
The seed should be distributed uniformly in the furrow.
The seeds should be covered immediately with the soil by trampling
with the help of back of a hoe to prevent loss of soil moisture.
53
a) Transplanting: For crops like tomato, pepper, eggplant and some
cucurbits, it is common to start seedlings indoors or in a greenhouse
and then transplant them in the main field after they have developed
54
into sturdy young plants. Transplanting provides a head start on the
growing season and helps protect seedlings from adverse weather.
3. Seed quality:
High-quality seeds from reputable sources only should be used.
The seed packet for information on germination rates, recommended
planting depth and spacing should be checked, and the instructions
should be followed.
Some seeds benefit from pre-soaking or scarification to improve
germination.
4. Sowing depth:
5. Spacing:
Proper spacing between seeds or seedlings is essential to prevent
overcrowding, which can lead to competition between the seedlings
for sunlight, nutrients and water, and hence, reduced yields.
The spacing recommendations provided for each crop should be
followed in order to ensure adequate space for growth.
6. Irrigation:
The planting area should be irrigated or watered thoroughly after
sowing to ensure good seed-to-soil contact.
Consistent moisture levels should be maintained during the
germination and early growth stages, as drying out or overwatering
can harm seedlings.
7. Environmental conditions:
Environmental conditions, including temperature and moisture
levels, should be monitored regularly to ensure favourable
conditions for germination and early growth.
The planting area or nursery should be protected from extreme
weather conditions, such as heavy rains or strong winds, if
necessary.
55
i. Uniform crop establishment: Proper sowing methods ensure that
seeds or seedlings are distributed evenly across the field. This
results in uniform crop establishment, where plants emerge at
roughly the same time and exhibit consistent growth. This
uniformity simplifies subsequent management tasks, such as
irrigation and weed control.
ii. Early season growth: Sowing methods can influence the timing
of crop growth. Transplanting seedlings, for instance, provides a
head start in the growing season, allowing crops to mature earlier
and potentially extend the growing season. This can be especially
advantageous in regions with shorter growing periods.
iii. Optimized plant spacing: Different sowing methods dictate plant
spacing, which directly affects the utilization of growing space.
Proper spacing ensures that each plant has adequate access to light,
nutrients and water, leading to healthier and more productive
crops.
56
iv. Pest and disease management: Sowing methods can impact pest
and disease management. For example, transplanting seedlings
can reduce the exposure of vulnerable young plants to soil-borne
pathogens, while direct seeding may expose them to potential
risks. Additionally, certain sowing methods can influence pest
behaviour, making it easier to implement control measures.
v. Resource efficiency: Efficient use of resources, such as seeds,
water and labour, is crucial in agriculture. Sowing methods can
affect resource efficiency. For instance, direct seeding may require
fewer seeds than transplanting and can be more cost-effective in
some cases.
vi. Crop variety selection: Sowing methods may influence the
choice of crop varieties. Some varieties may be better suited for
direct seeding, while others are more suitable for transplanting.
The selection of the right method should align with the
characteristics of the chosen crop variety.
vii. Environmental considerations: Sowing methods can have
environmental implications. For instance, direct seeding can
reduce the use of plastic trays or containers commonly used for
raising seedlings in transplanting, contributing to reduced plastic
waste.
57
58
Fruiting vegetable
crops
Non-fruiting
vegetable crops
Range of plant spacing Wide Narrow
Yield per hectare Increases Increases at the expense
of produce size
Yield per plant Reduced Greatly reduced
59
Size of produce Little effect Markedly reduced
Harvest period Concentrated Lengthened
Earliness of harvest Earlier than main crop Main crop is delayed
i. Resource allocation: Proper spacing ensures that each plant has
adequate access to essential resources such as sunlight, water and
nutrients. When plants are spaced too closely, they compete for these
resources, potentially leading to stunted growth and reduced yields.
ii. Nutrient availability: Adequate spacing prevents nutrient
competition among plants, allowing each one to access the nutrients
available in the soil. This helps maintain proper nutrient uptake and
reduces the risk of nutrient deficiencies or imbalances.
iii. Air circulation: Correct spacing facilitates air circulation between
plants. Good airflow helps prevent the buildup of humidity and
60
reduces the risk of fungal diseases, such as mildew and blight, which
thrive in damp conditions.
iv. Pest and disease management: Proper spacing makes it easier to
monitor plants for signs of pests and diseases. It also hinders the
spread of diseases and pests from one plant to another. Improved
access for pest control measures, like handpicking or spraying, is
essential for preventing infestations.
v. Harvesting efficiency: Well-spaced plants are easier to access for
intercultural operations, like weeding and pruning. Additionally,
harvesting is more efficient when plants have sufficient room for
growth and are not tangled or intertwined with neighbouring plants.
vi. Preventing overcrowding: Overcrowding can lead to a range of
issues, including increased pest and disease susceptibility, reduced
airflow and decreased yields. Proper spacing prevents these problems
and helps maintain overall plant health.
vii. Healthy root development: Proper spacing encourages healthy root
development. When plants have enough room, their root systems can
spread and access water and nutrients more efficiently. Healthy roots
are essential for vigorous plant growth.
viii. Yield maximization: Optimizing plant spacing allows each plant to
reach its full potential in terms of size and productivity. This, in turn,
maximizes the overall yield from the field.
ix. Resource efficiency: Efficient spacing reduces the need for excessive
inputs such as water, fertilizers and pesticides. It promotes resource
efficiency and minimizes waste, contributing to sustainable
agriculture.
x. Reduced risk of soil erosion: Adequate spacing can help minimize
soil erosion by reducing the impact of heavy rainfall on the soil
surface. Root systems from well-spaced plants also help stabilize the
soil structure.
61
i. Physiography: Physiography of the surface, on which a soil has
developed, determines the depth of soil. Soils located at higher
elevation will be shallower in depth and red in colour compared to soils
derived at lower elevation. The soils at higher elevation are likely to
have the problem of soil and water erosion. The limitation in water and
nutrient storage capacity of shallow soil at higher elevation is further
accentuated by lower root volume.
ii. Soil reaction: Soil reaction as indicated by pH has marked influence
on soil environment, especially with respect to availability of nutrients.
An ideal pH for most vegetables is considered to be between 6.0 and
7.0 because in this range, soils are more fertile and least troublesome.
Soil pH plays a major role in nutrient availability. Minerals such as iron,
zinc, copper, manganese and boron are more available at pH below
5.5, while nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur and
molybdenum are more available at pH above 6.5, and less available at
pH less than 6.5. Phosphorus is more available at pH 6-7.
Some considerations for soil pH in vegetable crop production are as
follows:
a) Some vegetables have specific pH preferences. For example, potato
and sweet potato prefer soils in acidic to neutral range (pH 5.5 to 7.5).
As soil pH approaches neutral (pH 7.0), diseases are more common.
High soil pH causes pox and scruff diseases and low soil pH causes
aluminium toxicity in sweet potato.
b) If the soil pH is outside the ideal range for the vegetables to be grown,
necessary pH adjustments can be made:
To raise pH (i.e., make soil more alkaline): Addition of lime to the
soil. The type and amount of lime needed depend on the current pH
and soil type. Soil test recommendations should be followed for
precise application rates.
To lower pH (i.e., make soil more acidic): Addition of elemental
sulphur, aluminium sulphate, or acidic organic materials like pine
needles, peat moss, or composted oak leaves. Again, soil test
recommendations should be followed for accurate application.
a) Incorporating organic matter, such as compost, into the soil can help
buffer pH fluctuations and improve overall soil health.
62
b) Implementing a crop rotation plan can help maintain optimal pH
levels over time. Different crops have varying pH requirements, and
rotation can prevent extreme pH shifts in the soil.
c) Mulching can help moderate soil pH by reducing the impact of rain
and weather on soil acidity or alkalinity.
iii. Soluble ion and exchangeable cation composition: The
proportional distribution of principal cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+ and
Mg2+) and anions (CO32-, HCO3-, SO42- and Cl-) in the soluble phase
and cations in the exchangeable phase determine the dominance of
salts, which eventually influences the uptake of nutrient by the plant
roots. Domination of Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the soluble and exchangeable
phase of soil shows soil particle coagulating effect.
iv. Soil mineralogy and water relations: The presence of layered type
of minerals has strong influence on the water relations of soil. The
soils rich in montmorillonitic mineralogy have very high-water
holding capacity followed by soils having illitic and kaolinitic
mineralogy. Likewise, nutrient holding capacity also varies in a
similar order. Black clay soils develop deep and wide cracks when
dry, while they become very sticky when wet. The cultural practices
are not desirable under both the conditions. The best soil condition for
v. Soil structure: Soil structure refers to the way soil particles are
arranged and aggregated, affecting factors like water infiltration,
root penetration and air circulation. Cultivation of soils for years
together leads to deterioration of fertility and physical structure.
Defective soil structure causes improper air and water relationships,
which hinder not only growth of plants but also microbial activity in
the soil.
63
vi. Soil preparation: Proper soil preparation is crucial for cultivation of
any vegetable crop. It may involve tilling or loosening compacted
soil, removing weeds and debris, and creating a well-prepared
seedbed for planting. Soil preparation includes:
64
a) Drainage:
Good drainage is essential to get success in growing practically
all vegetables.
It is especially important for early vegetables because earliness
is not possible in a wet soil.
The sandy or sandy loam soils are good for growing early
vegetables because they are better drained than the heavier clay
soils.
Drainage not only removes the excess water but also allows the
soil to warm earlier in the spring, thus favouring early
preparation and planting. It also allows aeration, which is
essential for proper root and plant growth.
b) Ploughing:
Soil for vegetables should be fairly deep, but a shallow surface
soil should be deepened gradually.
A soil that has been ploughed only a few inches deep should be
deepened by increasing the depth of ploughing.
Ploughing loosens the soil, allowing nutrients from deep soil to
rise to the surface.
Too much of the subsoil turned to the surface is usually
injurious.
A depth of 6-8 inches is sufficient for most of the soils.
Ploughing can also be used to integrate manure, uproot weeds,
remove infectious pathogens and insects etc.
65
c) Harrowing:
It is a common practice to disk or harrow the land soon after it
is ploughed except where the ploughing is done in the fall or in
the winter season, where freezing occurs.
When ploughing is done immediately before planting, the land
is usually harrowed soon after planting.
The moisture content of the soil determines to a considerable
extent, the efficiency of the work done by the harrow.
If the soil is too dry, many of the lumps (clods) will not be
crushed and if too wet, the soil will become puddle.
d) Levelling:
After harrowing, a levelling implement (such as a land leveller
or drag harrow) is used to smoothen the soil surface and create a
flat and even seedbed. This is particularly important for row
crops and raised beds.
It is to be ensured that the soil surface is free of ridges,
depressions, or uneven areas that could hinder planting and
irrigation.
Ploughed fields that have been levelled aid in the uniform
distribution of water in the fields during irrigation.
The levelling of ploughed fields aids in the prevention of
moisture loss.
e) Manuring:
Manuring is the final step in soil preparation. It aids in the
replenishment of rich nutrients to the soil; nitrogen, phosphorus,
66
and potassium are considered the major nutrients, and manuring
ensures that they are added to the soil to increase productivity.
Manuring also provides many other nutrients and organic
fertilisers. The regular addition of compost and other manures
improves soil structure, moisture-holding capacity, soil aeration
and water infiltration.
i. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum): Tomato is a warm-season crop
extensively grown on sandy loam to loamy soil in Indo-Gangetic
plains having well-drained clay subsoil. Light soils are good for
67
early variety, while clay loam or silt loam soils are well-suited for
late varieties. Tomato grows well within the soil pH of 6.0-7.0. the
upper layer of soil profile needs to be permeable, therefore, the soil
should be well-prepared and levelled by ploughing 4-5 times.
Tomatoes do not perform well in dry soil, excessively wet,
waterlogged soil, or any soil having water stagnation problem. It is
moderately tolerant to soil salinity (0.8-1.5 dS/m).
ii. Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus): Okra can be grown on a wide
range of soils; however, it grows best in loose, friable, well-drained
sandy loam soils rich in organic matter. It also gives good yield on
heavy soils having good internal drainage. A pH range of 6.0-7.8 is
considered optimum for okra.
iii. Pea (Pisum sativum): Pea belongs to a group of crops called
-
types. However, well-drained, loose, friable and heavy soils with a
pH range of 6.0-7.5 are considered ideal for growing peas. Light
soils are preferred for cultivating early cultivars. Soils rich in organic
matter promote excessive vegetative growth and poor pod
development. Sufficient presence of soil moisture is important to
ensure optimum yield.
iv. Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata): Cabbage can be grown
on a wide range of soils, but the crop is more sensitive to soil acidity.
The optimum pH is 6.0-7.5, and at pH greater than 7.5, the disorder
known as club root can be prevented. Cabbage is a heavy feeder of
N and K, and requires frequent side-dressing. On sandy soil with
high water table, cabbage is irrigated by subsurface irrigation. On
deeper sands, it is a perfect crop for drip irrigation. Cabbage is highly
sensitive to B deficiency.
v. Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis): Cauliflower is
mainly grown on sandy to clay soils, rich in organic matter. Early
crops prefer light soil (sandy loam loam texture), while late crops
thrive better on heavier (clay loam clay texture) soils due to
retention of moisture. On heavy soils, plants grow more slowly and
the keeping quality is much better. A pH range of 5.5-7.5 is
considered optimum for growing cauliflower, known for developing
whiptail due to Mo deficiency.
68
vi. Potato (Solanum tuberosum): Potato is a tuberous crop and can be
grown on almost any type of soil, except saline and alkaline soils.
Excellent quality potatoes are produced in Indo-Gangetic plains
having sandy loam to loam soil with illitic mineralogy (high K
reserve) coupled with good drainage. Loamy and sandy loam soils,
rich in organic matter with good drainage and aeration are
considered most suitable for cultivation of potato crop, since such
soil conditions facilitate excellent tuber growth. The soils with pH
range of 5.2-7.4 are considered ideal.
vii. Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas): A loose, friable soil with pH 5.8-
7.0 coupled with good drainage is considered ideal for better tuber
development. The crop grows well in sandy loam soils with clay
subsoil. Soils which become hard after drying reduce the
development of tubers, while highly sandy soils cause development
of cylindrical, pencil-like tubers. In compact soils, tuber yield is low
due to poor aeration. Such soils also create problems at the time of
harvesting of tubers. Highly fertile soils favour luxuriant vegetative
growth.
viii. Onion (Allium cepa): Onion can be grown on all types of soils, such
as sandy loam, silt loam and heavy clay soils. However, deep, friable
and highly fertile sandy loam to clay soil rich in humus is considered
an ideal soil condition. Sandy soils need frequent irrigation and
favour early maturity. A pH range of 5.8-7.5, regardless of soil type,
is considered an optimum range. In heavy soils, the bulbs produced
may be deformed. Onion crop is very sensitive to highly acidic soils
having pH below 6.0 because of deficiency of trace elements. Low
69
lying (waterlogged) marshy lands, highly alkaline and saline soils
are not suitable for onion cultivation.
ix. Carrot (Daucus carota): Carrots grow well on deep, loose, well-
drained sandy loam soils rich in humus with pH 5.5-7.5. Soils devoid
of clods are preferred for smooth development of straight roots.
Compared to sandy soils, carrots grown on clay or clay loam soils
tend to be rougher and coarser as soil compaction affects root growth
and length. Carrots grow poorly in very acidic soil with pH of 5.0 or
lower. They are also very sensitive to soil salinity or sodicity, and
extreme soil acidity as well. Soils of low pH usually contain high
levels of available Al and soluble Mn, both of which adversely affect
the growth and yield of carrot.
x. Beetroot (Beta vulgaris): Beetroot grows best on deep, well-drained,
friable, loam or sandy loam soils. Heavy soils are not so suitable
since beets turn malformed. The crop is sensitive to acidic soils. A
pH range of 6.0-7.8 is considered best for getting optimum yield of
beets. It is considered highly tolerant to soil salinity (2.5-3.2 dS/m).
xi. Radish (Raphanus sativus): Radish, a cool-season crop, is grown
successfully on peat and muck soils having good organic matter
since such soils are usually well-supplied with moisture, and provide
a cool growing medium. It grows ideally on light, friable, sandy loam
soils rich in humus with pH range of 6.0-7.0. Heavy soils should be
avoided for growing radish as they produce rough skins with spongy
pith.
xii. Turnip (Brassica rapa subsp. rapifera): Turnip is cold-hardy as
well as drought-tolerant crop. It grows best on a well-drained,
moderately deep loam, fertile and slightly acidic soil having a pH of
5.5-7.0 for good root growth. Turnip does not grow well on soils
having predominantly clay texture.
70
xiii. Ginger (Zingiber officinale): Ginger grows best on well-drained
soils, such as sandy loam, loam, red loam or lateritic loam rich in
humus. It needs highly friable soil with good tilth.
xiv. Turmeric (Curcuma longa): Turmeric can be grown on different
types of soil from light black, ashy loam to red clay loams; however,
the crop thrives best on well-drained sandy or clay loam soils.
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