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Annual Report
on the Big Data of
New Energy Vehicle
in China (2022)
Zhenpo Wang
Annual Report on the Big Data of New Energy
Vehicle in China (2022)
Zhenpo Wang
Annual Report on the Big
Data of New Energy Vehicle
in China (2022)
Zhenpo Wang
Beijing Institute of Technology
Beijing, China
ISBN 978-981-99-6410-9 ISBN 978-981-99-6411-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6411-6
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Foreword by Xiangmu Zhang
The automobile industry, as an important pillar i ndustry of China’s national economy,
plays an important supporting role in the stable and positive development of the
macroeconomy and is an essential cornerstone of China’s goals of ensuring “stability
in employment, financial operations, foreign trade, foreign investment, domestic
investment, and expectations” and “security in job, basic living needs, operations of
market entities, food and energy security, stable industrial and supply chains, and
the normal functioning of primary-level governments.” In recent years, in the face
of such adverse factors as foreign geopolitical conflicts and the impact of COVID-
19, the Chinese government has insisted on strategic guidance and given play to its
institutional advantages, unblocked domestic circulation, promoted the formation of
both domestic and foreign circulations, and speeded up the construction of an effi-
cient, standardized, fair and fully open national unified market, to comprehensively
promote the transformation of China’s automobile industry to become bigger and
stronger. China’s new energy vehicle (NEV) industry is leading the development of
global vehicle electrification.
I. The electrification of vehicles is unstoppable, and NEVs are accelerating
their penetration. In 2021, the sales volume on China’s NEV market was 3.521
million units, accounting for 52.2% of the global market and ranking first world-
wide for seven consecutive years. NEVs have become an important force in the
electrification transformation of the global automotive industry.
II. The NEV camp has expanded, and China’s brands have made break-
throughs. BYD’s annual sales volume exceeded one million vehicles and entered a
new stage of trillion-yuan market value in 2022, giving birth to a world-class automo-
bile enterprise in China; the new car-making forces represented by Nio, Xiaopeng,
and Lixiang initially gained a firm foothold and maintained a high-speed growth
trend.
III. The upstream and downstream of the industry chain are fully connected,
basically realizing independent control. From critical materials to vehicle manu-
facturing, critical equipment, and recycling, the NEV industry chain is interconnected
v
vi Foreword by Xiangmu Zhang
from upstream to downstream, forming a safe, controllable, collaborative, and effi-
cient NEV industry system. The core technologies of the battery, motor, and electric
control are basically independently controllable.
While China’s NEV industry has made significant achievements, it also can be
seen that due to the continuous impact of COVID-19, issues such as hindering the
circulation of parts, local protection, and regionalization have affected the enterprises
to become bigger and stronger, which have become obstacles to the rapid growth
of the NEV industry. Therefore, accelerating the establishment of national unified
market system rules, breaking local protection and market segmentation, opening up
the critical blockage that restricts the economic cycle, promoting the smooth flow
of commodity factor resources in a broader range, and facilitating the construction
of efficient, standardized and fully open national unified market under fair compe-
tition are vital for China’s automotive industry to accelerate its progress toward an
automotive powerhouse. To accelerate the establishment of a unified national market
layout, we will mainly focus on the following aspects:
1. Make up for shortcomings and strengthen the construction of the supply
chain system. Under the background of internal circulation, China’s auto brands
need to accelerate the independent research and development of key components
and technologies, make up for shortcomings, improve and smooth the industrial
chain, accelerate the synergistic effect between the upstream and downstream of the
industrial chain, and promote China’s automobile industry to leapfrog development.
2. Establish consistency rules and strictly implement the “one list for the
whole country” management model. By maintaining the unity, seriousness, and
authority of the Negative List for Market Access, China will gradually establish a
unified national NEV consumer market and strengthen and optimize the automobile
brands.
3. Effectively utilize global factors and market resources to connect domestic
and international markets better. China will promote institutional openness,
enhance its influence in global industrial chains, supply chains and innovation
chains, participate in new advantages in international competition and cooperation,
assist in exporting automobiles and component products, and enhance its voice in
international economic governance.
The operation of a unified national market in China not only puts higher require-
ments for the high-quality development of China’s NEV industry, but also provides
vast opportunities. Accompanied by the successive introduction of national standards
for a unified automobile market, the automobile industry will accelerate the decisive
role of the market in resource allocation, accelerate the evolution of the new forms,
new modes, and new ecologies of the automobile industry, and accelerate the rise
of “high-grade, high-precision, advanced” technological innovation enterprises. The
unified national market will also help export NEVs and key component products and
participate in and form new advantages in international competition.
Beijing, China
June 2022
Xiangmu Zhang
Foreword by Fengchun Sun
At present, adherence to green and low-carbon development has become an impor-
tant direction for international economic and social development, and more than
120 countries and regions worldwide have reached a consensus on carbon neutrality.
China, as a responsible power, has been committed to accelerating the transformation
of its energy structure, promoting green and low-carbon development, and actively
contributing to global climate governance. General Secretary Xi Jinping made a
solemn commitment to “carbon dioxide emission and carbon neutrality” to the inter-
national community at the general debate of the 75th Session of the United Nations
General Assembly, reflecting China’s determination and its commitment as a great
power to achieve the goals set out in the Paris Agreement.
However, it is also seen that China is still in the process of industrial develop-
ment, and there is still significant room for rigid growth in transportation energy
consumption and carbon emissions. The inherent pressure, structural pressures,
and trend pressure of carbon emissions in the automotive industry have not been
alleviated, and the stress and difficulty of China’s decarbonization transformation
far exceed that of developed countries. Therefore, accelerating the green and low-
carbon development in the transportation field, establishing a carbon management
mechanism in the t ransportation field, forming a policy support system based on
the carbon trading system, and taking into account the decarbonization transforma-
tion and industrial upgrading, have become essential measures for implementing
China’s “carbon peaking and carbon neutrality” goals, ensuring energy security, and
promoting high-quality industrial development.
I. Accelerate the decarbonization of the transportation energy system and
improve the emission reduction efficiency in transportation. China will step up
the promotion and application of NEVs in an orderly manner and speed up the elec-
trification of vehicles with high energy consumption, such as heavy-duty trucks;
give full play to the advantages of separating the vehicle and battery for battery
swapping-type heavy-duty trucks to reduce the purchase cost, performing flexible
battery swapping without range anxiety, and achieving safe and controllable central-
ized charging, and explore ways to promote the commercialization and application of
electric heavy-duty trucks; explore different charging application scenarios, actively
vii
viii Foreword by Fengchun Sun
encourage the residential area charging service model with intelligent and orderly
slow charging as the primary and emergency fast charging as the auxiliary, form
moderately advance expressway and urban and rural public charging networks with
fast charging as the main and slow charging as the auxiliary, and encourage the
promotion and application of battery swapping modes in public areas of bus, taxis,
and heavy-duty truck.
II. Build an intelligent transportation system to assist in the transformation
of efficient transportation modes. China will build an intelligent transportation
system based on cloud-controlled intelligent driving to achieve collaborative control
of the “person-vehicle-road-cloud” system, which not only provides effective infor-
mation for a single vehicle’s decision-making but also enables autonomous control
of all traffic participants throughout the entire road section, around the clock, and
in all scenarios by global governance based on existing vehicle-road collaboration.
China will explore urban intelligent management and operation, helping to improve
transportation efficiency while effectively reducing carbon emissions. We will accel-
erate the construction of intelligent connected vehicle infrastructure and accelerate
the large-scale commercial process of cloud control basic platforms, basic maps, and
high-precision positioning technologies, to lay a solid foundation for the construction
of the intelligent transportation system.
III. Promote the integration of transportation and energy systems into the
carbon chain for low-carbon development in a coordinated manner. China will
establish a green power supply system that matches the demand for new energy trans-
portation, adjust the power structure, and increase the proportion of green power; give
full play to the demand for grid interaction of distributed energy storage such as new
energy vehicles, accelerate the development of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) demonstration
projects, effectively regulate the consumption of intermittent fluctuating energy such
as wind power, realize the large-scale application and safety supervision of intelligent
dispatching technology, big data, and artificial intelligence technology, effectively
promote the peak shaving and valley filling of electric power, promote the consump-
tion of renewable energy, and promote the integration and safe development of energy
grid, power grid, and transportation network.
IV. Establish a carbon asset management mechanism in the transportation
field, and promote the NEV industry to be included in the national carbon
emissions trading market. For the NEV industry, China will establish a complete
life cycle carbon emission standard system including parts production, equipment
manufacturing, transportation, infrastructure construction and operation, scrapping,
recycling, and other links, form scientific and standardized carbon quota and carbon
accounting methods, including the NEV industry into the national carbon emissions
trading market, to effectively facilitate the promotion and application of energy-
saving and low-carbon technologies in the form of carbon trading, promote the
infrastructure construction such as charging and swapping facilities, and promote
low-carbon and sustainable development in the transportation sector.
The Annual Report on the Big Data of New Energy Vehicle in China (2022), based
on real-time operation big data of NEVs in China, presents readers with an overview
of the characteristics of China’s NEVs regarding technological progress, industrial
Foreword by Fengchun Sun ix
development, vehicle operation, and charging laws. With rich charts, detailed data,
and survey results, this report not only gives readers a comprehensive understanding
of the annual operation characteristics and user habits of NEVs in China, but also puts
forward relevant suggestions to promote the healthy and sustainable development of
the NEV industry, providing an important reference for government departments
to formulate policies and for automobile enterprises to make strategic decisions.
More importantly, the publication of this report will better promote the efforts of the
Chinese government in facilitating the promotion and application of clean energy
vehicles worldwide and will play an essential role in promoting China’s brands to
better go forward to the international.
Beijing, China
June 2022
Fengchun Sun
Preface
2021 marks the beginning of the 14th Five Year Plan and an important year for
China to embark on a new journey toward the Second Centenary Goal. At an impor-
tant milestone in China’s transition from a major country to a powerful country in the
automobile industry, substantial breakthroughs have been made in the transformation
of the automobile industry. As an important driving force for leading the growth of
the automobile market, NEVs have shown a good situation of dual improvement in
market size and development quality. The market demand for NEVs shows an explo-
sive growth trend, with the annual production and sales exceeding 3.5 million units,
with a YoY increase of more than 1.5 times, and the annual market penetration rate
exceeding 13.4%; China’s brands are thriving and breaking through, with diversi-
fied products, continuous improvement of sales channels, and constantly improving
product quality, and they have successfully achieved a leap from price/performance
ratio to quality/price ratio, further enhancing their leading role in the transformation
of global automotive electrification.
While the NEV industry has made remarkable achievements, we are also facing
challenges such as chip shortage, rising prices of battery raw materials, and the need
to improve the capacity utilization of NEVs. At the same time, severe challenges, such
as sporadic outbreaks of the COVID-19 pandemic in China and foreign geopolitical
and regional conflicts, will continue to exist in the short term. In the face of many
influence factors, relying on the rapidly developing multi-source big data resources
and online big data technologies, enabling industrial development and building a
digital ecosystem have become i mportant measures to lead the healthy development
of the NEV industry chain and cross-industry integration.
The Annual Report on the Big Data of New Energy Vehicle in China (2022) upholds
the principle of being based on the overall situation and highlighting the hot spots and
relies on the big data of the real-time operation of more than 6.5 million NEVs on the
National Monitoring and Management Platform for NEVs. Based on covering the
annual routine research contents such as vehicle promotion and application, vehicle
technology progress, vehicle operation, vehicle charging, vehicle battery swapping,
and FCEVs, this report further focuses on the development hot spots of the NEV
xi
xii Preface
industry in 2021, aiming to summarize the current hot spot status and development
trend of the industry from the perspective of big data research, detailed as follows:
I. Add ecological research on battery swapping and summarize the results
of the pilot promotion of battery swapping. After years of precipitation, policies,
capital, and technology in battery swapping have made concerted efforts. This report
focuses on sorting out and analyzing the policies of the battery swapping industry, the
promotion and operation characteristics of vehicles, and the promotion characteristics
and technical economics of pilot cities for battery swapping, to provide detailed data
support and promotion experience reference for the layout of the battery swapping
field by relevant entities in the industrial chain.
II. Compare the demonstration characteristics of FCEVs, and summarize
the demonstration results of the Winter Olympics. 2021 is the year of the Winter
Olympics. This report evaluates the demonstration results of the Winter Olympics
through data acquisition, analysis, and judgment on the promotion, operation, and
hydrogen refueling of FCEVs. It makes comparisons with the operation characteris-
tics of BEVs, and parallel comparisons among demonstration urban agglomerations,
to provide scientific decision support for the large-scale demonstration and promotion
of FCEVs.
III. Focus on PHEVs and evaluate the operation characteristics of vehicles in
EV mode. In the short to medium terms of the transformation and development of the
automotive industry, PHEVs shoulder the mission of rapid energy conservation and
carbon reduction in the automotive industry. This report provides a comprehensive
and in-depth analysis of the promotion status of PHEVs and typical urban vehicle
operation and charging characteristics, aiming to provide a reference for the sound
development of the PHEV industry.
IV. Add the analysis on application scenarios of charging in townships and
expressway holidays to improve the charging experience with big data empow-
erment. Based on the existing charging application scenarios, this report adds the
analysis of charging behaviors before and after holidays at township charging stations
and expressway charging stations, aiming at guiding users to reasonably choose
their charging time, balancing the utilization efficiency of charging facilities, and
enhancing the charging service experience.
The Annual Report on the Big Data of New Energy Vehicle has been published in
English for two consecutive years, and this is the second time. We hope that this report
cannot only record the historical development of the NEV industry but also promote
and lead its sound and sustainable development in the future, and we also hope
that it can provide rich basic information and important references for governments,
upstream and downstream enterprises in the NEV industry chain, industry research
institutions, scientific research institutes, and ordinary readers, making big data truly
serve and promote the development of the NEV industry.
We would like now to express our sincere appreciation for the solid support and
assistance provided by the managers, experts, and relevant scholars of the National
Big Data Alliance of New Energy Vehicles (NDANEV), the National Monitoring and
Preface xiii
Management Platform for NEVs, the National Engineering Research Center of Elec-
tric Vehicles of Beijing Institute of Technology, the Ministry of Industry and Infor-
mation Technology Equipment Industry Development Center, Beiqi Foton Motor
Co., Ltd, Foton AUV Bus Company, the National New Energy Vehicle Technology
Innovation Center, the Power Battery Laboratory of China North Vehicle Research
Institute, Dongchedi, and Ruiyan International Information Consulting (Beijing) Co.,
Ltd. Without their support, this report may not be successfully published. Meanwhile,
under the support of the project “Research on Sustainable Development and Carbon
Trading Strategy for Energy Saving and New Energy Vehicles in China” of the
Chinese Academy of Engineering, this report has obtained some research results on
carbon trading, which have been included herein.
However, due to the author’s limited knowledge, this report may need to be revised
in depth and breadth, and suggestions and corrections from experts and readers are
welcomed!
Beijing, China Zhenpo Wang
Contents
1 Summary ...................................................... 1
1.1 Overview of the Development of New Energy Vehicle (NEV)
Market .................................................... 1
1.1.1 General Development Situation of Global New
Energy Vehicle (NEV) Market ......................... 1
1.1.2 General Development Situation of New Energy
Vehicle (NEV) Market in China ........................ 2
1.2 NEV Operation Characteristics of China in 2021 ................ 8
1.2.1 NEV Operation Characteristics ........................ 8
1.2.2 NEV Charging Characteristics ......................... 10
1.2.3 Operation Characteristics of BEVs
of Battery-Swapping Type ............................. 14
1.2.4 Operation Characteristics of Fuel Cell Electric
Vehicles (FCEVs) .................................... 15
1.2.5 Operation Characteristics of Plug-In Hybrid Electric
Vehicles (PHEVs) .................................... 17
1.3 Conclusion and Prospect .................................... 17
2 Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles ............... 23
2.1 Development Status of China’s New Energy Vehicle (NEV)
Industry ................................................... 23
2.2 Overall Access Characteristics ............................... 25
2.2.1 Overall Access Characteristics of Vehicles ............... 26
2.2.2 Vehicle Access by Region ............................. 27
2.2.3 Market Concentration ................................ 35
2.2.4 Production Concentration ............................. 36
2.3 Historical Access Characteristics of NEVs to the National
Monitoring and Management Platform ........................ 39
2.3.1 Historical Access Characteristics of NEVs ............... 39
xv
xvi Contents
2.3.2 Access Characteristics of NEVs Over the Years
by Region ........................................... 40
2.3.3 Access Characteristics of NEVs Over the Years
by Application Scenario .............................. 43
2.4 Summary .................................................. 46
3 Technical Progress of Vehicles ................................... 49
3.1 Technical Progress in Range ................................. 49
3.2 Progress in Lightweight Technology .......................... 51
3.3 Changes in Energy Consumption Over the Years ................ 52
3.3.1 Energy Consumption Evaluation of BEV Passenger
Cars ................................................ 54
3.3.2 Energy Consumption Evaluation of BEV Buses .......... 66
3.3.3 Energy Consumption Evaluation of BEV Logistics
Vehicles ............................................ 69
3.4 Annual Technical Characteristics of Power Batteries ............. 72
3.4.1 Power Battery Industry Status Quo ..................... 72
3.4.2 Installation Structure Change by Material Type ........... 74
3.4.3 Change of Installed Structure by Form Type ............. 77
3.4.4 Change in Energy Density of Power Batteries ............ 78
3.5 Summary .................................................. 79
4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles ............................... 85
4.1 NEV Online Rate in 2021 ................................... 85
4.1.1 NEV Online Rate in China ............................ 86
4.1.2 Online Rate in Each Region in China ................... 87
4.1.3 Online Rate in Cities at All Tiers in China ............... 88
4.1.4 Online Rate of Vehicles in Each Segment ................ 88
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments .......... 90
4.2.1 Operation Characteristics of Private Cars ................ 90
4.2.2 Operation Characteristics of E-taxis .................... 98
4.2.3 Operation Characteristics of Taxis ...................... 104
4.2.4 Operation Characteristics of Cars for Sharing ............ 108
4.2.5 Operation Characteristics of Logistics Vehicles ........... 119
4.2.6 Operation Characteristics of Buses ..................... 127
4.2.7 Operation Characteristics of Heavy-Duty Trucks ......... 135
4.3 Summary .................................................. 145
5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles ................................ 149
5.1 Construction Situation of Charging Infrastructures .............. 149
5.1.1 Progress in Charging Infrastructure Construction ......... 149
5.1.2 Progress in Charging Technology ....................... 152
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments ........... 154
5.2.1 Charging Characteristics of New Energy Private Cars ..... 154
5.2.2 Charging Characteristics of BEV E-taxis ................ 167
5.2.3 Charging Characteristics of BEV Taxis .................. 173
Contents xvii
5.2.4 Charging Characteristics of BEV Cars for Sharing ........ 181
5.2.5 Charging Characteristics of BEV Logistics Vehicles ....... 191
5.2.6 Charging Characteristics of BEV Buses ................. 198
5.2.7 Charging Characteristics of BEV Heavy-Duty Trucks ..... 204
5.3 Analysis of User Charging Behavior in Different Charging
Scenarios .................................................. 208
5.3.1 Analysis of Charging Behavior of Users in Public
Charging Stations .................................... 209
5.3.2 Analysis of Charging Behavior of Users in Community
Charging Stations .................................... 211
5.3.3 Analysis of Charging Behavior of Users in Expressway
Charging Stations .................................... 213
5.3.4 Analysis of Charging Behavior of Users in Township
Charging Stations .................................... 219
5.4 Summary .................................................. 221
6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles ........................ 223
6.1 Current Status of Industrial Policies and Standards for Battery
Swapping Mode ............................................ 224
6.1.1 Accelerated Implementation of Battery Swapping
Mode Support Policy and Officially Launched Pilot
Work ............................................... 224
6.1.2 Gradually Unified Standards for Battery Swapping ........ 227
6.2 Current Development Status of Battery Swapping
Infrastructure .............................................. 228
6.3 Promotion of Battery-Swapping-Type BEVs .................... 231
6.3.1 National Promotion of Battery-Swapping-Type BEVs ..... 231
6.3.2 Promotion of Battery-Swapping-Type Heavy-Duty
Trunks ............................................. 233
6.4 Operation Characteristics of Battery-Swapping-Type Vehicles .... 239
6.4.1 Operation Characteristics of Battery-Swapping-Type
BEV Passenger Cars .................................. 239
6.4.2 Operation Characteristics of Battery-Swapping-Type
BEV Commercial Vehicles ............................ 240
6.5 Battery Swapping Characteristics ............................. 244
6.5.1 Characteristics of Battery-Swapping-Type Vehicles
Across China ........................................ 244
6.5.2 Battery Swapping Characteristics of Vehicles in Pilot
Cities for Battery Swapping ........................... 246
6.6 Summary .................................................. 256
7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) .............................. 259
7.1 Development Status of FCEV Industry ........................ 259
7.1.1 Continuously Increasing Industrial Policies .............. 259
7.1.2 Significant Demonstration and Promotion Effects ......... 267
xviii Contents
7.2 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in China ................... 269
7.2.1 Access Characteristics ................................ 270
7.2.2 Online Rate Characteristics ............................ 277
7.2.3 Operation Characteristics ............................. 281
7.3 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in Demonstration Urban
Agglomerations ............................................ 287
7.3.1 Promotion and Application Characteristics ............... 288
7.3.2 Operation Characteristics ............................. 291
7.3.3 Hydrogen Refueling Characteristics .................... 299
7.4 Summary .................................................. 301
8 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles ................................. 307
8.1 Development Status of PHEV Industry ........................ 307
8.1.1 Industrial Support Policy Tightening at the National
Level ............................................... 307
8.1.2 Differentiation of Support Policies at the Local
Government Level ................................... 310
8.2 Promotion of PHEVs ....................................... 312
8.2.1 Current Situation of the PHEV Market .................. 312
8.2.2 Access of PHEVs .................................... 314
8.3 Operation Characteristics of PHEVs ........................... 322
8.3.1 Online Rate of PHEVs ................................ 322
8.3.2 Vehicle Operation Characteristics ...................... 324
8.4 PHEV Charging Characteristics .............................. 326
8.4.1 Average Single-Time Charging Characteristics ........... 326
8.4.2 Monthly Average Charging Characteristics .............. 330
8.5 Summary .................................................. 334
Chapter 1
Summary
Based on the real-time operation big data of 6.655 million new energy vehicles by
the end of December 2021 of the National Monitoring and Management Platform
for New Energy Vehicles (hereinafter referred to as the “National Monitoring and
Management Platform”), this report objectively and profoundly analyzes the market
characteristics, vehicle operation characteristics, vehicle charging characteristics
and other industry concerns of new energy vehicles, summarizes the characteristics
and puts forward relevant development suggestions, which has specific reference
value and significance for relevant government departments, research institutes,
universities and enterprises in China’s automobile industry.
1.1 Overview of the Development of New Energy Vehicle
(NEV) Market
1.1.1 General Development Situation of Global New Energy
Vehicle (NEV) Market
The global new energy vehicle (NEV) market maintained a rapid growth trend in sales
in 2021, especially in China. With the guidance of environmental protection laws and
policies of various countries, the NEV industry in major countries in the world showed
intensified competition, and the penetration rate of automobile electrification has
increased rapidly (Fig. 1.1). In 2021, the global sales of NEVs reached 6.75 million,
which doubled compared with 2020. The NEVs sales in typical countries such as
China, Germany, the United States, Britain, and France, exceeded 300,000 (Fig. 1.2);
China’s NEV market has achieved a breakthrough, and in 2021, the sales of NEVs
reached 3.521 million, accounting for 52.1% of the global market, ranking first in
the world for seven consecutive years and becoming an essential force in the electric
transformation of the global automobile industry.
© China Machine Press Co., Ltd. 2024
Z. Wang, Annual Report on the Big Data of New Energy Vehicle in China (2022),
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6411-6_1
1
21 Summary
22 34 69 93
140
219 228
328
675
1.8 7.5 33.1 50.7 77.7
125.6 120.6 136.7
352.1
0
200
400
600
800
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Sales (10,000)
Global sales
Sales in countries other than China
Fig. 1.1 Global sales of NEVs over the years. Source China Association of Automobile Manufac-
turers (CAAM) for sales data of NEVs in China; EV-volumes for sales data of NEVs in countries
other than C hina
352.1, 52.2%
69.6, 10.3%
67.0, 9.9%
32.1, 4.8%
31.7, 4.7%
15.8, 2.3%
14.2, 2.1%
13.8, 2.0% 10.5, 1.6%
9.9, 1.5% 7.0, 1.0%
6.8, 1.0% 5.9, 0.9%
4.5, 0.7%
34.1,
5.1%
China
Germany
USA
UK
France
Norway
Italy
Sweden
Sweden
Netherlands
Spain
Denmark
Canada
Japan
Other countries
Fig. 1.2 TOP15 countries in global NEVs sales in 2021 and their share (10,000 vehicles, %).
Source China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM) for sales data of NEVs in China;
EV-volumes for sales data of NEVs in countries other than China
1.1.2 General Development Situation of New Energy Vehicle
(NEV) Market in China
1. China has made remarkable achievements in automobile electrification
transformation, and the sales and access volume of NEVs in the market
are proliferating
The scale of China’s NEV industry is expanding, with an accelerating upward market
penetration curve (Fig. 1.3). Driven by multiple factors such as diversified product
1.1 Overview of the Development of New Energy Vehicle (NEV) Market 3
supply and increased consumer awareness, China’s NEV market reached a new
record high in 2021, with annual market sales of 3.521 million, up 157.6% year-
on-year, showing an explosive growth trend in market demand and ushering in a
complete market inflection point; the market penetration rate of NEVs continues
to rise, reaching 13.4% in 2021, with an increase of 8% compared with 2020. The
market penetration rate of NEVs continues to increase, reaching 13.4% in 2021, with
an increase of 8% compared with 2020.
From the access characteristics of NEVs to the National Monitoring and Manage-
ment Platform in previous years (Fig. 1.4), the access volume of NEVs generally
showed a trend of rapid growth in scale. There was concentrated access in 2018 and
2019, with the annual access rate exceeding 100%. The marketization of NEVs has
accelerated in an all-around way.
77.7
125.6 120.6
136.7
352.1
2.7
4.5
4.7
5.4
13.4
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
0
100
200
300
400
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Market penetration rate (%)
Sales (10,000)
Annual sales Annual penetration rate
Fig. 1.3 Sales of NEVs in China over the years and growth rate. Source China Association of
Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM)
19.8
135.8 137.3
98.5
273.2
25.5
108.1 113.8
72.1 77.6
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0
100
200
300
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Access rate (%)
Sales (10,000)
Annual access Annual access rate
Fig. 1.4 NEV access volume of the National Monitoring and Management Platform over the years
41 Summary
From the change of NEV holdings over the years (Fig. 1.5), as of the end of 2021,
the NEV holdings reached 7.84 million, showing a rapid growth trend; the rapid
growth of the NEV holdings has driven the steady growth of the cumulative NEV
access to the National Monitoring and Management Platform (Fig. 1.6), and as of
2021, the cumulative NEV access reached 6.655 million. The cumulative access rate
reached 84.9%, indicating that 84.9% of NEVs nationwide had their safety status
monitored in real-time.
The rapid growth of the scale of t he NEV industry has led to a rapid increase in
the electrification rate of vehicles. According to the data of the Ministry of Public
58.3
109 153
261
381
492
784
0.3 0.6 0.7
1.1
1.5
1.8
2.6
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
200
400
600
800
1000
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Electrification rate (%)
Holdings (10,000)
Holdings Electrification rate
Fig. 1.5 Changes in the NEV holdings and the electrification rate of vehicles in China over the
years. Note Electrification rate of vehicles = NEV holdings/current vehicle holdings. Source The
Ministry of Public Security
20.7
156.5
293.8
392.3
665.5
13.5
60.0
77.1 79.7 84.9
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Accss rate (%)
Holdings (10,000)
Cumulative access Cumulative access rate
Fig. 1.6 Cumulative access volume of NEVs to the National Monitoring and Management Platform
over the years. Note Cumulative access rate of vehicles = cumulative access volume of NEVs/current
NEV holdings
1.1 Overview of the Development of New Energy Vehicle (NEV) Market 5
Security, the vehicle holdings nationwide were 302 million in 2021, and the propor-
tion of NEV holdings to vehicle holdings showed a rapid growth trend yearly, from
0.3% in 2015 to 2.6% in 2021, with an increase of 2.3%.
2. The promotion of NEVs in different provinces has its characteristics. Guang-
dong Province has the highest promotion scale of NEVs, while Shanghai has
the highest electrification rate
By the end of 2021, the TOP10 provinces with cumulative access volume of NEVs
nationwide had a total of 4,645,000 NEVs accessed, with a national share of 69.8%
(Fig. 1.7). The promotion scale of NEVs in Guangdong Province has exceeded
one million to 1.05 million NEVs accessed, accounting for 15.8% of the country;
followed by Zhejiang and Shanghai, with a total access volume of 605,000 vehi-
cles and 532,000 vehicles respectively, accounting for 9.1 and 8.0% of the country.
According to the electrification rate of all provinces (autonomous regions and munic-
ipalities directly under the Central Government), the cumulative access volume of
NEVs in Shanghai accounted for 12.1% of the local vehicle holdings, ranking first
in China.
3. The promotion of NEVs in first-tier cities has achieved remarkable results;
the electrification rate of second-tier cities and below has excellent potential
By the end of 2021, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Beijing, and Guangzhou ranked the TOP4
in the cumulative access volume of NEVs in the TOP15 cities (Fig. 1.8), with the
cumulative access volume of NEVs all above 350,000, accounting for more than
5% of the whole country respectively. Among them, the cumulative access volume
of NEVs in Shanghai was 532,000, accounting for 8.0% of the country. From the
electrification rate of each city, Liuzhou was far ahead of the first-tier cities, with
NEVs accounting for 20.3% of Liuzhou’s vehicle holdings. Other cities such as
Chongqing, Wuhan, Xi’an, and Chengdu had a relatively low electrification rate,
with excellent demand potential for NEVs to replace traditional fuel vehicles.
105.0
60.5
53.2
43.9 42.5 41.4 41.0
27.3 25.7 24.0
15.78
9.09 7.99
6.60 6.39 6.22 6.16 4.10 3.86 3.61
4.20 3.41
12.09
7.29
2.43 1.63 2.01 2.77 1.99 3.20
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Guangdong Zhejiang Shanghai Beijing Henan Shandong Jiangsu Anhui Sichuan Guangxi
Cumulative access (10,000)
Cumulative access Proportion Electrification rate
Fig. 1.7 Cumulative access and proportion of NEVs in the TOP10 provinces. Note The data on
vehicle holdings in all provinces (including autonomous regions and municipalities directly under
the Central Government) in 2020 are from the China Statistical Yearbook (2021)
61 Summary
Shanghai
Shenzhen
Beijing
Guangzhou
Hangzhou
Tianjin
Chengdu
Zhengzhou
Hefei
Chongqing
Xi'an
Liuzhou
Changsha
Qingdao
Wuhan
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
123456789
Electrification rate (%)
Proportion (%)
Fig. 1.8 Cumulative access and electrification rate of NEVs in the TOP15 cities. Note Bubble size
indicates the cumulative access volume of NEVs in each city by the end of 2021; The data of vehicle
holdings are from the data of vehicle holdings of the Ministry of Public Security in 2020
4. The new energy passenger car has become more and more market-oriented,
and private purchase has become a significant driving force
New energy passenger cars dominate the NEV market, with the market share
increasing yearly. In light of the changes in the access structure of various types
of vehicles on the National Monitoring and Management Platform over the years,
new energy passenger cars dominate the market and show a rapid expansion trend
in their market share. In 2021, the access volume of BEV-passenger cars and PHEV-
passenger cars accounted for 75.9% and 17.4% of the national NEVs, respectively,
increasing by 4.3% and 2.6% respectively compared with 2020 (Fig. 1.9). The market
share of BEV-commercial vehicles is shrinking rapidly due to the small increment.
Consumer demand in cities not subject to purchase restrictions is robust,
and the market share of new energy passenger cars is increasing yearly. Under
the stimulation of consumption promotion policies and countryside NEV promotion
activities, the awareness and recognition of NEVs by users in cities not subject to
purchase restrictions have gradually increased, contributing to the surge of consumer
demand in these cities. According to the statistics of the National Monitoring and
Management Platform on the proportion of access volume of cities subject to
purchase restrictions and not subject to purchase restrictions over the years, the
market share of new energy passenger cars in cities not subject to purchase restric-
tions in 2021 was 66.4%, 6.9% higher than that in 2020, showing an increasing trend
in the market share (Fig. 1.10).
According to the access characteristics of NEVs in the TOP15 cities in 2021
(Fig. 1.11), the cities subject to purchase restrictions, like Shanghai, Shenzhen,
Guangzhou, Hangzhou, and Beijing, ranked among the forefront, with robust
1.1 Overview of the Development of New Energy Vehicle (NEV) Market 7
61.2 61.8 65.2 71.5 75.9
6.0
15.3 16.6
14.8
17.4
29.9
21.6 17.6 13.0 6.4
3.0 1.2 0.4 0.5 0.2
0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1
0
20
40
60
80
100
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Proportion (%)
BEV-passenger car PHEV-passenger car BEV-commercial vehicle
PHEV-commercial vehicle FCEV-commercial vehicle
Fig. 1.9 Proportion of access volume of NEVs of different types over the years
49.0 42.8 38.5 40.5 33.6
51.0 57.2 61.5 59.5 66.4
0
20
40
60
80
100
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Proportion (%)
Cities subject to purchase restriction
Cities not subject to purchase restriction
Fig. 1.10 Changes in the proportion of access volume of new energy passenger cars in cities subject
to purchase restrictions and cities not subject to purchase restrictions
consumer demand. Among them, the annual access in Shanghai reached 265,000
vehicles, ranking first, accounting for 9.7% of the country. Judging from the propor-
tion of new energy private cars to local NEVs in the TOP15 cities, the proportion
of new energy private cars in the TOP15 cities was over 50%, and the proportion of
new energy private cars in Liuzhou and Wenzhou was significantly higher than that
in first-tier cities, of 90.3% and 85.2% respectively.
81 Summary
Shanghai
Shenzhen
Guangzhou
Hangzhou
Beijing
Chengdu
Tianjin
Zhengzhou
Chongqing
Suzhou
Xi'an
Changsha
Liuzhou
Wenzhou
Ningbo
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Proportion of New Energy Private Cars (%)
Proportion (%)
Fig. 1.11 NEV access and proportion of private cars in the TOP15 cities in 2021. Note: ➀ Bubble
size indicates the access volume of NEVs in each city to the National Monitoring and Management
Platform in 2021; ➁ Proportion of new energy private cars = annual access volume of new energy
private cars in the city/annual access volume of NEVs in the city
1.2 NEV Operation Characteristics of China in 2021
For this report, an overall assessment is made from the operation characteristics,
charging characteristics, battery swapping characteristics, fuel cell electric vehicles
(FCEV), and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV).
1.2.1 NEV Operation Characteristics
As of December 31, 2021, the cumulative mileage covered by NEVs was up to
218,856,000,000 km.
According to the National Monitoring and Management Platform data,
as of December 31, 2021, the cumulative mileage covered by NEVs was
218,850,000,000 km. By the power type of vehicles, the cumulative mileage
covered by BEVs was up to 184,328,000,000 km, accounting for 84.22%, including
125,830,000,000 km (57.5%) covered by BEV-passenger cars, 34,306,000,000 km
(15.68%) covered by PHEVs and 223,000,000 km (0.1%) covered by FCEVs. The
NEVs have been in the large-scale demonstration and promotion stage (Fig. 1.12).
Regarding application scenarios, the cumulative access volume of private
passenger cars was up to 4.059 million, accounting for more than 60% of the whole
country, and the cumulative mileage covered by vehicles brought by the large-scale
promotion of passenger cars was significantly ahead of that covered by vehicles
in other application scenarios. As of December 31, 2021, the cumulative mileage
1.2 NEV Operation Characteristics of China in 2021 9
FCEV
BEV-passenger car
BEV-bus
BEV-special vehicle
PHEV-passenger car
PHEV-bus
PHEV-special vehicle
FCEV- passenger car
FCEV- bus
FCEV- special vehicle
BEV
PHEV
Fig. 1.12 Distribution of cumulative mileage of vehicles of different types (100,000,000 km, %)
covered by private passenger cars was up to 62,160,000,000 km, accounting for
28.4%; in the field of commercial vehicles, the cumulative mileage covered by
buses and logistics vehicles stood out, 41,788,000,000 km and 17,380,000,000 km
respectively, accounting for 19.09% and 7.94% respectively (Fig. 1.13).
The average daily mileage in segments had somehow increased in 2021, with
a significant increase in the average daily mileage of passenger cars.
The segments had been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in the past three
years, and the average daily mileage of vehicles had fluctuated to some extent. In
Official car
Taxi
Rental car
Private car
Interurban bus
Bus
Commuter coach
Tour coach
Mail special vehicle
Engineering special vehicle
Sanitation special vehicle
Logistics special vehicle
Passenger
Special vehicle
Bus
Fig. 1.13 Distribution of cumulative mileage of vehicles in different application scenarios
(100,000,000 km, %)
10 1 Summary
42.0
167.3
210.1
77.3 69.5
146.2
71.0
45.7
157.8
186.5
99.6
86.6
148.3
105.7
46.3
168.6
201.9
124.0
94.1
150.8
107.6
0
50
100
150
200
250
Private car E-taxis Taxis Car for sharing Logistics vehicle Bus Heavy-duty truck
Average Daily Mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 1.14 Average daily mileage of NEVs in key segments over the years. Note Heavy-duty trucks:
vehicles with an inherent label of “special vehicle” in the National Monitoring and Management
Platform, with total mass ≥ 12,000 kg according to the standard GA801-2014 of the Ministry of
Public Security, selected as the research object of the heavy-duty truck segment
2020, the average daily mileage of e-taxis and taxis decreased compared with 2019.
Since 2021, the average daily mileage of all segments has increased to varying
extents. Among them, in the field of passenger cars, the average daily mileage
covered by e-taxis, taxis, and cars for sharing increased significantly year-over-year,
of 168.6 km, 201.9 km and 124 km in 2021, respectively, with an increase of 6.8%,
8.3% and 24.4% year-over-year (Fig. 1.14).
The average monthly mileages of vehicles in segments had somehow
increased, with a rapid increase in the average monthly mileage of vehicles
in the public sector and more prominent energy saving and carbon reduction
effect at the vehicle operating end.
The average monthly mileage of vehicles in segments had somehow increased in
2021 (Fig. 1.15). In the field of passenger cars, the average monthly mileage of e-
taxis, taxis, and cars for sharing was 4265 km, 4839 km, and 3103 km, respectively,
with a significant increase of 19.1%, 16.3%, and 18.8% compared with 2020; in
the field of commercial vehicles, the average monthly mileage of logistics vehicles
and heavy-duty trucks was 2270 km and 2425 km respectively, with an increase of
4.7% and 8.8% compared with 2020. The average monthly mileage of vehicles in the
public sector was stable over the years, and the effect of energy saving and carbon
reduction at the vehicle operating end was more prominent.
1.2.2 NEV Charging Characteristics
1. Characteristics of changes in vehicle charging methods
The proportion of average monthly fast charging times in each segment is
increasing yearly, except for private cars.
1.2 NEV Operation Characteristics of China in 2021 11
3854
5154
1583 1425
3519
1319
3580
4160
2613
2169
3683
2228
4265
4839
3103
2270
3713
2425
0
2000
4000
6000
E-taxis Taxis Car for sharing Logistics vehicle Bus Heavy-duty truck
Average Monthly Mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 1.15 Average monthly mileage of NEVs in key segments over the years
Each segment’s average monthly fast charging times were increasing yearly except
for private cars, judging from the changes in the proportion of average monthly fast
charging times over the years (Fig. 1.16). Specifically, regarding the distribution of
fast charging times in each segment, the fast charging times for e-taxis, taxis, cars
for sharing, logistics vehicles, buses, and heavy-duty trucks accounted for more than
50% in 2021.
2. Characteristics of charging duration
The average single-time charging duration of vehicles in key segments in the
past two years decreased compared with 2019.
Vehicles’ average single-time charging duration in each key segment in the
past two years decreased compared with 2019 (Fig. 1.17). The average single-time
charging duration for private cars was 3.7 h, showing a year-on-year decline compared
with 2019 and 2020; the fast-charging segments such as e-taxis, taxis, cars for sharing,
buses and heavy-duty trucks accounted for a higher proportion of fast charging times,
12.3
67.1
71.5
40.9
36.4
54.9
51.7
15.4
72.0 78.8
67.6
43.6
54.8
67.4
14.8
75.1 80.2
75.7
58.9
67.9
72.8
0
30
60
90
Private Car E-taxis Taxis Car for Sharing Logistics Vehicle Bus Heavy-duty Truc
k
Proportion of Fast Charging Times (%)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 1.16 Proportion of fast charging times in key segments over the years
12 1 Summary
and the average single-time charging duration for vehicles was shorter, ranging from
1 to 2 h. The average single-time charging duration in key segments is closely related
to the proportion of fast charging times. We can find the higher the proportion of fast
charging times, the shorter the average single-time charging duration (Fig. 1.18).
3. Characteristics of vehicle charging times
In 2021, vehicles’ average monthly charging times in each segment had somehow
increased, with the average monthly charging times of operating vehicles
increasing significantly. The NEVs play an increasingly important role in the
regular operation of the public sector.
4.0
1.8 1.5
2.2
2.9
1.1
2.1
3.9
1.5 1.2
1.7 2.0
1.0
1.5
3.7
1.6
1.1
1.4
2.1
1.1
1.5
0
1
2
3
4
5
Private Car E-taxis Ta xis Car for Sharing Logistics Vehicl e Bus Heavy-duty Truck
Average Single-time Charging Duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 1.17 Average single-time charging duration in key segments over the years
Private Car
E-taxis
Taxis
Car for Sharing
Logistics Vehicle
Bus
Private Car
E-taxis
Taxis
Car for Sharing
Logistics Vehicle
Bus
Private Car
E-taxis
Taxis
Car for Sharing
Logistics Vehicle
Bus
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Average Single-time Charging Duration (h)
Proportion of Fast Charging Times (%)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 1.18 Relationship between the average single-time charging duration and the proportion of
fast charging times in key segments over the years
1.2 NEV Operation Characteristics of China in 2021 13
The average monthly charging times of vehicles in each segment had somehow
increased (Fig. 1.19), and among them, the increases in average monthly charging
times of taxis, cars for sharing, and buses were great, which were 43.4, 68.9, 38.4%;
the monthly charging times were closely related to the monthly mileage (Fig. 1.20),
and the monthly charging times of taxis, buses and e-taxis were the highest, as their
monthly mileages were longer. The NEVs gradually replace traditional fuel vehicles
in the regular operation of the public sector and play an increasingly important role,
further contributing to the low carbonization of transportation.
4. Initial state-of-charge (SOC) characteristics
The average initial SOC of vehicle charging in segments was the same, and the
initial SOC of commercial vehicle charging was higher.
8.0
26.6
31.2
16.7 17.7
34.6
21.1
7.4
25.0
28.6
16.1
20.6
32.3
25.7
8.8
28.9
41
27.2 25.7
44.7
28.7
0
10
20
30
40
50
Private Car E-taxis Taxis Car for Sharing Logistics
Vehicle
Bus Heavy-duty
Truck
Average Monthly Charging Times
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 1.19 Average monthly charging times in key segments over the years
Private Car
E-taxis
Taxis
Car for Sharing
Logistics Vehicle
Bus
Heavy-duty Truck
Private Car
E-taxis
Taxis
Car for Sharing
Logistics Vehicle
Bus
Heavy-duty Truck
Private Car
E-taxis
Taxis
Cars for Sharing
Logistics Vehicle
Bus
Heavy-duty Truck
0
10
20
30
40
50
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Monthly Charging Times
Monthly Mileages/km
20202019 2021
Fig. 1.20 Relationship between monthly charging times and monthly mileages in key segments
over the years
14 1 Summary
39 40
42 41
48
53 50
42 42 43 42
49
58
49
40 43 42 42
48
55
50
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Private Car E-taxis Taxis Car for Sharing Logistics Vehicle Bus Heavy-duty Truck
Average SOC of Vehicle Charging (%)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 1.21 Average initial SOC in key segments over the years
The average initial SOC of vehicle charging in segments over the past three years
was the same (Fig. 1.21). In commercial vehicles, the average initial SOC of logis-
tics vehicles, buses, and heavy-duty trucks was generally slightly higher than that
of passenger cars, which was closely related to the operation rules of commercial
vehicles and the use of special charging piles for charging.
1.2.3 Operation Characteristics of BEVs
of Battery-Swapping Type
With the deepening of global energy reform, “changing from oil into electricity” has
become the general trend. However, the need to improve the charging experience
due to the unbalanced layout of charging facilities for NEVs is still one problem
that restricts the rapid development of NEVs. According to the statistics of vehicle
charging characteristics of some high-speed charging stations along the express-
ways of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, Jiangsu-Zhejiang-Shanghai, and Beijing-Shanghai,
the charging times along the expressways during the National Day of 2021 were
significantly higher than that during non-holiday periods. The rapid increase in the
number of vehicles charged in a short period and the long charging duration of vehi-
cles have become important factors affecting the convenience of charging during a
specific period.
In recent years, the battery-swapping mode has achieved good demonstra-
tion and application results in private cars, taxis, and heavy-duty trucks.The
battery swapping mode can effectively meet the demand of NEVs for power supply
efficiency. With the diversified application of battery swapping scenarios, as of the
end of 2021, more than 100,000 BEVs of battery-swapping type had been accessed
in China, including 88,000 BEV-private cars of battery-swapping type and 33,000
BEV-taxis of battery-swapping type, accounting for a large proportion of vehicles of
battery-swapping type; the heavy-duty trucks of battery-swapping type were still in
1.2 NEV Operation Characteristics of China in 2021 15
the demonstration operation stage, and their access increased rapidly in 2021, with
the cumulative access up to 941 vehicles. According to the regional concentration
distribution of vehicles of battery-swapping type, the heavy-duty trucks of battery-
swapping type in Tangshan City, Hebei Province, had been rapidly promoted, with
cumulative access of up to 378 vehicles.
The battery swapping mode reduces the first purchase cost of BEVs and
improves the operation efficiency of vehicles. The “separation of vehicle and
battery” mode expects to become a practical path for the electrification of the
public sector. According to the battery swapping characteristics of the vehicles of
battery-swapping type on the National Monitoring and Management Platform, the
vehicles of battery-swapping type have much potential in power supply efficiency.
The initial SOC of battery swapping for the vehicles of battery-swapping type is
generally lower than the initial SOC of charging, and the battery swapping can be
completed in 3–5 min. From the perspective of the total cost of the vehicle application
cycle, the first purchase cost of BEV-heavy-duty trucks is relatively high. Purchasing
vehicles with leasing batteries and adopting the battery swapping mode are suitable
for short-distance transportation scenarios such as short-haul in mining areas, port
traction, plants, and urban waste transportation. The new business model solves the
problem of high first-purchase costs and is more economical than fueled heavy-
duty trucks. The low electricity price further reduces operating costs, becoming an
effective solution for cleaning heavy-duty trucks under the “Carbon Peaking and
Carbon Neutrality” strategy.
1.2.4 Operation Characteristics of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles
(FCEVs)
FCEVs are demonstrated and promoted on a large scale in demonstration urban
agglomerations, and the industry is ushering in rapid development. With the imple-
mentation of the “Carbon Peaking and Carbon Neutrality” strategy and the demon-
stration and application policy of FCEVs, the technology of the fuel cell industry
has been continuously improving, and the hydrogen energy and fuel cell industry
has developed rapidly all over the country. In 2021, the enthusiasm of local govern-
ments to develop hydrogen energy continued to rise. Various provinces successively
put forward development goals and action plans around expanding hydrogen energy
supply channels, building hydrogenation infrastructure, focusing on developing core
components, and strengthening vehicle demonstration, popularization, and applica-
tion, and the market scale of FCEVs in various places proliferated. According to the
data of the National Monitoring and Management Platform, as of the end of 2021,
7737 FCEVs had been accessed in China, and the application scenarios of vehicles
had gradually expanded from a single application scenario of buses to application
scenarios of interurban buses, commuter coaches, logistics vehicles, engineering
vehicle, with a significant trend of diversification of scenarios.
16 1 Summary
The first and second batches of demonstration urban agglomerations represented
by Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration, Shanghai Urban Agglomeration,
Guangdong Urban Agglomeration, Hebei Urban Agglomeration, and Henan Urban
Agglomeration were established one after another in 2021, and the five demon-
stration urban agglomerations have their characteristics in vehicle promotion and
application. As of December 31, 2021, the five demonstration urban agglomera-
tions had 5629 FCEVs accessed, accounting for 72.8% of the cumulative access
volume of FCEVs in China. Regarding vehicle promotion structure, the propor-
tion of FCEV-buses promoted in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration,
Hebei Urban Agglomeration, and Henan Urban Agglomeration was significantly
higher than that of special vehicles (Fig. 1.22); the promotion scale of FCEV-special
vehicles in the Shanghai Urban Agglomeration and the Guangdong Urban Agglom-
eration was significantly higher than that of FCEV-buses; as of December 31, 2021,
the cumulative mileage of FCEVs in various demonstration urban agglomerations
was 142.602 million km, with the total travel duration of 5.333 million h. Among
them, the cumulative mileage of FCEVs in the Guangdong Urban Agglomeration was
76.069 million km, with a cumulative travel duration of 2.584 million h; the cumu-
lative mileage of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration and the Shanghai
Urban Agglomeration was 10.912 million km and 21.785 million km respectively,
with the cumulative travel duration of 356,000 h and 744,000 h respectively.
As a symbol for China to show the world the promotion achievements of China’s
FCEVs, the Beijing Winter Olympics achieved outstanding results in vehicle promo-
tion and operation. As of the end of February 2022, Beijing Winter Olympics had
hanghai Urban
lomeration-spe
vehicle
Hebei Urban
c
S
ia
Beijing-Tianjin-
Hebei Urban
Agglomeration-bus
Shanghai
Urban
Agglomeration
-bus
Guangdong Urban
Agglomeration-bus
Agglomeration
-bus
Henan Urban
Agglomeration-bus
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban
Agglomeration-special vehicle
Agg l
Guangdong Urban
Agglomeration-special
vehicle
Hebei Urban
Agglomeration-
special vehicle
-1000
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
0 20406080 100 120 140 160 180 200
Cumulative Mileage (10km)
Cumulative Travel Duration (10,000h)
Fig. 1.22 Cumulative mileage and travel duration of vehicles in FCEV demonstration urban
agglomerations. Note ➀ Bubble size indicates the cumulative access volume of different FCEVs
in each city as of 2021; ➁ In the above figure, blue indicates FCEV-buses, and green indicates
FCEV-special vehicles
1.3 Conclusion and Prospect 17
put more than 1300 FCEVs into use as the main transport capacity to carry out multi-
scenario demonstration operation services; in February 2022, the number of FCEVs
running in the Winter Olympics reached 137,400, with an increase of 66.67% from
the previous month. The demonstration operation of vehicles in the Olympic Games
was fully guaranteed, demonstrating China’s contribution to the field of low-carbon
transportation.
1.2.5 Operation Characteristics of Plug-In Hybrid Electric
Vehicles (PHEVs)
China’s PHEVs have gradually shifted from a supply-side drive to a supply-
consumption dual drive. According to the National Monitoring and Management
Platform data, 1.107 million PHEVs had accessed the National Monitoring and
Management Platform as of December 31, 2021. In 2021, the domestic PHEV market
maintained a high-speed growth trend, with 480,800 PHEVs accessed, creating a new
high in the past years; private purchases were the leading consumer in the PHEV
market. PHEV-private cars accounted for 93.2% of the national PHEVs in 2021, with
an increase of 8.1% compared with 2019; the market demand of third-tier cities and
below gradually released, and the access volume of PHEV-private cars in third-tier
cities and below accounted for 28.40% in 2021, with an increase of 8.1% compared
with 2019.
The PHEVs were used frequently, with the online rate being high. In 2021, the
average online rate of PHEVs was 93.0%, significantly higher than that of BEVs
and FCEVs. By vehicle type, the online rate of private cars, e-taxis, and taxis was
significantly higher than that of other types of vehicles. The average daily mileage of
private cars and e-taxis in EV Mode was higher, and the utilization rate of EV Mode
was higher. The charging duration of PHEVs was stable, and the vehicles mostly used
slow charging to supplement the power. The average single-time charging duration
of PHEV-passenger cars was stable at about 3.0 h over the years, mainly in slow
charging mode, and the fast charging duration was maintained at about 0.5 h.
1.3 Conclusion and Prospect
After years of cultivation, China’s NEVs, with continuously improved technical level,
increasingly abundant product supply, gradually matured and stabilized industrial
chain, and accelerated industrialization and marketization of NEVs in an all-round
way, have become a new growth driver to promote the high-quality development of
the automobile industry. Meanwhile, the “Carbon Peaking and Carbon Neutrality”
strategy puts forward new requirements for China’s NEV industry, which involves
18 1 Summary
many upstream and downstream links of the industrial chain. Under the new devel-
opment situation, the industry must take multiple measures simultaneously, make
overall plans and make systematic progress to further promote the NEV industry’s
high-quality and long-term prospering development. This report, based on the real-
time operation big data of more than 6.5 million NEVs on the National Monitoring
and Management Platform, concludes the relevant suggestions for the development
of the NEV industry by profoundly analyzing the industrial development character-
istics, technological progress achievements, vehicle operation and charging charac-
teristics and industrial development hotspots, to provide decision-making reference
for policy-making departments and related enterprises.
1. Continue to improve the support policies for the NEV industry, build a
carbon emission monitoring platform for the industry based on the National
Monitoring and Management Platform, and establish a sound automobile
energy conservation and emission reduction system in the post-subsidy era
The major economies and countries in the world have set the goals of carbon peaking
and carbon neutrality, and the automobile industry’s electrification transformation
has accelerated. As a strategic emerging industry, China’s NEV industry has achieved
a historic leap from “following” to “paralleling” and then to partially “overtaking,”
which plays an essential leading role in implementing the “Carbon Peaking and
Carbon Neutrality” strategy, the national energy development strategy, the strategy
of building a country with solid transportation network and the strategy of building
a country with robust automobile industry. The national financial subsidies for new
energy vehicles will be completely withdrawn in 2023. In the post-subsidy era, it
is urgent to speed up the introduction of support and encouragement measures on
the demand side by relying on the market mechanism to maintain the first-mover
advantage of China’s new energy automobile industry. On the one hand, we should
develop a carbon reduction incentive mechanism for the operating end of new energy
automobiles based on use intensity, and form a double-track mechanism integrating
points trading of new energy automobile products and carbon reduction incentive
policy for new energy automobiles, while exploring a subsidy and incentive mech-
anism for accurate measurement and dynamic evaluation of carbon reduction for
enterprises and individuals, speeding up the technological iteration of enterprises,
and encouraging users to apply low-carbon vehicles. On the other hand, relying on
the massive new energy automobile operation big data resources of the national
regulatory platform, we will establish and improve the carbon emission standard
system and management system of the automobile industry, and establish an industry-
level carbon emission monitoring mechanism on the application side based on the
carbon emission measuring standards, thus making every endeavor to promote the
comprehensive low-carbon and zero-carbon development in the transportation field.
2. Strengthen the vehicle safety supervision, give full play to the NEV big
data monitoring efficiency, promptly interface with enterprises to investi-
gate potential safety hazards, and improve the quality and safety level of
NEVs
1.3 Conclusion and Prospect 19
The NEV is the strategic direction of the automobile industry transformation and
upgrading, and safety is the key to the development of the NEV industry. On April 8,
2022, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, the Ministry of Public
Security, the Ministry of Transport, the Ministry of Emergency Management, and the
State Administration for Market Regulation jointly issued the Guidelines on Further
Strengthening the Construction of New Energy Vehicle Safety System (hereinafter
referred to as “the Guidelines”), which puts forward safety supervision require-
ments from the aspects of improving the safety management mechanism, ensuring
the product quality and safety, improving the monitoring platform efficiency, opti-
mizing the after-sales service capabilities, strengthening the accident response and
handling, and improving the network security system. The National Monitoring
and Management Platform, by digging deep into the value of NEV big data and
using big data to strengthen safety supervision, strengthen accident reporting and
deepen investigation and analysis, further promotes the digital safety supervision
of NEVs, which is of great significance for innovating the safety supervision mode
and improving the level of social public services. Next, we should fully utilize the
vehicle big data resources on the National Monitoring and Management Platform,
on the one hand, by conducting vehicle fault analysis to identify safety hazards and
handle them properly promptly, and on the other hand, by researching the theory and
key technologies of vehicle cloud collaborative big data early warning and failure
recognition based on the new-generation information technology, to break through
the challenges of safety assessment and early warning in the application process of
power batteries, and further improve the quality and safety level of products. Besides,
we will assist enterprises in establishing a safety condition monitoring platform for
NEVs, to continuously improve the safety and early warning capability of NEVs.
3. The operating vehicles are used frequently, and the electrification of vehi-
cles contributes more to energy conservation and carbon reduction in the
transportation field. We should resolutely promote the comprehensive elec-
trification of vehicles in the public sector to help achieve the goal of “Carbon
Peaking and Carbon Neutrality”
From the perspective of various application scenarios, the proportion of access
volume of new energy private cars is increasing yearly, while the proportion of
accessed vehicles in the public sector is decreasing year after year, which needs
increasing attention. According to the comparison of vehicle mileage and access in
various fields on the National Monitoring and Management Platform, in 2021, the
access volume of vehicles in China’s public sector (including buses, taxis, logistics
vehicles, e-taxis, car for sharing) accounted for only 26.8%. However, the average
monthly vehicle mileage in the public sector was 3824.6 km, 4.7 times that of a
private car. The vehicles in the public sector were used frequently, and the improve-
ment of the electrification rate contributed more to carbon emissions. In 2021, the
State Council and the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology issued a
circular to promote the comprehensive electrification of vehicles in the public sector.
Local governments and related enterprises should actively implement the provisions,
introduce support and guidance measures in an all-around way, develop and produce
20 1 Summary
marketable vehicles in the public sector, innovate the operation mode, resolutely
promote the comprehensive electrification of vehicles in the public sector, and help
achieve the goal of “Carbon Peaking and Carbon Neutrality.”
4. In the field of charging facilities, the charging service experience of NEV
users will be continuously improved, and the use environment of charging
facilities will be optimized with a refined operation mode
After years of development, China’s charging infrastructure construction has entered
the stage of pursuing both quantity and quality, and the charging infrastructure
support capacity has been continuously improved. In China’s infrastructure system,
a charging infrastructure system covering special charging and battery swapping
stations, intercity and urban public charging and battery swapping networks, and unit
and individual charging facilities has been formed, realizing “effectively supporting
the promotion and use demand of NEVs.” However, there are still some problems in
charging infrastructure, such as unbalanced regional development of charging piles,
long waiting times at expressway charging stations on holidays, and insufficient
service guarantee capacity of charging facilities in urban and rural areas. Next, local
governments should continue to improve the collaborative service guarantee capa-
bility of infrastructures, focusing on the following aspects: (1) Optimize the layout of
charging and battery swapping networks, improve the charging and battery swapping
service guarantee capability in urban and rural areas, and accelerate the improvement
of expressway fast charging networks; (2) Fully rely on the big data resources of
charging infrastructures, and further optimize the network layout of urban charging
infrastructures in combination with vehicle operation data, charging hotspot data and
power grid distribution capacity; (3) In view of the congestion of expressway charging
stations on holidays, guide the charging of expressway vehicles based on time s haring
control and classification differences to create a charging service environment that
separates passenger cars and trucks and improve the expressway charging experience
on holidays; and (4) Support the construction and operation demonstration of orderly
high-power charging stations, and expand the large-scale application of intelligent
and orderly charging.
1.3 Conclusion and Prospect 21
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Chapter 2
Promotion and Application of New
Energy Vehicles
2021 is the first year of the “14th Five-Year Plan” and the first year of fully marketizing
NEVs. NEVs have become the development highlight of the automobile industry, and
the industrial development presents a good situation with a double improvement of
market scale and development quality. This report, based on the NEV access data on
the National Monitoring and Management Platform, concludes China’s promotion
experience in the NEV industry from two dimensions of vehicle access characteristics
and vehicle technology progress, which has important reference significance for us
to predict the industrial development trend and promote the stable development of
the NEV industry.
2.1 Development Status of China’s New Energy Vehicle
(NEV) Industry
The salesvolume of NEVs in China in 2021 was 3,521,000, the annual access rate
of NEVs onthe National Monitoring and Management Platform was 77.5%,and
the industry growth exceeded expectations.
According to the data of CAAM (Table 2.1), the sales volume of NEVs in China in
2021 was 3,521,000, with a YoY increase of 157.5%. The sales volume of passenger
cars was 3,334,000, accounting for 94.7%. Among them, the sales of BEV-passenger
cars increased significantly by 173.5% on a year-on-year basis to 2,734,000, i.e.,
77.6% of the total sales of NEVs; the sales of PHEV-passenger cars were 600,000,
with a YoY increase of 143.2%. Compared with last year, the sales of new energy
commercial vehicles increased by 5.3% to 187,000, mainly due to the rapid growth
of BEV-commercial vehicles.
According to the access data of the National Monitoring and Management Plat-
form in 2021, the annual access volume of NEVs (excluding PHEVs) in 2021 was
2,732,000, with an annual access rate of 77.6%. The annual access volume of new
energy commercial vehicles was 183,000, with the access rate up to 97.9%. Among
© China Machine Press Co., Ltd. 2024
Z. Wang, Annual Report on the Big Data of New Energy Vehicle in China (2022),
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6411-6_2
23
24 2 Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles
Table 2.1 Sales of NEVs in China in 2021
Sales (10,000) Access (10,000) Access rate (%)
NEVs (Total) 352.1 273.2 77.6
New energy passenger cars
(Subtotal)
333.4 254.9 76.5
BEV 273.4 207.4 75.9
PHEV 60.0 47.5 79.2
New energy commercial vehicles
(Subtotal)
18.7 18.3 97.9
BEV 18.2 17.5 96.2
PHEV 0.3 0.6 200.0
FCEV 0.2 0.2 100.0
Source The sales data is from the China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM), and
the access data is from the National Monitoring and Management Platform
them, the access rate of BEV-commercial vehicles was 96.2%, and due to the delay
in access to the National Monitoring and Management Platform, the access rate of
PHEV-commercial vehicles and FCEV-commercial vehicles exceeded 100%.
In 2021, the monthly sales of NEVs hit record highs, and the market
penetration curve rising accelerated.
China’s NEVs entered a new stage of accelerated development in 2021, with
the monthly sales significantly higher than that in 2020 (Fig. 2.1), and the monthly
sales of NEVs repeatedly hit record highs. In December 2021, the monthly market
sales of NEVs reached 531,000. Driven by the enrichment of product supply and
the gradual improvement of consumer recognition, the market demand for NEVs
remained robust.
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Growth Rate (%)
Sales (10,000)
Sales (2020) Sales (2021) Year-on-year Growth Rate (2020) Year-on-year Growth Rate (2021)
Fig. 2.1 Monthly sales growth of NEVs in China. Source China Association of Automobile
Manufacturers (CAAM)
2.2 Overall Access Characteristics 25
0
5
10
15
20
25
Market Penetration Rate (%)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 2.2 Monthly market penetration rate of NEVs in China over the years. Source China
Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM)
The monthly market penetration curve rising of NEVs accelerated, and the
industry’s tipping point came. According to the trend of the monthly market penetra-
tion rate of NEVs in 2021 (Fig. 2.2), after June 2021, the monthly market penetration
rate of NEVs remained above 12%, and in December, it reached the highest level in
the whole year to 19.1%.
According to the trend of monthly access characteristics of NEVs on the National
Monitoring and Management Platform (Fig. 2.3), the monthly access volume of
NEVs in 2021 was significantly higher than that in each month in 2020. The access
volume of vehicles grew rapidly and synchronously with the growth of the NEV
market. Judging from the changes in monthly access, in January and February 2021,
the access rate of NEVs showed apparent large-scale access, and the access volume
of NEVs was significantly higher than the sales of NEVs; in Q4 of 2021, the access
volume of NEVs showed a noticeable tail-raising trend.
2.2 Overall Access Characteristics
Based on the cumulative access characteristics of NEVs and vehicle access character-
istics over the years on the National Monitoring and Management Platform, this report
focuses on such dimensions as market concentration, production concentration, and
regional concentration, which is of great significance for summing up the promotion
experience of the NEV industry and promoting the high-quality development of the
industry.
26 2 Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles
170.8
398.0
82.4
58.9
70.4
44.3
87.3
64.4
42.8
52.2
64.2
82.5
123.3 180.6
69.6
64.4
63.5
86.4
60.5
79.3 79.7
62.4
59.7
85.3
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0
10
20
30
40
50
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Access Rate (%)
Access (10,000)
Acess (2020) Acess (2021) Acess Rate (2020) Acess Rate (2021)
Fig. 2.3 Monthly access volume of NEVs in China over the years. Note Access rate = NEV access
to the national monitoring and management platform/sales of NEVs in the same period
2.2.1 Overall Access Characteristics of Vehicles
As of December 31, 2021, 6,655,000 NEVs had been accessed to the National
Monitoring and Management Platform, including 5863 models accessed by 306
enterprises. From different vehicle types (Fig. 2.4), the access volume of passenger
cars, buses, and special vehicles was 5,708,000, 443,000, and 504,000, respectively,
accounting for 85.8%, 6.6%, and 7.6%, respectively, with passenger cars dominating
the proportion.
According to the cumulative access characteristics of vehicles in application
scenarios, the cumulative access volume of private passenger cars accounted for
more than half. As of December 31, 2021, the cumulative access volume of private
passenger cars reached 4,059,000, accounting for 61.0% of the total access volume
of vehicles to the National Monitoring and Management Platform, followed by offi-
cial vehicles, rental cars, logistics vehicles, and urban buses, with cumulative access
volume of 655,000, 645,000, 480,000 and 378,000 respectively, accounting for 9.8%,
9.7%, 7.2%, and 5.7% respectively.
2.2 Overall Access Characteristics 27
Official car
Tax i
Private car
Rental car
Sanitation special vehicle
Engineering special vehicle
Mail special vehicle
Logistics special vehicle
Commuter coach
Interurban bus
Bus
Tour coach
Passenger car
Special Vehicle
Bus
Fig. 2.4 Cumulative access and proportion of NEVs for different purposes (vehicles, %)
2.2.2 Vehicle Access by Region
1. Characteristics of Vehicle Promotion Concentration by Province
The number and access share of provinces with cumulative access exceeding
300,000 vehicles increased significantly in 2021 compared with the previous two
years.
Judging from the cumulative access volume of NEVs in provinces (autonomous
regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government) on the National
Monitoring and Management Platform (Table 2.2), the number of provinces with
cumulative access exceeding 300,000 vehicles was increasing yearly. In 2021, seven
provinces/cities had cumulative access exceeding 300,000 vehicles, namely Guang-
dong, Zhejiang, Shanghai, Beijing, Henan, Shandong, and Jiangsu. The cumulative
access volume of vehicles in the above provinces/cities were 3,875,000, accounting
for 58.3% of the access volume in China.
In 2021, the promotion scale of NEVs in the TOP10 provinces had increased
rapidly, and the promotion and application effect in Guangdong was significant.
In the past three years, the promotion of NEVs in all provinces of China has
achieved remarkable results (Fig. 2.5), and the access volume of NEVs in the TOP10
provinces has increased rapidly in 2021. By the end of 2021, a total of 4,645,000
NEVs had been accessed in the TOP10 provinces, accounting for 69.8% of the
access volume in China, where Guangdong, Zhejiang, and Shanghai ranked among
the top three, and by the end of 2021, 770,000 NEVs had been accessed in the three
provinces/cities, accounting for 11.6% of the access volume in China.
According to the proportion of NEV promotion-type structures in each province
(Fig. 2.6), the cumulative access proportion of new energy passenger cars in Guangxi,
28 2 Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles
Table 2.2 Number of provinces with different promotion levels of NEVs and their proportion of
access
Cumulative
access level
(10,000)
2019 2020 2021
Number of
province
(Nr.)
Cumulative
access
proportion
(%)
Number of
province
(Nr.)
Cumulative
access
proportion
(%)
Number of
provinces
(Nr.)
Cumulative
access
proportion
(%)
0~5 12 5.8 11 4.6 92.5
5–10 10 28.1 510.6 33.8
10–20 632.6 827.8 717.3
20–30 216.6 423.6 518.1
30–50 116.9 216.7 425.4
>50 0 0 1 16.7 332.9
8.3
9.3
18.3
14.0
18.8
15.3
24.9
18.3
23.9
49.7
12.8
13.5
20.1
19.7
24.5
21.7
33.1
26.6
32.5
65.7
24.0
25.7
27.3
41.0
41.4
42.5
43.9
53.2
60.5
105.0
020 40 60 80 100 120
Guangxi
Sichuan
Anhui
Jiangsu
Shandong
Henan
Beijing
Shanghai
Zhejiang
Guangdong
Cumulative Access (10,000)
2021 2020 2019
Fig. 2.5 Cumulative access volume of NEVs in the TOP10 provinces over the years. Note The
cumulative access volume of each province in 2021 is taken as the ranking standard
Shanghai, Zhejiang, and Shandong was over 90%, among which Guangxi was domi-
nated by the promotion of BEV-small passenger cars, with the cumulative access
accounting for 95.12%.
In the field of new energy vehicles by type, the promotion of vehicles by type
in Guangdong ranked first in the country.
2.2 Overall Access Characteristics 29
82.3 92.5 93.6 88.6 88.7 91.9 85.8 83.7 77.6
95.1
5.3
4.3 3.0
5.2 5.9 6.2 7.6 7.2
6.7
3.6
12.4
3.2 3.4 6.3 5.4 1.9 6.7 9.1 15.7
1.3
0
20
40
60
80
100
Proportion of Structures (%)
Passenger Car Bus Special Vehicle
Fig. 2.6 Proportion of cumulative access structures of NEVs by type in the TOP10 provinces
According to the cumulative access characteristics of vehicles by type over the
years (Table 2.3), new energy passenger cars’ cumulative access volume was obvi-
ously higher than that of buses and logistics vehicles. According to the changes in the
cumulative access volume of new energy passenger cars over the years, the cumula-
tive access volume of new energy passenger cars in the TOP5 provinces increased
from 1,125,000 in 2019 to 2,690,000 in 2021, and that in the TOP10 provinces
increased from 1,671,000 in 2019 to 4,085,000 in 2021.
According to the changes in the cumulative access characteristics of new energy
buses over the years, the cumulative access volume of new energy buses in Guang-
dong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Shandong, Henan, and Hunan ranked in the forefront, and
Table 2.3 Cumulative access characteristics of NEVs by type in each province
30 2 Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles
the cumulative access volume of new energy buses in the TOP5 provinces increased
from 123,000 in 2019 to 164,000 in 2021, and that in the TOP10 provinces increased
from 195,000 in 2019 to 266,000 in 2021.
According to the changes in the cumulative access characteristics of new energy
special vehicles over the years, the cumulative access volume of new energy special
vehicles in the TOP5 provinces increased from 166,000 in 2019 to 253,000 in 2020,
and that in the TOP10 provinces increased from 241,000 in 2018 to 369,000 in 2020.
The regional concentration of NEVs by type showed an overall downward
trend.
According to the access concentration of vehicles by type over the years
(Table 2.4), the cumulative access concentration of various types of NEVs in the
TOP3, TOP5, and TOP10 provinces showed an overall downward trend yearly.
Among them, the proportion of cumulative access volume of new energy passenger
cars in the TOP10 provinces decreased from 72.4% in 2019 to 71.6% in 2021, that of
new energy buses in the TOP10 provinces decreased from 61.4% in 2019 to 59.9%
in 2021, and that of new energy special vehicles in the TOP10 provinces decreased
from 77.3% in 2019 to 73.4% in 2021. The regional concentration of new energy
special vehicles was relatively higher than that of new energy passenger cars and
buses.
2. Characteristics of Vehicle Promotion Concentration by City
In 2021, the promotion scale of NEVs in the TOP10 cities had increased rapidly,
and the promotion effect in first-tier cities was significant.
In the past three years, the promotion scale of NEVs in the TOP10 cities had
increased rapidly (Fig. 2.7). By the end of 2021, 2,952,000 NEVs had been accessed
in the TOP10 cities, accounting for 44.4% of the access volume in China. Shanghai,
Shenzhen, Beijing, and Guangzhou ranked at the forefront Regarding cumulative
Table 2.4 Cumulative access and proportion of NEVs of different types in each province
Passenger car
Bus
Special vehicle
Cumulative
access
Cumulative
access
proportion
79.8 107.9
192.1
112.5
153.6
269.0
167.1
228.0
408.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
2019 2020 2021
Cumulative Access
TOP3 TOP5 TOP10
8.4 9.9 11.3
12.3 14.4 16.4
19.5
23.3
26.6
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
2019 2020 2021
TOP3 TOP5 TOP10
12.5
15.5
19.8
16.6
20.1
25.3
24.1
29.2
36.9
0
10
20
30
40
2019 2020 2021
TOP3 TOP5 TOP10
34.6 34.2 33.6
48.7 48.6 47.1
72.4 72.2 71.6
0
20
40
60
80
2019 2020 2021
Proportion
TOP3 TOP5 TOP10
26.5 26.0 25.5
38.7 37.8 37.0
61.4 61.2 59.9
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
2019 2020 2021
TOP3 TOP5 TOP10
39.9 40.4 39.5
53.3 52.5 50.4
77.3 76.3 73.4
0
30
60
90
2019 2020 2021
TOP3 TOP52 TOP10
2.2 Overall Access Characteristics 31
6.8
12.6
8.1
7.7
11.1
12.4
17.8
24.9
24.5
18.3
8.8
13.2
10.2
11.0
15.0
16.1
23.4
33.1
30.6
26.6
14.8
15.5
16.2
20.0
22.9
27.3
35.1
43.9
46.2
53.2
0 102030405060
Chongqing
Hefei
Zhengzhou
Chengdu
Tianjin
Hangzhou
Guangzhou
Beijing
Shenzhen
Shanghai
Cumulative Access (10,000)
2021 2020 2019
Fig. 2.7 Cumulative access volume of NEVs in the TOP10 cities over the years. Note The
cumulative access volume of each city in 2021 is taken as the ranking standard
access volume of NEVs, and by the end of 2021, 1,784,0000 NEVs had been accessed,
accounting for 26.8% of the access volume in China.
According to the proportion of NEV promotion-type structures in the TOP10
cities (Fig. 2.8), the cumulative access proportion of new energy passenger cars in
Shanghai, Hangzhou, Tianjin, and Hefei was over 90%; the cumulative access propor-
tion of new energy commercial vehicles in Shenzhen and Chengdu accounted for
more than 20%, and the new energy special vehicle was the primary type promoted.
By the vehicle type, the promotion of NEVs in each city has its own
characteristics.
93.6
79.3 88.6 86.8 95.0 91.3
76.1
85.7 91.7 86.1
3.0
1.7
5.2 4.7
2.4 2.4
4.8
3.2
3.0
3.9
3.4
19.0 6.3 8.6 2.6 6.3
19.2 11.2 5.3 10.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Shanghai Shenzhen Beijing Guangzhou Hangzhou Tianjin Chengdu Zhengzhou Hefei Chongqing
Proportion of Structures (%)
Passenger Car Bus Special Vehicle
Fig. 2.8 Proportion of cumulative access structures of NEVs by type in the TOP10 cities
32 2 Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles
According to the cumulative access volume of new energy passenger cars in
the TOP10 cities (Fig. 2.9), by the end of 2021, the cumulative access volume of
new energy passenger cars in Shanghai, Beijing, and Shenzhen ranked among the
forefront, with 498,000, 389,000 and 366,000 respectively, accounting for 8.7%,
6.8%, and 6.4% respectively of the access in China. According to the year-on-year
growth rate of new energy passenger car access in each city (Fig. 2.10), the new energy
passenger car market in Suzhou, Changsha, Wenzhou, and Zhengzhou proliferated in
2021. Among them, in 2021, the access volume of NEVs in Suzhou had the highest
year-on-year growth rate, up to 245.0%.
49.8
38.9 36.6
30.5
25.9
20.9
15.2 14.2 13.9 12.7
8.7
6.8 6.4
5.3
4.5
3.7
2.7 2.5 2.4 2.2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Shanghai Shenzhen Beijing Guangzhou Hangzhou Tianjin Chengdu Zhengzhou Hefei Chongqing
Proportion (%)
Cumulative Access (10,000)
Cumulative Access Proportion
Fig. 2.9 Cumulative access and proportion of new energy passenger cars in the TOP10 cities
Shanghai
Shenzhen
Hangzhou
Guangzhou
Beijing
Chengdu
Tianjin
Zhengzhou
Chongqing
Suzhou
Liuzhou
Xi'an
Changsha
Wenzhou
Ningbo
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
02468 10 12
Year-on-year Growth Rate (%)
Proportion (%)
Fig. 2.10 Access volume and growth rate of new energy passenger cars in the TOP15 cities in
2021. Note Bubble size indicates a city’s annual access volume of new energy passenger cars in
2021
2.2 Overall Access Characteristics 33
According to the cumulative access characteristics of the TOP10 cities in the
field of new energy buses (Fig. 2.11), by the end of 2021, Beijing, Guangzhou,
and Shanghai ranked the top three in China, with a cumulative access volume of
23,000, 17,000 and 16,000 vehicles respectively, accounting for 5.1%, 3.7%, and
3.6% respectively of the access volume in China.
According to the year-on-year growth rate of new energy bus access in the TOP15
cities in China in 2021 (Fig. 2.12), the annual growth rate of new energy bus access
in Kunming, Shenyang, and Wuhan in 2021 was faster, with a year-on-year growth
rate of more than three times.
According to the cumulative access characteristics of the TOP15 cities in the field
of new energy special vehicles (Fig. 2.13), by the end of 2021, the cumulative access
2.3
1.6 1.6
1.0
0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
5.1
3.7 3.6
2.1
1.5 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.2
0
2
4
6
8
10
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Beijing Guangzhou Shanghai Chengdu Hangzhou Harbin Suzhou Wuhan Chongqing Tianjin
Proportion (%)
Cumulative Access (10,000)
Cumulative Access Proportion
Fig. 2.11 Cumulative access volume and proportion of new energy buses in the TOP10 cities
Guangzhou
Beijing
Chengdu
Wuhan
Shanghai
Kunming
Suzhou
Hangzhou
Shenyang
Changchun
Hefei
Tianjin
Fuzhou
Harbin
Nantong
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
1234
Year-on-year Growth Rate (%)
Proportion (%)
Fig. 2.12 Access and growth rate of new energy buses in the TOP15 cities in 2021. Note Bubble size
indicates the number of new energy buses accessed by the National Monitoring and Management
Platform in 2021
34 2 Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles
8.8
3.8
3.0 2.8 2.5
1.8 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.1
17.4
7.6
6.0 5.5 5.0
3.6 3.6 2.9 2.9 2.3
0
5
10
15
20
25
0
2
4
6
8
10
Shenzhen Chengdu Guangzhou Beijing Xi'An Zhengzhou Shanghai Chongqing Tianjin Changsha
Proportion (%)
Cumulative Access (10,000)
Cumulative Access Proportion
Fig. 2.13 Cumulative access and proportion of new energy special vehicles in the TOP10 cities
volume of new energy special vehicles in Shenzhen was significantly higher than
that in other cities, up to 88,000 vehicles, accounting for 17.4% of the access volume
in China.
In 2021, the annual access volume of new energy special vehicles in the TOP15
cities in China increased year-on-year (Fig. 2.14). The access growth rate of new
energy special vehicles in Quanzhou, Chongqing, and Shanghai in 2021 was signif-
icantly higher than that in other cities, with a year-on-year growth rate of more than
2.5 times.
Shenzhen
Chengdu
Guangzhou
Shanghai
Chongqing
Suzhou
Beijing
Xi'an
Changsha
Kunming
Zhengzhou
Xiamen
Quanzhou
Tianjin
Wuhan
-50
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
02468 10 12 14 16
Year-on-year Growth Rate (%)
Proportion (%)
Fig. 2.14 Access and growth rate of new energy special vehicles in the TOP15 cities in 2021.
Note Bubble size indicates the number of new energy special vehicles accessed by the National
Monitoring and Management Platform in 2021
2.2 Overall Access Characteristics 35
2.2.3 Market Concentration
In the past three years, the concentration of NEV access characteristics of the
TOP10 enterprises by field had shown an overall downward trend, and the
access volume of typical enterprises was outstanding.
From the cumulative access characteristics of different types of vehicles, in the
field of passenger cars, the cumulative access volume of the TOP10 enterprises
increased from 1,563,000 in 2019 to 3,657,000 in 2021, and the market concentration
decreased from 67.7% in 2019 to 64.1% in 2021 (Table 2.5). Among them, BYD
performed noticeably well. By 2021, BYD had 1,014,000 new energy passenger
cars accessed, accounting for 17.8% of the cumulative access volume of new energy
passenger cars in China.
In the field of new energy buses, the cumulative access characteristics of the
TOP10 enterprises increased from 220,000 in 2019 to 308,000 in 2021, and the
market concentration decreased from 69.6% in 2019 to 69.5% in 2021. Yutong Bus
ranked first Regarding promotion volume. As of December 31, 2021, Yutong Bus
had 108,000 new energy buses accessed, accounting for 24.3% of the cumulative
access volume of new energy buses in China.
In the field of new energy special vehicles, the cumulative access characteristics
of the TOP10 enterprises increased from 179,000 in 2019 to 269,000 in 2021, and
the market concentration decreased from 57.3% in 2019 to 53.5% in 2021. Dongfeng
Motor had 66,000 new energy special vehicles accessed, accounting for 13.1% of
the cumulative access volume of new energy special vehicles in China.
From the change in the concentration of access volume of different types of
vehicles in each enterprise (Table 2.6), the concentration of vehicle access volume
Table 2.5 Cumulative access of NEVs of different types of each enterprise
Type of
vehicle
Cumulative access of vehicles of the TOP10 enterprises in 2019
(vehicles)
Cumulative access of vehicles of the TOP10 enterprises in 2020
(vehicles)
Cumulative access of vehicles of the TOP10 enterprises in 2021
(vehicles)
Passenger
car
Bus
Special
vehicle
76541
76921
83461
85841
118290
145946
179755
179853
190823
425804
Jiangling Holdings
SGMW
Zhejiang Haoqing
Jiangnan Automobile
Chery Automobile
JAC
SAIC
BAIC New Energy
Beijing Auto
BYD
98825
103472
111621
122180
170671
188663
189505
208426
216075
533672
Great Wall Motor
Tesla (Shanghai)
GAC Motor
Chery Automobile
SGMW
JAC
BAIC New Energy
Beijing Auto
SAIC
BYD
139613
203249
221804
232875
239556
308147
334640
396290
566507
1014128
Changan Automobile
BAIC New Energy
Beijing Auto
Great Wall Motor
GAC Motor
JAC
SAIC
Tesla (Shanghai)
SGMW
BYD
8365
11040
12742
13159
17453
17534
17736
19846
21696
80779
Shanghai Sunlong
Xiamen King Long
Guangtong Automobile
Xiamen Golden Dragon
CRRC Times
Nanjing King Long
Foton Motor
Zhongtong Bus
BYD
Yutong Bus
10547
13932
15789
18913
19331
19428
20471
24858
25190
96955
Suzhou King Long
Xiamen King Long
Xiamen Golden Dragon
Guangtong Automobile
Foton Motor
Suzhou King Long
CRRC Times
Zhongtong Bus
BYD
Yutong Bus
14355
17174
19876
20751
21043
24859
25311
27783
29160
107823
Suzhou King Long
Xiamen King Long
Guangtong Automobile
Foton Motor
Nanjing King Long
CRRC Times
Xiamen Golden Dragon
BYD
Zhongtong Bus
Yutong Bus
8382
9017
11449
12175
12909
17326
17335
18471
19182
52807
Zhongtong Bus
Chengdu Universiade
Nanjing King Long
Chenggong Auto
Geely Sichuan Commercial Vehicle
Chongqing Ruichi
Xinchufeng Automobile
Chery Commercial Vehicle
Shanxi Tongjia
Dongfeng Motor
9047
9383
12308
15699
17089
17342
19306
25255
30750
60163
Zhongtong Bus
Hebei Changan Automobile
Chenggong Auto
Geely Sichuan Commercial Vehicle
Nanjing King Long
Xinchufeng Automobile
Shanxi Tongjia
Chery Commercial Vehicle
Chongqing Ruichi
Dongfeng Motor
12129
12308
13766
17443
19306
20723
21083
34722
51528
65951
Brilliance Xinyuan
Chenggong Automobile
Foton Motor
Xinchufeng Automobile
Shanxi Tongjia
Geely Sichuan Commercial Vehicle
Nanjing King Long
Chery Commercial Vehicle
Chongqing Ruich
Dongfeng Motor
36 2 Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles
Table 2.6 Cumulative access and proportion of NEVs of different types of each enterprise
of bus enterprises and special vehicle enterprises in the TOP5 and TOP10 sub-fields
showed an overall downward trend; in the field of passenger cars, due to the strong
sales growth of Tesla, SGMW, BYD and other star models, the concentration of
enterprises in 2021 increased compared with that in 2020.
2.2.4 Production Concentration
In the field of passenger cars and special vehicles, the production of the
leading provinces accounts for a relatively large proportion; in the field of
buses, the production of major provinces is relatively stable, and the regional
concentration of buses has shown an overall downward trend over the years.
From the production of vehicles of different types over the years (Table 2.7), the
production of new energy passenger cars in the leading provinces accounted for a
relatively large proportion. In 2021, the production of new energy passenger cars
in Shanghai, Guangxi, and Guangdong ranked the top three, accounting for more
than 15%, respectively. In the field of new energy passenger cars, the production
proportion of new energy passenger cars in the TOP3 provinces, TOP5 provinces, and
TOP10 provinces was on the rise, mainly because in the past two years, the production
bases of Wuling Hongguang MINI EV, Tesla series models, and BYD’s best-selling
models were distributed in Shanghai, Guangxi, and Guangdong respectively.
In the field of new energy buses, the production concentration of new energy
buses in Henan, Shandong, and Jiangsu was high in 2021, 16.1%, 13.5%, and 13.2%,
respectively. From the change of production concentration in the recent three years,
the production concentration of new energy buses in the TOP5 provinces showed a
slight downward trend (Table 2.8).
2.2 Overall Access Characteristics 37
Table 2.7 Proportion of production of vehicles of different types in TOP10 provinces over the
years
Type of
vehicle
Proportion of production of each province (including autonomous
region/municipality directly under the Central Government) in 2019 (%)
Proportion of production of each province (including autonomous
region/municipality directly under the Central Government) in 2020 (%)
Proportion of production of each province (including autonomous
region/municipality directly under the Central Government) in 2021 (%)
Passenger
car
Bus
Special
vehicle
4.4%
5.0%
5.2%
6.1%
7.1%
9.3%
9.7%
10.4%
10.6%
13.3%
Chongqing
Hubei
Guangdong
Guangxi
Zhejiang
Hunan
Shaanxi
Shanghai
Anhui
Beijing
4.3%
5.7%
6.4%
6.5%
6.9%
7.2%
8.2%
8.8%
11.0%
21.9%
Hebei
Jilin
Chongqing
Shaanxi
Hunan
Beijing
Anhui
Guangdong
Guangxi
Shanghai
2.2%
3.3%
5.6%
6.0%
6.2%
6.7%
8.6%
15.4%
15.4%
19.3%
Hubei
Jilin
Hebei
Anhui
Zhejiang
Chongqing
Shaanxi
Guangdong
Guangxi
Shanghai
2.9%
3.2%
3.7%
4.3%
4.7%
8.0%
10.1%
11.2%
13.2%
27.7%
Sichuan
Anhui
Shanghai
Guangdong
Beijing
Fujian
Shandong
Jiangsu
Hunan
Henan
2.5%
3.9%
4.2%
4.8%
7.7%
8.6%
8.8%
10.5%
12.0%
27.0%
Sichuan
Beijing
Anhui
Guangdong
Shanghai
Fujian
Shandong
Jiangsu
Hunan
Henan
3.2%
4.1%
4.6%
5.8%
8.1%
9.3%
9.8%
13.2%
13.5%
16.1%
Shanghai
Sichuan
Anhui
Beijing
Hunan
Guangdong
Fujian
Jiangsu
Shandong
Henan
4.0%
4.1%
4.2%
5.9%
8.9%
8.9%
9.6%
10.4%
11.3%
16.9%
Beijing
Henan
Shanghai
Hunan
Jiangxi
Jiangsu
Sichuan
Hubei
Chongqing
Anhui
3.0%
4.1%
4.7%
5.1%
6.1%
7.0%
7.7%
9.1%
9.5%
34.8%
Shandong
Henan
Hebei
Fujian
Jiangsu
Shanghai
Hubei
Guangxi
Anhui
Chongqing
2.7%
3.1%
5.3%
6.9%
8.0%
8.2%
8.8%
9.1%
9.1%
26.8%
Jiangsu
Shandong
Sichuan
Guangxi
Beijing
Fujian
Shanghai
Shanxi
Anhui
Chongqing
Table 2.8 Proportion of production of vehicles of different types in TOP provinces over the years
In the field of new energy special vehicles, the production of new energy special
vehicles in Chongqing took an invincible lead in 2021, accounting for 26.8% of
the production in China. From the production concentration of new energy special
vehicles in the TOP3, TOP5 and TOP10 provinces, the production concentration of
new energy special vehicles declined in 2021.
The production concentration of NEV enterprises showed an upward trend,
and the production share of typical enterprises was outstanding.
According to the annual production concentration by enterprises (Table 2.9), in
the field of passenger cars, BYD’s production concentration reached 18.3% in 2021
due to the rich supply of NEV products, ranking first among all enterprises in China,
followed by SGMW and Tesla (China), with the vehicle production concentration of
15.0% and 6.8% respectively. In the past three years, the production concentration
of the TOP3, TOP5, and TOP10 enterprises in the new energy passenger cars field
has shown an upward trend.
38 2 Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles
Table 2.9 Proportion of production of vehicles of different types in TOP10 enterprises over the
years
Type of
vehicle
Proportion of production of the TOP10 enterprises in
2019 (%)
Proportion of production of the TOP10 enterprises in
2020 (%)
Proportion of production of the TOP10 enterprises in
2021 (%)
Passenger
car
Bus
Special
vehicle
3.6%
4.1%
4.2%
4.3%
4.5%
5.5%
5.6%
6.0%
7.6%
18.6%
BAIC New Energy
Great Wall Motor
Passionate car
GAC Motor
Dongfeng Motor
SGMW
JAC
SAIC
Beijing Auto
BYD
3.2%
3.2%
3.8%
3.9%
5.0%
5.0%
5.7%
10.8%
13.2%
14.3%
BMW Brilliance
Ideal manufacturing
SAIC Volkswagen
Great Wall Motor
FAW-Volkswagen
Anhui JAC
GAC Motor
SGMW
BYD
Tesla (Shanghai)
2.9%
3.5%
3.6%
4.0%
4.2%
4.4%
5.2%
6.8%
15.0%
18.3%
Xpeng Motors
Li Auto
NIO
GAC Motor
Chery New Energy
SAIC
Great Wall Motor
Tesla (Shanghai)
SGMW
BYD
3.2%
3.8%
3.8%
4.2%
4.4%
4.7%
5.3%
7.9%
8.5%
27.0%
Ankai
Nanjing King Long
Xiamen Golden Dragon
Xiamen King Long
Suzhou King Long
Foton Motor
BYD
CRRC Times
Zhongtong Bus
Yutong Bus
3.3%
3.7%
3.9%
4.2%
4.9%
5.3%
6.0%
8.6%
9.4%
26.7%
Nanjing King Long
Xiamen Golden Dragon
Foton Motor
Ankai
Xiamen King Long
Suzhou King Long
Sunwin Bus
Zhongtong Bus
BYD
Yutong Bus
3.2%
3.4%
3.8%
4.5%
5.8%
6.1%
6.3%
8.1%
13.3%
15.9%
Nanjing King Long
Xiamen Golden Dragon
BYD
Anhui Ankai Auto
Beiqi Foton
Suzhou King Long
Xiamen King Long
CRRC Electric
Zhongtong Bus
Yutong Bus
2.8%
3.0%
3.8%
4.0%
8.7%
8.8%
9.5%
9.6%
9.6%
14.5%
Foton Motor
Zhengzhou Nissan
Hebei Changan Automobile
BYD
Changhe Automobile
Chongqing Ruichi
Dongfeng Motor
Geely Sichuan Commercial…
Nanjing King Long
Chery Commercial Vehicle
3.0%
4.0%
4.2%
4.5%
4.8%
5.2%
6.9%
7.3%
8.9%
25.6%
Xiamen Golden Dragon
Hebei Changan Automobile
SGMW
Vientiane Automobile
Guangxi Automobile
Nanjing King Long
Chery Commercial Vehicle
Dongfeng Motor
Brilliance Xinyuan
Chongqing Ruichi
2.4%
5.1%
6.5%
6.6%
6.8%
7.2%
7.4%
7.9%
9.1%
19.9%
Zhejiang New Gonow
Geely Sichuan Commercial…
Brilliance Xinyuan
Xiamen Golden Dragon
Guangxi Automobile
Chery Commercial Vehicle…
SAIC MAXUS
Beiqi Foton
Shanxi New Energy Vehicles
Chongqing Ruichi
Table 2.10 Proportion of production of vehicles of different types in TOP enterprises over the
years
In the field of new energy buses, the production concentration of Yutong Bus
and Zhongtong Bus ranked first, with 15.9% and 13.3%, respectively; in the field of
new energy special vehicles, the vehicle production concentration of a Chongqing
Ruichi enterprise reached 19.9%, ranking first. In commercial vehicles, the produc-
tion concentration of the TOP3 and TOP5 enterprises showed an overall downward
trend in 2021 (Table 2.10).
2.3 Historical Access Characteristics of NEVs to the National Monitoring … 39
2.3 Historical Access Characteristics of NEVs
to the National Monitoring and Management Platform
2.3.1 Historical Access Characteristics of NEVs
2,732,000 NEVs were accessed to the National Monitoring and Management
Platform in 2021, with a substantial YoY increase.
From Table 2.11, 2,732,000 NEVs accessed the National Monitoring and Manage-
ment Platform in 2021, an increase of 177.4% compared with 2020. According to
the comparison between the annual access volume of NEVs and the annual sales
of NEVs on the National Monitoring and Management Platform (Table 2.12), the
access volume of NEVs in January and February 2022 was significantly higher than
the sales of NEVs due to the appropriate delay in the time of NEV access to the
National Monitoring and Management Platform, indicating that some NEVs were
sold at the end of 2021. However, such vehicles’ access to the National Monitoring
and Management Platform was in January and February 2022.
The access volume ofBEVsaccounted for a major proportion, and the volume
in each month was more than 100,000 vehicles.
As shown in Table 2.13, 2,249,000 BEVs were accessed in 2021, accounting for
82.3%; the access volume of PHEVs and FCEVs was 481,000 and 2,000, respec-
tively, accounting for 17.6% and 0.1%, respectively. According to the distribution of
monthly access throughout 2021 (Fig. 2.15), BEVs’ access volume per month was
over 100,000. In December 2021, the access volume of BEVs reached 358,000 and
Table 2.11 Access of NEVs in China over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
National vehicle access (10,000) 137.3 98.5 273.2
Note Due to the supplementary access characteristics of NEVs to the National Monitoring and
Management Platform, this report will continuously update the access data of NEVs over the years
Table 2.12 Comparison between access and sales of NEVs from January to February 2022
Type January February
NEV Sales (10,000) 43.1 33.4
BEVs 34.6 25.8
PHEVs 8.5 7.5
NEV Access (10,000) 51.2 34.1
BEVs 40.9 28.6
PHEVs 10.3 5.6
Source The sales data is from the China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM), and
the access data is from the National Monitoring and Management Platform
40 2 Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles
Table 2.13 Access volume of NEVs in China in 2021—by power type
Driving type BEVs PHEVs FCEVs
Access volume of NEVs in China (10,000) 224.9 48.1 0.2
19.4
15.8
12.7 11.9 11.5
18.3
14.5
19.7
24.0
20.0 21.3
35.8
40.9
28.6
2.6 4.1 3.1
1.4 2.2 3.8
1.9
5.8 4.4 3.9
5.5
9.4 10.3
5.6
0.02 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.08 0.02 0.01
0
10
20
30
40
50
Access (10,000)
BEV PHEV FCV
Fig. 2.15 Monthly access volume of NEVs in China in 2021—by driving type
continued the high growth trend to 409,000 in January 2022. Some vehicles sold
were affected by the delay in access time.
2.3.2 Access Characteristics of NEVs Over the Years
by Region
In 2021, the access characteristics of NEVs in all regions of China showed a
steady growth trend, with outstanding performance in East China.
East China ranks first regarding NEV access over the years. According to the
access in different regions (Fig. 2.16), East China boasts the highest access with a
volume of 1,077,000, accounting for 39.4%, followed by South China and Central
China with a volume of 559,000 and 390,100, respectively, accounting for 20.5%
and 14.3%.
According to the proportion of NEVs in different regions over the years (Fig. 2.17),
the proportion of NEVs in East China, South China, Central China, and Southwest
China increased in 2021 compared with 2017. Among them, the proportion of access
in East China accounted for 39.4% in 2021, up 9.2% compared with 2017; the
2.3 Historical Access Characteristics of NEVs to the National Monitoring … 41
45.9
33.1
17.6 21.5
11.6
5.2 1.8
33.0
22.5
12.4 17.6
8.3
2.9 1.1
107.7
55.9
39.0 34.0
24.9
8.2 3.4
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
East China South China Central China North China Southwest China Southeast China Northeast China
Access (10,000)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 2.16 Access of NEVs in different regions of China over the years
30.2 37.4 33.8 33.2 39.4
12.9
18.4 23.9 23.8
20.5
10.7
15.4 13.2 12.6 14.3
33.1
17.3 16.0 18.0 12.5
8.1 6.9 8.0 8.4 9.1
3.3 3.5 3.9 3.0 3.0
1.6 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.2
0
20
40
60
80
100
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Proportion of Access (%)
East China South China Central China North China
Southwest China Southeast China Northeast China
Fig. 2.17 Proportion of access volume of NEVs in different regions over the years
proportion of access in North China showed an apparent narrowing trend, accounting
for 12.5% of the access volume in China in 2021, down 20.6% compared with 2017.
The consumer demand in cities of each tier is robust, and the access volume
of NEVs in cities of different tiers grew rapidly in 2021; second-tier cities and
below have excellent market potential.
According to the access characteristics of cities of different tiers over the years
(Fig. 2.18), the consumer demand for cities of each tier had recovered steadily. In
2021, the access volume of NEVs in first-tier cities was the highest, with a volume
of 1,040,000, up 1.4 times year-on-year; due to the low base, robust market demand,
obviously improved user acceptance and other factors, the access volume of NEVs
in other cities increased significantly year-on-year. The access volume of NEVs in
42 2 Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles
fourth-tier and fifth-tier cities increased by 2.2 times and 2.3 times in 2021 compared
with 2020.
From the proportion of access in cities of each tier over the years (Fig. 2.19), the
proportion of access in first-tier cities had declined from 48.4% in 2017 to 38.1%
in 2021, and that in second-tier cities and below proliferated with excellent market
potential.
56.4
38.6
28.6
10.2
3.3
42.8
20.3 21.2
10.7
3.3
104.0
61.6 62.2
34.3
10.9
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
First-tier City Second-tier City Third-tier City Fourth-tier City Fifth-tier City
Access (10,000)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 2.18 Access of NEVs in cities of each tier in China over the years
48.4 43.5 41.1 43.5 38.1
20.4 27.1 28.1 20.7
22.5
19.4 20.1 20.9
21.6 22.8
9.3 7.5 7.5 10.8 12.6
2.5 1.9 2.4 3.4 4.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Proportion of Access (%)
First-tier City Second-tier City Third-tier City Fourth-tier City Fifth-tier City
Fig. 2.19 Proportion of access volume of NEVs in cities of different tiers over the years
2.3 Historical Access Characteristics of NEVs to the National Monitoring … 43
2.3.3 Access Characteristics of NEVs Over the Years
by Application Scenario
In order to better study the characteristics of vehicle behaviors in key segments, seven
segments, including private cars, e-taxis, taxis, cars for sharing, logistics vehicles,
buses, and heavy-duty trucks, are selected by using the big data intelligent analysis
technology from the National Monitoring and Management Platform as the key
application scenarios for research. The vehicles in the main application scenarios are
defined below:
Private cars: vehicles not for online ride-hailing service selected from vehi-
cles with an inherent “private car” label in the National Monitoring and
Management Platform as the research object for the private car segment.
E-taxis: vehicles for online ride-hailing service selected from vehicles with an
inherent label of “private car,” “official car,” and “rental car” in the National
Monitoring and Management Platform as the research object for the e-taxis
segment.
Cars for sharing: vehicles for time-based rental service and long/short-term
rental service filtered from vehicles with an inherent label of “rental car” in
the National Monitoring and Management Platform as the research object for
a segment of cars for sharing.
Taxis: vehicles with an inherent label of “taxi car” in the National Monitoring
and Management Platform selected as the research object of the taxi segment.
Logistics vehicles: vehicles with an inherent label of “logistics vehicle” in the
National Monitoring and Management Platform selected as the research object
of the logistics vehicle segment.
Bus: vehicles with an inherent label of “bus” in the National Monitoring and
Management Platform selected as the research object of the logistics vehicle
segment.
Heavy-duty trucks: vehicles with an inherent label of “special vehicle” in the
National Monitoring and Management Platform, with a total mass ≥ 12,000 kg
according to the standard GA801-2014 of the Ministry of Public Security,
selected as the research object of the heavy-duty truck segment.
44 2 Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles
From Table 2.14, in 2021, the access volume of private cars was 2,000,000, up
2.3 times year-on-year; that of e-taxis was 89,000; that of taxis was 124,000; that
of cars for sharing was 89,000; that of logistics vehicles was 114,000, up 75.7%
year-on-year; and that of buses was 54,000, down 10.% year-on-year.
Private purchase has become the main driver for market growth, and the
market share of new energy private cars has reached a new high.
According to the National Monitoring and Management Platform data (Fig. 2.20),
the proportion of access volume of new energy private cars showed a rapid growth
trend. In 2021, the annual access volume of private cars accounted for more than
70% of NEVs, and private purchase has become the main driver for market growth.
Comparatively speaking, the access share of other types of vehicles declined rela-
tively in 2021. According to the changes in the past two years, the annual access share
of e-taxis and cars for sharing increased slightly, while that of buses and logistics
vehicles in commercial vehicles decreased in 2021.
Stimulated by the countryside NEV promotionpolicy and diversified product
supply, the proportion of access volume of new energy private cars in cities of
third-tier or below increased rapidly.
According to data on the National Monitoring and Management Platform
(Fig. 2.21), the market share of first-tier cities decreased relatively. In contrast, the
proportion of access volume of new energy private cars in cities of the third-tier or
below increased rapidly in 2021 compared with the previous two years and accounted
for 42.4%, with an increase of 12.23% compared with 2018, which is mainly driven
by the countryside NEV consumption stimulation policies in various regions. The
countryside NEV promotion has become a highlight of market growth.
From the proportion of access volume of new energy private cars in cities subject
to purchase restrictions and cities not subject to purchase restrictions (Fig. 2.22),
the market share of cities not subject to purchase restrictions increased significantly,
accounting for 66.2%, with an increase of 9.2% compared with 2020.
Table 2.14 Vehicle access volume of key segments
Key segment Access in 2019
(10,000)
Access in 2020
(10,000)
Access in 2021
(10,000)
2021
YoY change (%)
Private car 58.1 59.9 200.0 233.9
e-taxis 2.5 3.5 8.9 156.2
Tax is 9.0 7.3 12.4 70.3
Car for sharing
(time-based renting and
long/short-term renting)
25.0 5.0 8.9 79.4
Logistics vehicle 12.5 6.5 11.4 75.7
Bus 10.6 6.1 5.4 − 10.2
Other types 19.5 10.4 26.2 152.4
Tot al 137.3 98.5 273.2 177.3
2.3 Historical Access Characteristics of NEVs to the National Monitoring … 45
47.2 47.2 42.5
63.1
73.2
3.2
6.7 14.9
1.4
3.2
1.5
3.3
4.8
7.3
4.5
4.8
4.5
3.6
2.5
3.3
18.1 10.5 8.4
6.3
4.2
10.9 11.3 9.3
4.8
2.0
14.4 16.4 16.5 14.6 9.6
0
20
40
60
80
100
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Proportion (%)
Private Car E-taxis Taxis Car for Sharing Bus Logistics Vehicle Others
Fig. 2.20 Proportion of access volume of NEVs in segments over the years
44.6 48.1 45.5 45.5
36.9
20.2
21.8 23.3 16.8
20.7
26.1 20.8 20.3
22.8
24.3
7.5 7.9 8.4 11.6 13.8
1.5 1.4 2.4 3.3 4.3
0
20
40
60
80
100
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Proportion (%)
First-tier City Second-tier City Third-tier City
Fourth-tier City Fifth-tier City
Fig. 2.21 Proportion of access volume of new energy private cars in cities of different tiers
46 2 Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles
43.9 45.0 43.0 43.0
33.8
56.1 55.0 57.0 57.0
66.2
0
20
40
60
80
100
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Proportion (%)
City Subject to Purchase Restriction
City Not Subject to Purchase Restriction
Fig. 2.22 Proportion of access volume of new energy private cars in cities subject to purchase
restrictions and cities not subject to purchase restrictions
2.4 Summary
In 2021, despite various factors such as rising prices of raw materials for power
batteries, shortage of chips, and multiple outbreaks of epidemics in China, the sales of
NEVs still ushered in a good start in the “14th Five-Year Plan”. The NEV industry has
become the highlight in the development of the automobile industry, and has entered
an accelerated development stage and further enhanced its leading role in the elec-
trification of the global automobile industry. According to the vehicle access data on
the National Monitoring and Management Platform over the years, the development
of the NEV presents the following characteristics:
The market demand for NEVs is robust, and the industry development has
entered a new stage driven by the market. As of December 31, 2021, 6,655,000
NEVs had been accessed to the National Monitoring and Management Platform,
including 306 5863 models accessed by 306 enterprises. In typical provinces, Guang-
dong promoted more than 1,000,000 vehicles, becoming the vanguard in the NEV
market promotion in China, accounting for 15.8%. Zhejiang and Shanghai had
promoted more than 500,000 vehicles, accounting for more than 8.0% in China.
The regional concentration of NEV promotion is decreasing yearly, and the
market share of second-tier cities and below is expanding rapidly. In 2021, the
sales of NEVs in cities of each tier showed a significant increase, and the share of
vehicle promotion in second-tier cities and below expanded rapidly, from 51.6% in
2017 to 61.9% in 2021. The scale of vehicle promotion in cities not subject to purchase
restrictions, such as Suzhou, Wenzhou, Changsha, and Ningbo, had proliferated.
The private purchase has become the main driver for market growth, and
the market share of new energy private cars has reached a new high.From
2.4 Summary 47
the proportion of access volume of vehicles of different types over the years, the
proportion of access volume of new energy private cars showed a rapid growth trend,
and the market share of private purchases exceeded 70% in 2021. Stimulated by the
countryside NEV promotion policy and diversified product supply, the market share
of new energy private cars in cities of fourth-tier or below increased rapidly. In 2021,
the market share of new energy private cars in fourth-tier and fifth-tier cities was
13.8% and 4.3%, respectively, up 6.3% and 2.7% compared with 2017.
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Chapter 3
Technical Progress of Vehicles
This chapter, based on the NEV access characteristics on the National Monitoring
and Management Platform, makes an in-depth analysis of range, vehicle energy
consumption level, power battery technology, and vehicle lightweight characteristics
as focuses and summarizes the technical progress of new energy vehicles, providing
a significant reference for promoting the technological innovation stable industrial
development of NEVs.
3.1 Technical Progress in Range
The range of NEVs is increasing yearly.
According to the changes in the average range of new energy passenger cars in China
over the years (Fig. 3.1), the average range of NEVs of different types is increasing
yearly. In the past three years, the average range of new energy passenger cars has
increased from 270.5 km in 2019 to 320.9 km in 2021. That of BEV passenger cars
was 395 km in 2021, a slightly increased compared with 2020, mainly due to the
rapid release of small BEV passenger cars such as Hongguang MINIEV in 2021,
showing an overall stable annual change in range of BEV passenger cars; that of
PHEV passenger cars showed an increasing trend yearly, reaching 86 km in 2021,
with a YoY increase of 25.5%.
The BEV passenger cars with a range of more than 400 km are dominant,
while the BEV passenger cars with a range of less than 200 km are increasing
rapidly.
According to the changes in the average range of BEV passenger cars (Fig. 3.2),
the proportion of BEV passenger cars with a low range has shown a rapid growth
trend in recent years. The proportion of BEV passenger cars with a range of less than
200 km has increased from 6.7% in 2020 to 20.4% in 2021, mainly due to the rapid
growth of the number of small BEV passenger cars; the distribution of vehicles with
© China Machine Press Co., Ltd. 2024
Z. Wang, Annual Report on the Big Data of New Energy Vehicle in China (2022),
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6411-6_3
49
50 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
270.5
372
67.6
300.3
394
68.5
320.9
395
86
0
100
200
300
400
500
NEV passen
g
er cars BEV passen
g
er cars PHEV passen
g
er cars
Average range (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.1 Changes in the average range of NEVs of different types over the years
54.0
3.7 6.7
20.4
22.4
18.9 7.9
6.0
21.0
43.5
26.7
18.1
2.6
33.9
58.7 55.4
0
20
40
60
80
100
2018 2019 2020 2021
Proportion (%)
<200km 200-300km 300-400km 400km
Fig. 3.2 Distribution of BEV passenger cars in different range sections. Note The sum of the
proportion of vehicles in different range sections of each year equals 100%, which is the same as
below
a high range of more than 400 km gradually dominates the market, with a market
share of 55.4% in 2021.
The range of Class A and above cars and BEV SUVs has increased rapidly.
According to the changes in the average range of BEV passenger cars of different
classes (Fig. 3.3), the range of the cars of Class A and above and SUV BEV passenger
cars has increased rapidly yearly. In 2021, the average range of A0 + A00 cars was
245.1 km, which decreased by 13.8% compared with 2020. The range of A0 + A00
cars no longer pursued mileage growth but pursued cost performance on the premise
3.2 Progress in Lightweight Technology 51
228.8
344.9
376.3 363.1
284.2
366.3
443.1
389.1
245.1
448.20
569.9
479.8
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Class A0+A00 Class A Class B and above SUV
Average range (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.3 Distribution of average range of BEV passenger cars of different classes
of meeting daily transportation needs and being close to the actual application needs
of NEVs; the average range of cars of Class A was 448.2 km, with an increase of
22.4% compared with 2020; the average range of cars of Class B and above was
569.9 km, with an increase of 28.6% compared with 2020, showing a faster growth
when compared with the range of vehicles of different classes; the average range of
SUV was 479.8 km, with an increase of 23.3% compared with 2020.
3.2 Progress in Lightweight Technology
The curb weight of new energy passenger cars in 2021 has slightly decreased
compared with 2020, and the average curb weight of vehicles in the industry
has remained stable in the past three years.
According to the average curb weight of NEVs in China over the years (Table 3.1),
the average curb weight of new energy passenger cars in 2021 was 1471.1 kg, with
a slight decrease compared with 2020. Mainly due to the decrease in curb weight of
BEV cars of Class A0 and below, PHEV cars of Class A, and SUVs, the overall curb
weight level of new energy passenger cars has been reduced.
Table 3.1 Changes in average curb weight of new energy passenger cars over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
New energy passenger car
Average curb weight (kg)
1477.0 1486.3 1471.1
52 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
Table 3.2 Changes in
average curb weight of BEV
passenger cars over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
BEV passenger car
Average curb weight (kg)
1457.2 1441.0 1378.1
The lightweight technology of BEV passenger cars has achieved significant
progress, especially the small BEV passenger cars.
According to the changes in the average curb weight of BEV passenger cars over
the years (Table 3.2), the average curb weight of BEV passenger cars in 2021 was
1378.1 kg, with a decrease compared with the previous two years.
For cars of different classes (Fig. 3.4), the lightweight technology of Class A00 +
A0 cars has made significant progress, and the average curb weight of Class A cars
in 2021 remained the same as the previous year; the average curb weight of Class
B and above cars and SUVs in 2021 had improved compared with 2020, suggesting
that more intensive research on lightweight technology is required. Overall, BEV
passenger cars have higher requirements for lightweight and have become a suitable
carrier for the industrialization of aluminum alloy and carbon fiber composite mate-
rials. With the gradual decline in the cost of lightweight materials, this segment will
provide a rich experience for the broad application of lightweight technology in the
traditional automobile industry.
The curb weight of PHEV passenger cars has decreased compared with the
previous year.
According to the changes in the average curb weight of PHEV passenger cars
over the years (Table 3.3), the average curb weight of PHEV passenger cars in 2021
was 1851.3 kg, with a slight decrease compared with 2020. According to the average
distribution of curb weight of PHEV passenger cars of different classes (Fig. 3.5), it
can be seen that the average curb weight of Class A cars has shown a decreasing trend
yearly, while the curb weight of SUVs has significantly decreased compared with
the previous year; the average curb weight of Class B and above cars has proliferated
over the years.
3.3 Changes in Energy Consumption Over the Years
The energy consumption level refers to the average electricity consumption of
BEVs every 100 km in the operating environment, expressed in kWh/100 km. The
calculation formula is as follows:
βbev = Q
L × 100
where βbev is the electricity consumption per 100 km (kWh/100 km) of an electric
vehicle in the actual operating environment, Q is the electricity consumption (kWh)
of the electric vehicle, and L is the mileage (km).
3.3 Changes in Energy Consumption Over the Years 53
1022.4
1604.7 1623.5
1661.2
964.8
1570.8 1635.8
1746.3
914.7
1582.9
1947.4
1815.6
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Class A00+A0 Class A Class B and above SUV
Average Curb Weight (kg)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.4 Changes in average curb weight of BEV passenger cars of different classes over the years
54 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
Table 3.3 Changes in curb weight of PHEV passenger cars over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
PHEV passenger car
Average curb weight (kg)
1661.7 1891.5 1851.3
1610.8 1541.1
1832.7
1571.7 1651.5
2145.4
1549.3
1970.1 1951.4
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Class A Class B and above SUV
Average curb weight (kg)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.5 Changes in average curb weight of PHEV passenger cars of different classes over the
years
This section, according to the actual operation condition of NEVs on the National
Monitoring and Management Platform, summarizes the electricity consumption
of BEV passenger cars, buses, and logistics vehicles and analyzes the electricity
consumption characteristics of vehicles of different types under different road condi-
tions, providing a significant reference for promoting the technical progress of new
energy vehicles in China.
3.3.1 Energy Consumption Evaluation of BEV Passenger
Cars
1. Energy consumption evaluation of BEV passenger cars in various regions of
China
The average energy consumption of passenger cars in 2021 was 14.6 kWh/
100 km, with a decrease of 7.6% compared with the previous year (Table 3.4).
SGMW, Dongfeng Liuzhou, Chery, and other enterprises mainly producing small
passenger cars have the lowest energy consumption level. The average energy
3.3 Changes in Energy Consumption Over the Years 55
Table 3.4 Average energy consumption of passenger cars over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average energy consumption of passenger cars (kWh/100 km) 16 15.8 14.6
consumption of SGMW passenger cars in 2021 was 9.4 kWh/100 km, significantly
lower than that of other enterprises (Fig. 3.6).
According to the comparison of the average energy consumption of BEV
passenger cars in different regions in 2021 (Fig. 3.7), the energy consumption level
of BEV passenger cars in Northeast China, North China, and Northwest China was
relatively high, and the vehicle energy consumption level was more than 15 kWh/
100 km. The energy consumption level of BEV passenger cars in Central China was
14.1 kWh/100 km, which was lower than that in other regions.
(1) Northeast China
In the past three years, the energy consumption level of BEV passenger cars of
all classes in Northeast China has shown a downward trend.
The average energy consumption of passenger cars in Northeast China in 2021
was 15.9 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 14.1% compared with the previous year
(Table 3.5). According to the energy consumption level of passenger cars of different
classes in Northeast China, the overall energy consumption level of passenger cars
of different classes showed a downward trend from 2019 to 2021 (Fig. 3.8). The
average energy consumption of Class A00 + A0 cars in 2021 was 11 kWh/100 km,
with a decrease of 23.1% compared with 2020 and 29.5% compared with 2019; that
of Class A cars in 2021 was 16.1 kWh/100 km, which was the same as that in 2020
and a decrease of 4.7% compared with 2019; that of Class B and above BEV cars
in 2021 was 16 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 5.9% compared with 2020; that of
11.3
11.6
9.9
13.9 13.4
10.6 12.0
10.6 11.0 11.9
13.2
14.8
13.3
9.4
10.0
10.7
11.5 11.9 11.9 12.3 12.9
13.3 13.4
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
SGMW Dongfeng
Liuzhou
Chery Enterprise
4
Enterprise
5
Enterprise
6
Enterprise
7
Enterprise
8
Enterprise
9
Enterprise
10
Consumption
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.6 Average energy consumption of key passenger car enterprises
56 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
15.9
15.2 14.8 14.6
14.1
15.6
14.7
5
10
15
20
Northeast China North China East China South China Central China Northwest China Southwest China
Consumption (kWh/100km)
Fig. 3.7 Average energy consumption of BEV passenger cars in various regions of China in 2021
BEV SUVs in 2021 was 20.1 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 2.4% compared with
2020 and 2.4% compared with 2019.
(2) North China
The energy consumption level of BEV passenger cars in North China has been
declining, and that of Class A00 + A0 cars and Class B and above cars has
declined significantly.
The average energy consumption of passenger cars in North China in 2021 was
15.2 kWh/100 km, a decrease of 6.7% compared with the previous year (Table 3.6).
According to the average energy consumption of passenger cars of different classes
in North China (Fig. 3.9), from 2019 to 2021, Class A00 + A0 cars and Class B
and above cars showed a significant downward trend. In 2021, the average energy
consumption of Class A00 + A0 cars in North China was 10.8 kWh/100 km, with
a decrease of 9.2% compared with the previous year, and that of Class B and above
BEV cars in North China was 15.6 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 4.9% compared
with the previous year. The average energy consumption of Class A cars and SUVs
increased in 2021. Among them, the average energy consumption of Class A cars in
North China in 2021 was 16 kWh/100 km, with an increase of 1.9% compared with
the previous year, and that of BEV SUVs in North China was 18.6 kWh/100 km,
with an increase of 2.8% compared with the previous year.
Table 3.5 Average energy consumption of passenger cars in Northeast China over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average energy consumption of passenger cars (kWh/100 km) 19.5 18.5 15.9
3.3 Changes in Energy Consumption Over the Years 57
15.6
17.2
20.6
14.3
16.4 17
20.6
11
16.4 16
20.1
0
5
10
15
20
25
Class A00+A0 Class A Class B and above SUV
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.8 Average energy consumption of passenger cars of different classes in Northeast China
Table 3.6 Average energy consumption of passenger cars in North China
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average energy consumption of passenger cars (kWh/100 km) 16.6 16.3 15.2
13.4
16.2
21.8
17.6
11.9
15.7 16.4
18.1
10.8
16 15.6
18.6
0
5
10
15
20
25
Class A00+A0 Class A Class B and above SUV
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.9 Average energy consumption of passenger cars of different classes in North China
58 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
(3) East China
In recent three years, the energy consumption level of passenger cars in East
China has shown a downward trend, and the energy consumption level of Class
A00 + A0 cars and Class B and above cars has shown a significant downward
trend.
In 2021, the average energy consumption of BEV passenger cars in East China was
14.8 kWh/100 km, a decrease of 6.9% compared with the previous year (Table 3.7).
According to the average energy consumption of passenger cars of different classes
(Fig. 3.10), Class A00 + A0 cars and Class B and above cars showed an apparent
downward trend. In 2021, the average energy consumption of Class A00 + A0 cars
in East China was 10.5 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 8.7% compared with the
previous year, and that of Class B and above BEV cars in East China was 15.6 kWh/
100 km, with a decrease of 1.3% compared with the previous year. In the field of
passenger cars of other classes, the average energy consumption of Class A cars in
2021 was 16.2 kWh/100 km, with an increase of 2.5% compared with the previous
year, and that of BEV SUVs was 19 kWh/100 km, with an increase of 0.5% compared
with 2020.
(4) South China
In 2021, the energy consumption level of passenger cars in South China has
declined, and that of Class A00 + A0 cars has declined significantly.
The average energy consumption of passenger cars in North China in 2021
was 15.2 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 5.8% compared with the previous year
(Table 3.8). In the recent three years, the average energy consumption of Class A00 +
A0 cars in South China has shown a significant downward trend (Fig. 3.11). In 2021,
the average energy consumption of Class A00 + A0 cars was 10.2 kWh/100 km,
with a decrease of 1% compared with 2020 and 13.6% compared with 2019, and
that of Class A cars was 15.7 kWh/100 km, with an increase of 3.3% compared
with 2020 and 5.4% compared with 2019. From the distribution of average power
consumption over the years, in 2021, the average power consumption of Class B
and above BEV cars was 15.9 kWh/100 km, with an increase of 3.2% compared
with 2020 and a decrease of 2.5% compared with 2019, and that of BEV SUVs was
18.2 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 0.5% compared with 2020 and an increase of
2.2% compared with 2019.
Table 3.7 Average energy consumption of passenger cars in East China
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average energy consumption of passenger cars (kWh/100 km) 16.0 15.9 14.8
3.3 Changes in Energy Consumption Over the Years 59
13.8
15.7
18.7 18.5
11.5
15.8 15.8
18.9
10.5
16.2 15.6
19
0
5
10
15
20
Class A00+A0 Class A Class B and above SUV
Comsumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.10 Average energy consumption of passenger cars of different classes in East China
Table 3.8 Average energy consumption of passenger cars in South China
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average energy consumption of passenger cars (kWh/100 km) 15.4 15.5 14.6
11.8
14.9
16.3
17.8
10.3
15.2 15.4
18.3
10.2
15.7 15.9
18.2
0
5
10
15
20
Class A00+A0 Class A Class B and above SUV
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.11 Average energy consumption of passenger cars of different classes in South China
60 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
(5) Central China
The energy consumption of BEV passenger cars in Central China has shown a
significant downward trend, so do Class A00 + A0 cars and Class B and above
cars.
The average energy consumption of passenger cars in North China in 2021
was 15.2 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 5.8% compared with the previous year
(Table 3.9). According to the average energy consumption of passenger cars of
different classes (Fig. 3.12), from 2019 to 2021, Class A00 + A0 cars and Class
B and above cars showed a significant downward trend. In 2021, the average energy
consumption of Class A00 +A0 cars was 10 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 11.5%
compared with 2020 and 24.8% compared with 2019, and that of Class B and above
BEV cars was 15.6 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 2.5% compared with 2020
and 27.1% compared with 2019. In the BEV Class A cars and SUVs, the energy
consumption per 100 km has increased. In 2021, the average energy consumption of
Class A cars was 16.2 kWh/100 km, with an increase of 3.2% compared with 2020
and 3.2% compared with 2019, and that of BEV SUVs was 18 kWh/100 km, which
was the same as in 2020 and an increase of 4% compared with 2019.
(6) Northwest China
In recent three years, the average energy consumption of Class A00 + A0
cars and Class B and above cars in Northwest China has shown a significant
downward trend.
The average energy consumption of passenger cars in North China in 2021 was
15.2 kWh/100 km, a decrease of 6.6% compared with the previous year (Table 3.10).
According to the average energy consumption of passenger cars of different classes
(Fig. 3.13), from 2019 to 2021, Class A00 + A0 cars and Class B and above cars
showed a significant downward trend. In 2021, the average energy consumption of
Class A00 + A0 cars was 10 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 9.9% compared
with 2020 and 29.1% compared with 2019, and that of Class B and above BEV
cars was 15.6 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 4.9% compared with 2020 and 22.4%
compared with 2019. In 2021, the average power consumption of SUVs was the same
as in 2020, which was 19.2 kWh/100 km; that of Class A cars slightly increased to
17.2 kWh/100 km, with an increase of 4.2% compared with 2020.
Table 3.9 Average energy consumption of passenger cars in Central China
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average energy consumption of passenger cars (kWh/100 km) 15.1 14.8 14.1
Table 3.10 Average energy consumption of passenger cars in Northwest China
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average energy consumption of passenger cars (kWh/100 km) 16.7 16.7 15.6
3.3 Changes in Energy Consumption Over the Years 61
13.3
15.7
21.4
17.3
11.3
15.7 16
18
10
16.2 15.6
18
0
5
10
15
20
25
Class A00+A0 Class A Class B and above SUV
Consumptin (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.12 Average energy consumption of passenger cars of different classes in Central China
14.1
16.4
20.1
17.8
11.1
16.5 16.4
19.2
10
17.2
15.6
19.2
0
5
10
15
20
25
Class A00+A0 Class A Class B and above SUV
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.13 Average energy consumption of passenger cars of different classes in Northwest China
(7) Southwest China
In 2021, the energy consumption level of passenger cars in Southwest China
has significantly decreased compared with the previous year, with a significant
downward trend in the energy consumption of Class A00 + A0 cars, Class A
cars, Class B and above cars.
The average energy consumption of passenger cars in North China in 2021
was 15.2 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 9.3% compared with the previous year
(Table 3.11). According to the average energy consumption of passenger cars of
different classes (Fig. 3.14), the average energy consumption of Class A00 + A0
cars, Class A cars, and Class B and above cars showed a significant downward trend
62 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
Table 3.11 Average energy consumption of passenger cars in Southwest China
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average energy consumption of passenger cars (kWh/100 km) 15.9 16.2 14.7
13.2
15.4
19.2
17.6
11
16.2 15.3
18.1
10
16 15.1
18.2
0
5
10
15
20
25
Class A00+A0 Class A Class B and above SUV
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.14 Average energy consumption of passenger cars of different classes in Southwest China
in 2021. In 2021, the average energy consumption of Class A00 + A0 cars was
10 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 9.1% compared with 2020 and 24.2% compared
with 2019; that of Class A cars was 16 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 1.2%
compared with 2020; that of Class B and above BEV cars was 15.1 kWh/100 km,
with a decrease of 1.3% compared with 2020 and 21.4% compared with 2019. In
2021, the average power consumption of BEV SUVs slightly increased to 18.2 kWh/
100 km, with an increase of 0.6% compared with 2020.
2. Energy Consumption Evaluation of BEV Passenger Cars of Different
Classes
(1) Vehicles by Class
The energy consumption of Class A00 + A0 cars in 2021 was 10.4 kWh/100 km,
with a decrease of 16.1% compared with the previous year.
The average energy consumption of Class A00 + A0 cars in 2021 was 10.4 kWh/
100 km, with a decrease of 16.1% compared to 2020 and 18.8% compared with 2019
(Table 3.12). From the perspective of key vehicle models, in 2021, Class A00 + A0
cars like Hongguang MINI EV, Ant, and ORA Black Cat had relatively low energy
consumption levels of 9.0 kWh/100 km, 10.3 kWh/100 km and 10.6 kWh/100 km,
respectively (Fig. 3.15).
The average energy consumption of Class A cars in 2021 was 16.1 kWh/
100 km, with an increase of 14.2% compared with the previous year.
3.3 Changes in Energy Consumption Over the Years 63
Table 3.12 Average energy consumption of Class A00 + A0 cars over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average energy consumption of Class A00 + A0 cars (kWh/100 km) 12.8 12.4 10.4
11.5
9.8
10.9 11.3
13.6
10.0
10.3
10.8 10.7
10.1
11.0
11.6 11.7
12.1
11.7
9.0
10.3
10.6 10.7
10.7
10.8
11.0 11.0
11.4
11.5
0
3
6
9
12
15
Hongguang
MINI EV
Ant ORA Black
Cat
Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 Model 8 Model 9 Model 10
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.15 Average energy consumption of key models of Class A00 + A0 cars
The average energy consumption of Class A cars in 2021 was 16.1 kWh/100 km,
with an increase of 14.2% compared with 2020 and 11.8% compared with 2019
(Table 3.13). From the perspective of key models, in 2021, the energy consumption
levels of Class A cars like LAFESTA EV, BYD e2, and BYD e3 were relatively
low, at 13.3 kWh/100 km, 13.6 kWh/100 km, and 13.9 kWh/100 km, respectively
(Fig. 3.16).
In 2021, the energy consumption of Class B and above BEV cars was
15.6 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 7.7% compared with the previous year.
From the distribution of vehicle energy consumption over the years, the average
energy consumption of Class B and above BEV cars in 2021 was 15.6 kWh/100 km,
with a decrease of 7.7% compared with 2020 and 20.4% compared with 2019
(Table 3.14). From the perspective of key models, MODEL 3, WM Motor E5, and
BYD Han EV in 2021 were at low average energy consumption levels of 15.0 kWh/
100 km, 15.9 kWh/100 km, and 17.1 kWh/100 km, respectively (Fig. 3.17).
The average energy consumption of BEV SUVs in 2021 was 18.7 kWh/100 km,
with an increase of 3.3% compared with the previous year.
Table 3.13 Average energy consumption of Class A cars over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average energy consumption of Class A cars (kWh/100 km) 14.4 14.1 16.1
64 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
15.7 14.9
15.4
13.6 13.4 13.1
14.8 14.7 14.9
18.5
13.3
13.6
13.9 14.1 14.1 14.3 14.4 14.4 14.5 14.9
0
5
10
15
20
LAFESTA EV BYD e2 BYD e3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 Model 8 Model 9 Model 10
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.16 Average energy consumption of key models of Class A cars
Table 3.14 Average energy consumption of Class B and above BEV cars over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average energy consumption of Class B and above cars (kWh/100 km) 19.6 16.9 15.6
15.0
15.9
17.1 17.5 17.6
18.6
20.0
21.8
15.0
15.9
17.1 17.5 17.6 18.6
20.0
21.8
0
5
10
15
20
25
MODEL 3 WM Motor E5 BYD Han EV Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 Model 8
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2021 2021
Fig. 3.17 Average energy consumption of key models of Class B and above cars
3.3 Changes in Energy Consumption Over the Years 65
In 2021, the average energy consumption of BEV SUVs was 18.7 kWh/100 km,
with an increase of 3.3% compared with 2020 and 1.1% compared with 2019
(Table 3.15). From the perspective of key SUV models (Fig. 3.18), Fengxing T1
EV, Nezha N01, and Qichen E30 in 2021 were at relatively low energy consumption
levels of 9.8 kWh/100 km, 11.0 kWh/100 km, and 11.2 kWh/100 km, respectively.
(2) Vehicles by Field of Operation
In the field of BEV passenger cars, the energy consumption level of operating
vehicles is generally higher than that of non-operating vehicles.
In 2021, the energy consumption level of BEV passenger cars operating at different
speeds was generally higher than that of non-operating BEV passenger cars, espe-
cially in the lower and higher speed ranges. There is a significant difference in energy
consumption levels between operating and non-operating vehicles at the same speed
(Fig. 3.19). The vehicle power consumption curve shows an apparent U-curve from
the energy consumption distribution of vehicles in various fields at different speed
ranges. Among them, the economic speed range is between 50 km/h and 70 km/h,
and the energy consumption level of vehicles in this speed range is relatively low.
Table 3.15 Average energy consumption of SUVs over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average energy consumption of SUVs (kWh/100 km) 18.5 18.1 18.7
13.4
16.0
11.3
11.9 11.9
13.3 13.7 13.4
16.5 16.7
9.8
11.0 11.2
11.9
13.2
13.2 13.3 13.3
13.9 14.2
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
Fengxing T1
EV
Nezha N01 Qichen E30 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 Model 8 Model 9 Model 10
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.18 Average energy consumption of key models of SUVs
66 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
10
15
20
25
30
Consumption (kWh/100km)
Speed (km/h)
Private cars Passenger cars
Fig. 3.19 Distribution of energy consumption of passenger cars in different operating scenarios in
2021
3.3.2 Energy Consumption Evaluation of BEV Buses
In 2021, the energy consumption of buses was 58.9 kWh/100 km, with a decrease
of 2.5% compared with the previous year.
The average energy consumption of buses in 2021 was 58.9 kWh/100 km, a
decrease of 2.5% compared with 2020 (Table 3.16). From the perspective of bus types,
the energy consumption level of interurban buses in 2021 was lower than that of other
types of buses (Fig. 3.20). From the changes in energy consumption of various vehicle
models over the years (Fig. 3.21), it can be seen that the energy consumption level of
interurban buses and public buses in 2021 showed a downward trend compared with
the previous year. The average energy consumption of interurban buses in 2021 was
54.7 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 4.8% compared with 2020, and that of public
buses was 67.7 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 8% compared with 2020.
The energy consumption of BEV buses with different lengths varies greatly,
and in 2021, the energy consumption of buses with different lengths has
decreased compared with 2020.
According to different types of BEV buses with different lengths (Fig. 3.22),
the longer the length, the higher the energy consumption level. The overall energy
consumption level of BEV buses over 8 m long remains above 50 kWh/100 km,
while that of BEV buses over 12 m long is about 100 kWh/100 km. From different
years, the energy consumption level of BEV buses in different length sections in
2021 decreased compared with 2020. In 2021, the energy consumption of BEV
buses less than 6 m and 6–8 m long was 38.6 kWh/100 km and 44.6 kWh/100 km,
Table 3.16 Average energy consumption of buses over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average energy consumption of buses (kWh/100 km) 59.0 60.4 58.9
3.3 Changes in Energy Consumption Over the Years 67
69.7
59.1
71.9
54.5
57.5 55.9
73.6 70.7
54.7 56.6
67.7 70.9
0
20
40
60
80
Interurban buses Commuter coaches Buses Touring coaches
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.20 Average energy consumption of BEV buses in different scenarios
42.7
62.3
55.9
64.1
70.0
67.7
56.7
65.9
76.6
51.4
59.4
63.4
49.8
71.6
68.5
57.1
73.7
68.7
40.6
54.0
57.0 57.5
61.9 63.4 64.2 64.9
65.5
66.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Dongfeng Motor Ankai
Automobile
Yutong Bus Enterprise 4 Enterprise 5 Enterprise 6 Enterprise 7 Enterprise 8 Enterprise 9 Enterprise 10
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.21 Average energy consumption of key bus enterprises
respectively, with a slight decrease compared with the previous year. The average
energy consumption of BEV buses of 8–10 m long was 55.9 kWh/100 km, with a
decrease of 9.5% compared with the previous year; that of BEV buses of 10–12 m
long was 80.3 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 7.3% compared with the previous
year; and that of BEV buses more than 12 m long was 98.3 kWh/100 km, with a
decrease of 5.9% compared with the previous year.
By region, the energy consumption level of BEV buses in Southwest China is
generally lower than that of other regions.
According to energy consumption levels of BEV buses in different regions
(Fig. 3.23), the energy consumption levels of BEV buses in Northeast China are
generally higher than those in other regions in various years. In 2021, the average
energy consumption of BEV buses in Northeast China was 77.6 kWh/100 km, with
68 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
43.6 40.3
56.8
82.1
102.2
39
45
61.8
86.6
104.5
38.6
44.6
55.9
80.3
98.3
0
30
60
90
120
< 6 m 6-8 m 8-10 m 10-12 m > 12 m
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.22 Average energy consumption of BEV buses with different lengths
79.8 82.1
66.2
79.7
61.3 58.5 63.0
85.5 85.3
71.3 79.4 72.5 72.8 72.5
77.6
72.1 66.6 66.3 63.5
68.9
59.4
0
20
40
60
80
100
Northeast China North China East China South China Central China Northwest China Southwest China
kWh/100km
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.23 Average energy consumption of BEV buses in different regions
a decrease of 9.2% compared with the previous year. In other regions, the energy
consumption level of BEV buses in Southwest China in 2021 was relatively low, at
59.4 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 18.1% compared with the previous year.
In the field of BEV buses, the energy consumption level of buses shows an
apparent U-shaped curve at different speeds, with an economical speed ranging
from 50 to 70 km/h.
The energy consumption distribution of BEV buses in 2021 showed an apparent
U-shaped curve at different speeds (Fig. 3.24). The vehicles maintain a high level
of energy consumption in low-speed ranges below 30 km/h and high-speed ranges
above 100 km/h. The buses have a low energy consumption level in the 50 to 70 km/
h, which is the economical speed range.
3.3 Changes in Energy Consumption Over the Years 69
10
30
50
70
90
110
130
Consumption (kWh/100km)
Speed (km/h)
Fig. 3.24 Energy consumption distribution of BEV buses in different speed ranges in 2021
3.3.3 Energy Consumption Evaluation of BEV Logistics
Vehicles
In 2020, the energy consumption of BEV logistics vehicles was 30.1 kWh/100 km,
with a decrease of 10.9% compared with the previous year.
This section s elects 43 companies with an annual sales volume of over 1000
logistics vehicles. The calculation results show that the average energy consump-
tion of BEV logistics vehicles in 2021 was 30.1 kWh/100 km, with a decrease
of 10.9% compared with 2020 (Table 3.17). From the distribution of key logis-
tics vehicle enterprises (Fig. 3.25), the energy consumption of such enterprises as
Changan Automobile, Chongqing Ruichi, and Chery was low in 2021.
The heavier the total mass of the vehicle, the higher the energy consumption
of the vehicle.
From the average energy consumption of BEV logistics vehicles in different
tonnage ranges over the years (Fig. 3.26), the higher the vehicle’s total mass, the
higher the vehicle’s energy consumption. The average energy consumption of BEV
logistics vehicles with a capacity of over 12t is significantly higher than those in other
ranges. According to the changes in the energy consumption of vehicles in different
ranges over the years, the energy consumption of vehicles in each range showed a
downward trend in 2021. In 2021, the average energy consumption of BEV logistics
vehicles below 4.5t was 25.4 kWh/100 km, with a YoY decrease of 6.3%; that of
Table 3.17 Average energy consumption of logistics vehicles over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average energy consumption of logistics vehicles (kWh/100 km) 33.3 33.8 30.1
70 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
20.6
25.0
18.7
21.5
20.7
25.0
17.8
21.2
23.0
15.9
24.4
20.0 20.6 22.2
23.0
25.0
22.1
23.7
18.1 18.8 19.0 19.1 19.5 19.7 21.3 22.2
22.3
26.00
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.25 Average energy consumption of key logistics vehicle enterprises
27
63.9
230
27.1
50.4
233.4
25.4
46.8
181.6
0
50
100
150
200
250
< 4.5t 4.5t-12t >12t
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.26 Average energy consumption of BEV logistics vehicles in different tonnage ranges
4.5-12t BEV logistics vehicles was 46.8 kWh/100 km, with a YoY decrease of 7.1%;
that of BEV logistics vehicles over 12t was 181.6 kWh/100 km, with a YoY decrease
of 22.2%.
The overall energy consumption of BEV vehicles in Northeast China is
significantly higher than that in other regions.
3.3 Changes in Energy Consumption Over the Years 71
42
30.4
24.5
28 27.6
26.7
30.5
37.5
30.5
24.7 26.8 27.3
31.2
29.2
31.5
30.7
24 24.4
28.8
26.4
24.8
0
10
20
30
40
50
Northeast China North China East China S outh China Central China Northwest China Sou thwest China
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.27 Average energy consumption of BEV logistics vehicles in different regions
According to the energy consumption of BEV logistics vehicles in different
regions (Fig. 3.27), the average energy consumption of BEV logistics vehicles in
Northeast China in 2021 was 31.5 kWh/100 km, significantly higher than that in
other regions. The energy consumption in East China, South China, and Southwest
China remains low, and the energy consumption was below 25 kWh/100 km in 2021.
According to the changes in energy consumption in various regions over the years,
the energy consumption of vehicles in Northeast China, East China, Northwest China,
and Southwest China in 2021 declined on a YoY basis. In 2021, the average energy
consumption of BEV logistics vehicles in Northeast China was 31.5 kWh/100 km,
with a YoY decrease of 16%; that of BEV logistics vehicles in East China was
24 kWh/100 km, with a YoY decrease of 2.8%; that of BEV logistics vehicles in
South China was 24.4 kWh/100 km, with a YoY decrease of 9% compared with the
previous year; that of BEV logistics vehicles in Northwest China was 26.4 kWh/
100 km, with a decrease of 15.4% compared with the previous year; that of BEV
logistics vehicles in Southwest China was 24.8 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of
15.1% compared with the previous year.
In the field of BEV logistics vehicles, the economic speed range is relatively
wide, and the energy consumption of vehicles in the 50–80 km/h range is less
than 30 kWh.
In 2021, BEV logistics vehicles had higher energy consumption in low-speed
ranges below 20 km/h and high-speed ranges above 110 km/h, both above 40 kWh/
100 km (Fig. 3.28). The speed of BEV logistics vehicles was above 20 km/h, and
the energy consumption of vehicles gradually decreased, reaching the range of 50–
80 km/h. The energy consumption of BEV logistics vehicles per 100 km was less
than 30 kWh, which was in the economic speed range.
72 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
COnsumption (kWh/100km)
Speed (km/h)
Fig. 3.28 Energy consumption distribution of BEV logistics vehicles in different speed ranges in
2021
3.4 Annual Technical Characteristics of Power Batteries
3.4.1 Power Battery Industry Status Quo
As of the end of 2021, the cumulative installed power capacity of power batteries
accessed to the National Traceability Platform is 418.6 GWh.
The National Monitoring and Power Battery Recycling and Utilization Trace-
ability Integrated Management Platform for New Energy Vehicles (hereinafter
referred to as “National Traceability Platform”) takes new energy vehicles as the
reporting subject under the traceability rules of information of new energy vehicle
power battery, and the management links involved include production (vehicle
production, i.e., battery installation stage), sales, maintenance, out-of-service. Each
link records the complete lifecycle traceability information of power batteries from
installation and use to out-of-service and recycling.
According to the analysis of data collected on the National Traceability Plat-
form and based on vehicle production time statistics, as of December 31, 2021, a
total of 8.681 million new energy vehicles have been accessed, with 12.354 million
supporting battery packs and over 418.6GWh supporting battery capacity (Fig. 3.29).
As of December 31, 2021, the TOP10 vehicle production enterprises with battery
access to the National Traceability Platform have 4.735 million battery packs
accessed, with an installed power capacity of 171.0 GWh, accounting for 49.6%
of China’s installed power capacity (Fig. 3.30). Among them, BYD Auto (including
BYD Automobile Industry Co., Ltd. and BYD Auto Co., Ltd.), Tesla (Shanghai) Co.,
Ltd. and Zhengzhou Yutong rank the top three regarding the battery access. BYD
has a battery access proportion of up to 18.6%, with a high market concentration.
According to the battery installation enterprises corresponding to the vehicle
manufacturers on the National Traceability Platform (Table 3.18), BYD Auto mainly
3.4 Annual Technical Characteristics of Power Batteries 73
57.0
95.2
154.6
219.3
277.1
418.6
0
100
200
300
400
500
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021.0
Installed power capacity (GWh)
Fig. 3.29 Accumulated installed power capacity of power batteries accessed to the National Trace-
ability Platform over the years. Note There is a small time lag in the access volume of new energy
vehicles on the National Traceability Platform, and the installed power capacity data over the years
has been updated
63.91
18.40 17.11
11.61 11.29 11.19 10.94 10.18 8.69 7.66
15.3
4.4 4.1
2.8 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.1 1.8
0
5
10
15
20
25
0
20
40
60
80
Cumulative installed power capacity (GWh)
Installed power capacity (%) Proportion (%)
Fig. 3.30 Cumulative installed power capacity of the TOP10 vehicle manufacturers with battery
access
relies on its battery supply; other vehicle manufacturers take CATL as the leading
battery supplier, and there is a trend of supplier diversification.
From the perspective of battery manufacturers, as of December 31, 2021, the
cumulative installed power capacity of the TOP10 battery suppliers in China was
248.7 GWh, accounting for 72.2% of the total cumulative power capacity in China,
74 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
Table 3.18 Overview of main battery suppliers corresponding to vehicle manufacturers
Vehicle manufacturer Main battery installation enterprises
BYD Automobile Industry Co., Ltd.
BYD Auto Co., Ltd.
BYD, Chongqing FinDreams
Tesla (Shanghai) Co., Ltd. CATL, Panasonic, LG Chem
Zhengzhou Yutong Bus Co., Ltd. CATL, MGL, Lishen Battery
NIO Co., Ltd. ZENIO, CATL, XPT (Nanjing) Energy Storage
SGMW Automobile Co., Ltd. SINOEV, Gotion High-Tech, Key Power
GAC Passenger Car Co., Ltd. CALB, CATL
BAIC MOTOR Corporation., Ltd. CATL, Farasis Energy (Ganzhou)
SAIC CATL, United Auto Battery System
Great Wall Motor Company Limited CATL, Svolt
Chongqing Changan Automobile Company
Limited
CALB, CATL, Lishen Battery
with CATL and BYD firmly occupying the top two (Fig. 3.31). Among them, CATL
has the largest cumulative installed battery power capacity, accounting for 34.0% of
the total cumulative power in China. The number of installed vehicles has reached
2.346 million. CATL has continued to explore the international market, and its market
competitiveness has continued to increase. BYD has achieved rapid sales growth and
steadily ranked second in installed power capacity, showing a strong development
trend of a leading enterprise.
3.4.2 Installation Structure Change by Material Type
Ternary battery is still the main body of the power battery market, and the
matching proportion of the LFP battery market has increased significantly.
According to the cumulative installed power capacity structure of power batteries
on the National Traceability Platform (Fig. 3.32), the ternary battery is the mainstream
battery type. As of the end of 2021, ternary batteries’ cumulative installed power
capacity accounted for 55.9%, followed by LFP batteries, accounting for 42.3%.
Regarding the installed power capacity structure of different types of power
batteries over the years (Fig. 3.33), according to the statistics of China Automo-
tive Power Battery Industry Innovation Alliance, in 2021, the market share of LFP
batteries was more substantial than that of ternary batteries, and the installed capacity
of LFP batteries accounted for 51.7%; the installed power capacity of ternary batteries
accounted for 48.1%, with a decrease of 13% compared with 2020. New technologies
such as LFP CTP technology and battery pack internal structure innovation effec-
tively hedge the pressure of rising raw material costs and further boost the promotion
of LFP batteries in a broader range.
3.4 Annual Technical Characteristics of Power Batteries 75
117.0
52.6
18.6 17.9
10.8 7.3 6.8 6.3 5.9 5.5
234.6
111.9
30.1 56.7
19.3 17.1 10.6 21.1
8.4 10.0 0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Installed vehicles (10,000)
Cumulative installed power capacity (GWh)
Installed power capacity (%)
Installed vehicles (10,000)
Fig. 3.31 Cumulative installed power capacity of the TOP10 battery manufacturers
Fig. 3.32 Proportion of
cumulative installed power
capacity of different types of
power batteries
Ternary batteries
55.9%
LFP batteries
42.3%
Others
1.8%
76 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
39 32.5 38.3
51.7
58.2 65.1 61.1
48.1
2.8 2.4 0.6 0.2
0
20
40
60
80
100
2018 2019 2020 2021
Proportion of installed power capacity (%)
LFP batteries Ternary batteries Others
Fig. 3.33 Changes in the proportion of installed power capacity of different types of power batteries over the years
3.4 Annual Technical Characteristics of Power Batteries 77
75
62.7
0.1 0
40.3
8.7
15.1 36
65.2
96.9
44.7
89.1
9.9
1.2
34.8
3.1
15
2.2
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
2020 2021 2020 2021 2020 2021
Passenger car Bus Special vehicle
Proportion of installed power capacity of power batteries (%)
Ternary batteries LFP batteries Others
Fig. 3.34 Structural changes in installed power capacity of power batteries for different types of
vehicles
In the field of passenger cars, the installed power capacity of LFP batteries
has proliferated; in the field of commercial vehicles, the installed power capacity
of LFP batteries is dominant.
The use scenarios will be different because of the different energy density, safety,
and price of batteries made of different materials. According to the changes in the
installed power capacity of power batteries of different types of vehicles on the
National Traceability Platform (Fig. 3.34), in the field of passenger cars, in 2021, the
installed power capacity of ternary batteries accounted for the main proportion, and
that of LFP batteries showed rapid growth, with an increase of 20.9% compared with
36.0% in 2020. In commercial vehicles, LFP batteries have achieved comprehensive
installed coverage due to their advantages in economy and safety.
3.4.3 Change of Installed Structure by Form Type
Power battery companies in China mainly produce square batteries, with a
small share of pouch batteries and cylindrical batteries.
As of December 31, 2021, the cumulative access volume of square batteries on
the National Traceability Platform was the largest, with 9.86 million packs accessed,
with a total power of 299.2 GWh, accounting for the main proportion of the national
78 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
86.9%
11.9%
1.2%
Square batteries
Cylindrical batteries
Pouch batteries
Fig. 3.35 Proportion of cumulative power capacity accessed of different forms of batteries
power battery market at 86.9% (Fig. 3.35). The square battery has a high grouping
rate and energy density, making it more suitable for the current market demand,
followed by cylindrical batteries with relatively mature development technology. A
total of 1.677 million packs of cylindrical batteries have been accessed, with a total
power of 40.9 GWh, accounting for 11.9%. According to the changes in the access
structure of different forms of batteries over the years, the access volume of square
batteries accounted for more than 80% in the past three years, occupying a major
market share (Fig. 3.36).
3.4.4 Change in Energy Density of Power Batteries
From the changes in energy density of power batteries for different types of vehicles
over the years (Fig. 3.37), in the field of BEV passenger cars, the individual energy
density and system energy density of BEV passenger cars in 2021 were 211 Wh/kg
and 149 Wh/kg, respectively, with an increase of 24.85% and 41.90% compared with
2016; in the field of BEV buses, the individual energy density and system energy
density of BEV buses in 2021 were 173 Wh/kg and 154 Wh/kg, respectively, with
an increase of 39.52% and 85.54% compared with 2016. With the improvement of
battery-supporting technology and group efficiency requirements, small modules are
3.5 Summary 79
89.3
80.3
91.8
10.5
18.2
4.6
0.2 1.5 3.6
0
20
40
60
80
100
2019 2020 2021
Proportion (%)
Square batteries Cylindrical batteries Pouch batteries
Fig. 3.36 Proportion of power capacity accessed of different forms of batteries over the years. Note
There is a slight time lag in the access volume of new energy vehicles on the National Traceability
Platform, and the installed power capacity data over the years has been updated
gradually evolving towards large modules, and power battery systems are gradually
transitioning from traditional battery packs to CTP, CTC, and skateboard forms. The
energy density of power batteries will improve, and high integration and high energy
density will become the development trend of BEV platforms.
3.5 Summary
By summarizing the evolution and changes in vehicle technology of new energy
vehicles on the National Monitoring and Management Platform over the years, the
technological progress of the new energy vehicle industry presents the following
characteristics:
The technology of new energy passenger cars has made remarkable progress,
the overall range of vehicles has increased yearly, and lightweight technology has
made remarkable progress. The overall range of new energy passenger cars shows
a steady growth trend. In recent years, the average range of new energy passenger
cars has increased from 270.5 km in 2019 to 320.9 km in 2021; in the field of BEV
passenger cars, due to the rapid growth of the scale of small BEV passenger cars,
the average range of vehicles decreased slightly; according to the changes in the
average range ratio of BEV passenger cars over the years, in 2021, both vehicles
with high range and low range showed an expanding trend. Vehicles with a high
range above 400 km gradually dominate the market, and their market share reached
55.4% in 2021. The proportion of BEV passenger cars with a range below 200 km
80 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
169
185
203 208 212 211
105
118
134 141 146 149
124
134
162 167 172 173
83
105
132 139 145
154
0
50
100
150
200
250
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Individual energy density of BEV passenger cars System energy density of BEV passenger cars
Individual energy density of BEV buses System energy density of BEV buses
Fig. 3.37 Changes in energy density of individual and system power batteries for different types
of vehicles over the years. Source China Automotive Industry Development Annual Report of the
Ministry of Industry and Information Technology Equipment Development Center of China
increased from 3.7% in 2019 to 20.4% in 2021; in the field of vehicle lightweight,
the lightweight technology of BEV passenger cars has made remarkable progress,
and small BEV cars have performed better. In 2021, the average curb weight of BEV
passenger cars was 1478.1 kg, which decreased compared with the previous two
years.
In the field of power battery assembly, the LFP battery has returned strongly.
New technologies such as LFP CTP technology and battery pack internal structure
innovation effectively hedge the pressure of rising raw material costs and further
boost the promotion of LFP batteries in a broader range. In 2021, the installed power
capacity of LFP batteries accounted for 51.7%, with an increase of 13.4% compared
with 2020. Regarding types, the installed power capacity of ternary batteries for
BEV passenger cars still dominates the market, but the installed power capacity of
LFP batteries shows rapid growth. In the field of commercial vehicles, LFP batteries
dominate the market. In the future, with the continuous optimization of the battery
system structure, the whole vehicle design will accelerate the trend of integration and
platformization and further promote the progress of vehicle lightweight and energy
consumption levels.
Regarding vehicle lightweight, the overall curb weight of new energy
passenger cars shows a downward trend yearly. Small BEV passenger cars
have outstanding performance. In 2021, the average curb weight of new energy
3.5 Summary 81
1477 1457.2
1661.7
1486.3 1441
1891.5
1471.1
1378.1
1851.3
0
500
1000
1500
2000
NEV passenger cars BEV passenger cars PHEV passenger cars
Average curb weight of vehicles (kg)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.38 Changes in average curb weight of new energy vehicles over the years
passenger cars was 1471.1 kg, slightly lower than that in 2020 (Fig. 3.38). The
average curb weight of BEV passenger cars was 1378.1 kg, 4.4% lower than that in
2020. The average curb weight of Class A00 + A0 cars was 914.7 kg, with a YoY
decrease of 4.4%.
Regarding vehicle energy consumption level, the energy consumption level of
different types of BEV vehicles shows a downward trend. According to the actual
operation of different types of vehicles on the National Monitoring and Management
Platform (Fig. 3.39), in 2021, the average energy consumption of passenger cars was
14.6 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 7.6% compared with 2020; that of BEV buses
was 67.7 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 8% compared with 2020; and that of BEV
logistics vehicles was 30.1 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 10.9% compared with
2020.
From BEV passenger cars of different classes, the energy consumption level of
Class A00 + A0 cars and Class B and above cars has shown a gradual downward
trend in recent three years. From different classes, in 2021, the average energy
consumption of Class A00 + A0 cars was 10.4 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of
16.1% compared with 2020 (Fig. 3.40); that of Class B and above BEV cars was
15.6 kWh/100 km, with a decrease of 7.7% compared with 2020. Compared to 2020,
the energy consumption level of Class A cars and SUVs increased in 2021. Among
them, the average energy consumption of Class A cars was 16 kWh/100 km, with
an increase of 14.2% compared with the previous year, and that of BEV SUVs was
18.6 kWh/100 km, with an increase of 3.3% compared with the previous year.
82 3 Technical Progress of Vehicles
16.0
71.9
33.3
15.8
73.6
33.8
14.6
67.7
30.1
0
20
40
60
80
Passenger cars Buses Logistics vehicles
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.39 Average energy consumption of BEVs of different types over the years
12.8
14.4
19.6
18.5
12.4
14.1
16.9
18.1
10.4
16.1 15.6
18.7
0
5
10
15
20
25
Class A00+A0 Class A Class B and above SUV
Consumption (kWh/100km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 3.40 Average energy consumption of BEV passenger cars of different classes over the years
3.5 Summary 83
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Chapter 4
Operation of New Energy Vehicles
As of December 31, 2021, 6,655,000 NEVs have been accessed to the National
Monitoring and Management Platform. This chapter, based on the real-time oper-
ation data of millions of NEVs on the National Monitoring and Management Plat-
form, analyzes the operation characteristics of vehicles in the seven major segments,
including private cars, e-taxis, taxis, cars for sharing and rental service, logistics vehi-
cles, buses, and heavy-duty trucks, providing important research basis and references
for the study and evaluation of the electrification characteristics and the construction
of an intelligent traffic system (ITS).
4.1 NEV Online Rate in 2021
Vehicle online rate refers to the ratio of the number of vehicles running in the current
period to the cumulative vehicle access, which reflects the use of vehicles in the
current period. The higher the online rate of the vehicle, the higher the demand for
the use of the vehicle and the higher the utilization rate of the vehicle. On the contrary,
it means there is a certain idle situation of vehicles in the current period. Through
an analysis of the overall online r ate of vehicles on the National Monitoring and
Management Platform and the vehicle online rate in key markets in the past three
years, this section summarizes the current utilization rate of NEVs in China’s NEV
market.
© China Machine Press Co., Ltd. 2024
Z. Wang, Annual Report on the Big Data of New Energy Vehicle in China (2022),
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6411-6_4
85
86 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
4.1.1 NEV Online Rate in China
The average monthly online rate of NEVs in 2021 was 81.8% and has increased
continuously for three consecutive years.
The average monthly online rate of NEVs in China is gradually stabilized.
According to the data from the past three years, the average monthly online rate had
increased steadily for two consecutive years: in 2021, it was 81.8%, increased by
1.8% compared with 2019 and by 0.7% compared with 2020 (Table 4.1).
According to the monthly online rate distribution of vehicles over the years
(Fig. 4.1), the online rate fluctuated wildly in 2019 and 2020 (especially in the
first five months). In 2021, the online rate of vehicles was balanced each month,
indicating that the use of vehicles tends to be routine and stable.
Considering the driving type of vehicles, the online rate of PHEVs is higher
than that of BEVs and FCVs.
As showninTable 4.2, in 2021, the average online rate of PHEVs was significantly
higher than that of BEVs and FCVs, and PHEV users used vehicles more frequently;
BEVs followed the PHEVs in the average monthly online rate with a value of 79.7%;
FCVs had a relatively low average monthly online rate of 72.0%. FCVs are currently
in large-scale demonstration operation, and the vehicle types are mainly commercial
vehicles. The average online rate in 2021 was 72%, close to the average value of
BEVs of 79.7%, and the vehicle operation effect was good.
Table 4.1 Average monthly online rate in China
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average online rate in China (%) 80.0 81.1 81.8
60
70
80
90
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Online rate (%)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.1 Monthly online rate of NEVs in China-by driving type
4.1 NEV Online Rate in 2021 87
Table 4.2 Average online rate of China in 2021—by driving type
Driving type BEV PHEV FCV
Average online rate in China (%) 79.7 93.0 72.0
4.1.2 Online Rate in Each Region in China
The gap between the online rates of vehicles in different regions in China
has gradually narrowed, and the average monthly online rate of vehicles in
Northeast China is generally higher than that in other regions.
From the average monthly online rate of vehicles in all regions of China (Fig. 4.2),
the average monthly online rate in other regions continues to increase slightly, except
for Northeast China and North China. In 2021, the average monthly online rates of
vehicles in Northeast China and South China were 86.3% and 85.6%, respectively,
which were generally higher than other regions; the average monthly online rate
in North China was 78.3%, which was relatively low. The average online rate in
Northeast China was higher than that in other regions, mainly because the cumula-
tive access ratio of commercial vehicles (buses, logistics vehicles, and other types
of special vehicles) in Northeast China was significantly higher than that in other
regions, and the frequency of vehicle attendance was higher (Fig. 4.3).
87.9
83.8 80.8 81.1
76.3 74.0
78.7
86.7 84.8 81.5
82.5
75.7 77.9 80.8
86.3
85.6 82.7
82.1 79.6 78.7 78.3
0
20
40
60
80
100
Northeast China South China East China Northwest Chi na Central China Southwest China North China
Online rate (%)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.2 Average monthly online rate of new energy vehicles in various regions of China
88 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
45.4
57.7 59.8
44.1
60.0
46.2
66.2
5.9
18.2 18.6
18.9
16.1
23.5
12.0
48.7
24.1 21.6
37.0
23.9 30.3
21.8
0
20
40
60
80
100
Northeast China South China East China Northwest China Central China Southwest China North China
Proportion (%)
Private cars BEV passenger cars Commercial vehicles
Fig. 4.3 Proportion of cumulative access volume of new energy vehicles of different types in China
4.1.3 Online Rate in Cities at All Tiers in China
The difference in the average monthly online rate of vehicles in cities at all
tiers has been significantly reduced, and the online rate of fifth-tier cities is
significantly higher than that of other cities.
Judging from the average monthly online rate of vehicles in cities at all tiers in
China, the average monthly online rate of vehicles in cities at all tiers is increasing
yearly, and the difference between the average monthly online rates of vehicles in
first-and second-tier cities was gradually narrowing in 2021. Specifically, Regarding
the monthly average online rate of vehicles in each region (Fig. 4.4), the annual
monthly average online rate of fourth and fifth-tier cities was significantly higher,
indicating a high demand for vehicles; at the same time, the base of NEV holdings
in fourth and fifth-tier cities is relatively small, making it an important area for
future promotion of NEVs. During vehicle promotion, attention shall be paid to the
corresponding matching between the vehicle performance and price.
4.1.4 Online Rate of Vehicles in Each Segment
The average monthly online rate of e-taxis is higher than that of other segments.
From the online rate in key market segments (Fig. 4.5), the monthly average online
rate of e-taxis in 2021 was the highest, reaching 96.5%; from the annual change of
online rate of vehicles, the monthly average online rate of e-taxis, private cars, and
heavy-duty trucks is increasing yearly. The online rate truly reflects the demand for
4.1 NEV Online Rate in 2021 89
81.9
76.3
78.2 85.1
90.6
82.8
79.6 77.7
84.3
87.5
82.5 79.9 80.1 85.5 88.7
0
20
40
60
80
100
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities Fourth-tier cit ies Fifth-tier cities
Online rate (%)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.4 Average monthly online rate of new energy vehicles in cities at all tiers in China over the
years
85.1 85.8
89.8
87.8
52.2
69.6
80.5
88.6
87.1 89.6
83.9
65.9 66.4
72.0
96.5
88.2 87.3 85.5
78.3
64.4
63.8
0
20
40
60
80
100
E-taxis Private cars Buses Taxis Heavy-duty trucks Logistics vehicles Cars for sharing
Online rate (%)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.5 Annual online rate of key segments for NEVs
vehicles. E-taxis and cars for sharing are both new formats in recent years. From
2021, the online rate of e-taxis (96.5%) was much higher than that of cars for sharing
(63.8%), and the online rate of cars for sharing is decreasing yearly. From this point,
it is necessary to diversify and innovate in the use, parking, and maintenance of cars
for sharing to improve the online r ate of vehicles and achieve healthy and sustainable
development of vehicle operation.
90 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments
This section studies the operation characteristics of vehicles in key segments. It
summarizes the travel characteristics of users, providing an essential basis for
promoting the transition of the development mode of the NEV industry from the
policy-driven mode to the market-driven mode. This section divides the NEV market
into seven segments for further analysis: private cars, e-taxis, taxis, cars for sharing,
logistics vehicles, buses, and heavy-duty trucks. It summarizes the average single-
trip travel characteristics, average daily travel characteristics, and average monthly
travel characteristics of vehicles in those segments to obtain the travel characteristics
of different segments, with the specific indicators and the descriptions as shown in
Table 4.3.
4.2.1 Operation Characteristics of Private Cars
1. Average single-trip travel characteristics of private cars
The average single-trip travel duration of private cars in 2021 was higher than
that of the same period in 2020.
According to the data over the years, in 2021, the average single-trip travel duration
of private cars was 0.63 h, with an increase compared with 2019 and 2020 (Table 4.4).
In 2021, the proportion of vehicles with an average single-trip travel dura-
tion of 0.5 h significantly increased as the average single-trip travel duration of
private cars moves towards higher durations.
Table 4.3 Indicators of NEV market operation characteristics
Analysis dimension Analysis indicator Definition
Average single-trip travel
characteristics
Average single-trip travel
duration
Average travel duration of a
single trip
Average single-trip mileage Average mileage of a single trip
Average single-trip speed Average travel speed of a single
trip
Average daily travel
characteristics
Average daily travel duration Average travel duration in a
single day
Average daily mileage Average mileage in a single day
Driving time Distribution of driving time in a
single day (24 h)
Average monthly travel
characteristics
Average monthly travel days Average travel days in a single
month
Average monthly mileage Average mileage in a single
month
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 91
Table 4.4 Average single-trip travel duration of private cars over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-trip travel duration (h) 0.47 0.42 0.63
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.6), the proportion of private cars with an average
single-trip travel duration of less than 0.5 h in China significantly decreased in 2021;
the proportion of private cars with an average single-trip travel duration of more than
0.5 h was 56.33%, with an increase of 27.69% compared with 2020.
The average single-trip travel duration of private cars in first-tier cities is
longer.
Although the average single-trip travel duration of private cars in various tiers
of cities is mainly concentrated within 1 h, it can be seen from Fig. 4.7 that the
distribution of average single-trip travel duration of private cars in first-tier cities is
mainly between 0.5 and 1 h, accounting for 56.8%, while that in other tiers of cities is
mainly within 0.5 h. The main reason for this is due to factors such as large regional
areas and frequent traffic congestion in first-tier cities.
In 2021, the average single-trip mileage of private cars was mainly within
20 km, higher than the previous two years.
According to the data (Table 4.5), the average monthly single-trip mileage of
private cars in 2021 was higher than that in 2019 and 2020.
The average single-trip mileage of private cars was mainly within 20 km, with the
proportion over the years around 80%. The proportion of vehicles with an average
single-trip mileage of over 10 km in 2021 was 61.38%, with an increase of 9.71%
compared with 2020. Among them, the proportion of vehicles with an average single-
trip mileage of 20–30 km increased by 21.1% year-on-year, and that of vehicles with
an average single-trip mileage of 30–40 km increased by 17.3% year-on-year, both
0
20
40
60
80
Proportion
Average single-trip travel duration
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.6 Distribution of private cars of different average single-trip travel durations—by year
92 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
20
40
60
80
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip travel duration (h)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.7 Distribution of private cars of average single-trip travel durations in 2021—by city tier
Table 4.5 Average single-trip mileage of private cars over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-trip mileage (km) 13.15 11.44 14.43
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Proportion (h)
Average single-trip mileages (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.8 Distribution of private cars of different average single-trip mileages—by year
reaching new highs (Fig. 4.8). Combining this data with the average single-trip travel
duration, it can be concluded that the daily travel radius of private cars is gradually
increasing.
The distribution of average single-trip mileage of private cars in first-tier and
second-tier cities differs from that in other cities. From Fig. 4.9, the proportion of
private cars with an average single-trip mileage of not more than 10 km in first-tier
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 93
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Proportion (%)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.9 Distribution of private cars of different average single-trip mileages in 2021—by city tier
cities in 2021 was the lowest, followed by second-tier cities, and the curves of third-
tier and above cities were coincident, with the average single-trip mileage being more
concentrated below 30 km.
The average single-trip speed of private cars is mainly 10–40 km/h; in 2021,
it was 23.39 km/h.
The single-trip average speed of private cars in 2021 was 23.39 km/h, with a YoY
decrease of 120.6% (Table 4.6). From Fig. 4.10, the average single-trip speed of
private cars is mainly in the range of 10–40 km/h. In 2021, the proportion of private
cars with an average single-trip speed of 10–30 km/h was 86.1%, and that of cars
with low speeds continued to increase compared with 2019 and 2020.
2. Average daily travel characteristics of private cars
The average daily travel duration of private cars has shown an increasing trend
in the past three years, with an i ncrease of 5.1% compared with last year.
Private cars’ average daily travel duration has been maintained at about 1.6 h,
with a slow increase in the past three years. The average daily travel duration of
private cars in 2021 was 1.66 h, 7.8%, and 5.1% higher than that in 2019 and 2020,
respectively (Table 4.7;Fig. 4.11).
The proportion of the monthly average of private cars with an average daily travel
duration of more than 2 h in 2021 was proliferating. From the distribution of the
average daily travel duration of private cars over the years (Fig. 4.12), the proportion
Table 4.6 Average single-trip speed of private cars-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-trip speed (km/h) 26.39 29.46 23.39
94 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 >50
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip speed (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.10 Distribution of private cars of different average single-trip speeds—by year
Table 4.7 Average daily travel duration of private cars-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average daily travel duration (h) 1.54 1.58 1.66
0.5
0.8
1.1
1.4
1.7
2.0
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Average daily travel duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.11 Monthly average of average daily travel duration of private cars over the years
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 95
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 >5
Proportion (%)
Average daily travel duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.12 Distribution of private cars of different average daily travel durations—by year
of privatecarswith an average daily travel durationofmorethan2hin 2021 accounted
for 27.6%, with a significant increase compared with 2019 and 2020.
The overall level of average daily mileage of private cars in 2021 was higher
than that in previous years.
According to the data (Table 4.8), in 2021, the average daily mileage of private
cars was 46.25 km, with a YoY increase of 1.14%, higher than the average level of
the past two years.
The distribution (Fig. 4.13) shows that the average daily mileage of private cars is
concentrated in the 10–50 km range. The YoY increase of vehicles with an average
daily mileage of more than 20 km in 2021 was relatively significant, indicating an
increase in the proportion of vehicles traveling between medium and long distances.
From Fig. 4.14, the average daily mileage of private cars in first-tier cities is
significantly higher than that in cities of other tiers. The proportion of private cars
with an average daily mileage of more than 40 km in first-tier cities accounts for
45.6%, while that in cities of other tiers accounts for the highest proportion of 34.6%,
which indicates that the urban size of first-tier cities has a certain impact on travel
intensity.
The driving time of private cars exhibits a “double-peak” characteristic, and
currently, the primary use is still commuting.
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.15), the traffic of private cars mainly peaks at
two-time points, namely 7:00 and 17:00. During the morning rush hours, the traffic
of private cars climbed rapidly after 6:00, especially from 7:00 to 8:00, and reached
Table 4.8 Average daily mileage of private cars
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average daily mileage (km) 42.00 45.73 46.25
96 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
10
20
30
<10 10～20 20～30 30～40 40～50 50～60 60～70 70～80 80～90 90～100 >100
Proportion (%)
Average daily mileages (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.13 Distribution of private cars of average daily mileage—by year
0
10
20
30
<10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 60 70 70 80 80 90 90 100 >100
Proportion (%)
Average daily mileages (km)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.14 Distribution of private cars of average daily mileage in 2021—by city tier
the peak at 8:00 in 2021; during the evening rush hour, the traffic of private cars is
mainly concentrated between 16:00 and 18:00, and the proportion of vehicle travel
volume to the total daily volume had been over 23% in the past three years.
The travel patterns in cities at all tiers are mostly consistent (Fig. 4.16), all concen-
trated in the morning and evening commuting peak hours, indicating that the primary
use of new energy private cars in cities at all tiers is commuting.
3. Average monthly travel characteristics of private cars
In 2021, the average monthly t ravel days of private cars had been increasing
yearly, with a relatively high proportion of travel for more than 20 days per
month.
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 97
0
2
4
6
8
10
0123456789 1011121314151617181920212223
Proportion (%)
Time
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.15 Distribution of private cars based on different driving times
0
2
4
6
8
10
0123456789 1011121314151617181920212223
Proportion (%)
Time
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.16 Distribution of driving times of private cars in 2021—by city tier
According to the average monthly travel days of private cars over the years, users’
dependence on new energy private cars has steadily increased. As shown in Table 4.9,
the average monthly travel days in 2021 were 19.42, 3.80 days, and 0.74 days more
than that in 2019 and 2020, respectively.
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.17), the proportion of private cars with average
monthly travel days above 25 in 2021 was the highest, significantly increasing. The
Table 4.9 Average monthly travel days of private cars-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly travel days (day) 15.62 18.68 19.42
98 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
10
20
30
40
<5 5～10 10～15 15～20 20～25 >25
Proportion (%)
Average monthly travel days (day)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.17 Distribution of private cars of different average monthly travel days—by year
Table 4.10 Average monthly mileage of private cars-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly mileage (km) 733.84 918.54 921.70
significant increase in the average monthly travel days of private cars indicates that
new-energy passenger cars are increasingly recognized in private applications, and
the proportion of users using new-energy private cars as family vehicles is increasing.
In 2021, the average monthly mileage of private cars was 921.70 km, with an
increase of 0.34% compared with last year (Table 4.10).
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.18), the proportion of private cars with average
monthly mileage of less than 1000 km is the majority, but with a slight decrease
compared with the past two years. The proportion of private cars with average
monthly mileage of 1000–3000 km had increased from 22.80% in 2019 to 29.60%
in 2021.
4.2.2 Operation Characteristics of E-taxis
1. Average daily travel characteristics of e-taxis
The daily travel duration of e-taxis in 2021 was 6.34 h, slightly decreasing
compared with 2020.
In the past two years, the average daily travel duration of e-taxis had been main-
tained at about 6 h. In 2021, the average daily travel duration of e-taxis was 6.34 h
(Table 4.11), slightly higher than that in 2020.
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 99
0
20
40
60
80
<1000 1000 2000 2000 3000 >3000
Proportion (%)
Average monthly mileages (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.18 Distribution of private cars of different average monthly mileages—by year
Table 4.11 Average daily travel duration of e-taxis-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average daily travel duration (h) 6.99 6.10 6.34
0
10
20
30
40
50
<1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 >8
Proportion (%)
Average daily travel duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.19 Distribution of e-taxis of different average daily travel durations—by year
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.19), the proportion of e-taxis with an average
daily travel duration of more than 8 h in 2021 was the highest, at 34.75%.
100 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
20
40
Proportion (%)
Average daily travel duration (h)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.20 Distribution of e-taxis of different average daily travel durations in 2021—by city tier
From Fig. 4.20, the proportion of e-taxis with an average daily travel duration of
over 6 h in first-tier cities is lower than that in cities of other tiers.
The average daily mileage of e-taxis is mainly 100–250 km, highlighting
the characteristics of commercial operation. New energy passenger cars are
recognized for their economy and convenience when used as e-taxis.
According to the data over the years, the average daily mileage of e-taxis was
168.56 km in 2021, with an increase of 0.78% and 6.81%, respectively, compared
with 2019 and 2020 (Table 4.12). According to the monthly change of average daily
mileage over the years (Fig. 4.21), the online rate of e-taxis in 2021 was significantly
higher than that in 2020, and users’ willingness to share travel significantly improved.
The average daily mileage of e-taxis is mainly 100–250 km (Fig. 4.22), accounting
for 84.78%. This mileage range mostly conforms to the travel characteristics of
commercial vehicles, indicating that new energy passenger cars are recognized for
their economy and convenience when used as e-taxis.
The proportion of average daily mileage of e-taxis in the first-tier and second-tier
cities is larger in the low mileage range (Fig. 4.23), and the proportion of cities of
other tiers in the high mileage range is relatively larger, and the distribution curve is
mostly the same.
The driving time of e-taxis is mainly 7:00–21:00, and the driving time
distribution is mostly the same each year.
Table 4.12 Average daily mileage of e-taxis-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average daily mileage (km) 167.25 157.81 168.56
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 101
0
50
100
150
200
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Online rate (%)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.21 Monthly average of average daily mileage of e-taxis over the years
0
10
20
30
40
Proportion (%)
Average daily mileage (km)
2020 2021
Fig. 4.22 Distribution of e-taxis of different average daily mileages—by year
According to the distribution of driving time (Fig. 4.24), the driving time of e-
taxis is mainly 7:00–21:00. In 2021, the proportion of early travel in the morning
rush hours was slightly higher than that in previous years, and the proportion of travel
between 6:00 and 8:00 was significantly higher than that in 2019 and 2020.
2. Average monthly travel characteristics of e-taxis
The average monthly travel days of the e-taxis market are increasing yearly,
and in 2021, it was 24.6, which is 3 days more than that in 2020.
102 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
10
20
30
40
<50 50～100 100～150 150～200 200～250 250～300 >300
Proportion (%)
Average daily mileages (km)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.23 Distribution of e-taxis of different average daily mileages in 2021—by city tier
0
2
4
6
8
0123456789 1011121314151617181920212223
Proportion (%)
Time
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.24 Distribution of e-taxis of different driving times—by year
In the past three years, the average monthly travel days of e-taxis have increased
yearly. Specifically, in 2021, the average monthly travel days of e-taxis was
24.60 days, which is 3.83 days and 3 days more than that in 2019 and 2020,
respectively (Table 4.13).
In 2021, the proportion of e-taxis with average monthly travel days of more than
25 was 43.32%, close to total attendance. On the one hand, it shows that the market
demand for e-taxis is strong, and on the other hand, it shows that the performance
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 103
Table 4.13 Average monthly travel days of e-taxis-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly travel days (day) 20.77 21.6 24.60
0
10
20
30
40
50
Proportion (%)
Average monthly travel days (day)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.25 Distribution of e-taxis of different average monthly travel days—by year
0
30
60
90
Proportion (%)
Average monthly travel days (day)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.26 Distribution of e-taxis of different average monthly travel days in 2021—by city tier
of new energy e-taxis can meet the operational demand (Fig. 4.25); the overall trend
of the proportion distribution of average monthly travel days in cities of all tiers is
consistent (Fig. 4.26).
In 2021, the average monthly mileage of e-taxis increased significantly by
19.1% compared with last year.
104 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
Table 4.14 Average monthly mileage of e-taxis-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly mileage (km) 3854.08 3580.24 4265.16
0
10
20
30
40
Proportion (%)
Average monthly travel mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.27 Distribution of e-taxis of different average monthly mileages—by year
According to the data over the years (Table 4.14), the average monthly mileage
of e-taxis in 2021 was 4265.16 km, which is 19.13% higher than that in 2020, and
still 10.67% higher than that in 2019.
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.27), the proportion of e-taxis with average
monthly mileage of more than 5000 km in 2021 increased significantly, from 23.5%
in 2020 to 34.2% in 2021.
From Fig. 4.28, the proportion of e-taxis with an average monthly mileage of more
than 5000 km in first-tier cities accounted for 29.15%; the proportion of e-taxis with
an average monthly mileage of more than 5000 km in second, third, and fourth and
fifth-tier cities was 38.48%, 42.00%, 40.33% and 41.54% respectively, indicating
that the proportion of e-taxis for long-distance travel is significantly higher than that
in first-tier cities.
4.2.3 Operation Characteristics of Taxis
1. Average daily travel characteristics of taxis
The average daily travel duration of taxis in 2021 gradually returned to normal,
with a significant increase compared with 2020.
In the past three years, the average daily travel duration of taxis exceeded 7 h, and
in 2020, it was only 8.17 h, increasing by 11.01% compared with 2020 (Table 4.15).
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 105
0
10
20
30
40
50
Proportion (%)
Average monthly travel mileage (km)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.28 Distribution of e-taxis of different average monthly mileages in 2021—by city tier
Table 4.15 Average daily travel duration of taxis-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average daily travel duration (h) 8.82 7.36 8.17
0
20
40
60
80
Proportion (%)
Average daily travel duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.29 Distribution of taxis of different average daily travel durations—by year
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.29), the proportion of taxis with an average daily
travel durationofmorethan8hincreased from52.06% in 2020 to 58.98% in 2021.
In 2021, taxi operations gradually entered the right track, with an increase
in daily mileage compared with 2020.
106 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
According to the data over the years, the average daily mileage of taxis in 2021
was 201.88 km, with an increase of 8.27% compared with 2020 (Table 4.16).
According to the monthly changes in average daily mileage over the years
(Fig. 4.30), the daily travel of taxis in 2021 mostly remained at the same level as in
2019, and the monthly average daily mileage remained around 200 km, showing a
significant improvement compared with the first half of 2020.
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.31), the proportion of taxis with an average daily
mileage of more than 200 km in 2021 was mostly the same as in 2020, at 44.18%.
In 2021, the proportion of taxis with an average daily mileage of 150–250 km in
second-tier cities was higher than that in cities of other tires, accounting for 24.67%
and 27.69%, respectively; the proportion of taxis with an average daily mileage of
more than 250 km in fifth-tier cities was relatively high, possibly due to better traffic
conditions and relatively higher average daily mileage (Fig. 4.32).
In 2021, taxis arrived significantly ahead of schedule during morning rush
hours, and the proportion of taxis traveling from 5:00 to 8:00 the next day was
higher than that in the previous two years.
According to the distribution of driving time of taxis (Fig. 4.33), the driving time
of taxis is mainly 6:00–19:00. In 2021, taxis arrived significantly ahead of schedule
during morning rush hours, and the proportion of taxis traveling from 5:00 to 8:00
the next day was higher than that in 2019 and 2020.
Table 4.16 Average daily mileage of taxis-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average daily mileage (km) 210.07 186.46 201.88
50
100
150
200
250
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Average daily travel mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.30 Monthly average of average daily mileage of taxis over the years
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 107
0
10
20
30
40
Proportion (%)
Average daily mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.31 Distribution of taxis of different average daily mileages—by year
0
10
20
30
Proporttion (%)
Average daily mileage (km)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.32 Distribution of taxis of different average daily mileages in 2020—by city tier
2. Average monthly travel characteristics of taxis
The average monthly travel days of taxis are mainly 20 + , with an increase in
travel days in 2021.
According to the data over the years, the average travel days of taxis in 2021 was
24.91, with a YoY decrease of 11.80% (Table 4.17).
108 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0123456789 1011121314151617181920212223
Proportion (%)
Time
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.33 Distribution of taxis of different driving times—by year
Table 4.17 Average monthly travel days of taxis-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly travel days (day) 23.07 22.28 24.91
Taxis’ average monthly travel days are mainly 20 + (Fig. 4.34). In 2021, the
proportion of taxis with an average monthly travel day of more than 25 was 49.33%,
a significant increase close to the number of fuel taxis.
The average monthly mileage of taxis in 2021 was 4838.73 km, with an
increase of 16.3% compared with 2020 (Table 4.18).
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.35), the proportion of taxis with an average
monthly mileage of more than 5000 km in 2021 was 48.04%, with an increase of
2.07% and 10.45%, respectively, compared with 2019 and 2020. On the one hand,
the increase in average monthly mileage is due to the normalization of COVID-19
outbreak control and the increased intensity of user-shared travel. On the other hand,
new energy taxis are gradually getting on track due to the rationalization of charging
and swapping devices and vehicle matching.
4.2.4 Operation Characteristics of Cars for Sharing
1. Average single-trip travel characteristics of cars for sharing
In 2021, the average single-trip travel duration of cars for sharing significantly
increased, and users’ willingness to travel significantly increased.
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 109
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Proportion (%)
Average monthly travel days (day)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.34 Distribution of taxis of different average monthly travel days—by year
Table 4.18 Average monthly mileage of taxis-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly mileage (km) 5154.38 4159.89 4838.73
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Proportion (%)
Average monthly travel mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.35 Distribution of taxis of different average monthly mileages—by year
110 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
According to the data over the years, the average single-trip travel duration of cars
for sharing reached 0.92 h in 2021, with an increase of 0.26 h and 0.34 h compared
with 2019 and 2020 (Table 4.19), respectively, indicating a significant increase in
average single-trip travel duration. From the distribution of average single-trip travel
duration of cars for sharing (Fig. 4.36), the proportion of cars for sharing with an
average single-trip travel duration of more than 1 h in 2021 was 45.33%, with a
significant increase compared with previous years.
The distribution of travel duration in first-tier cities is relatively scattered
(Fig. 4.37), and compared with cities of other tiers, the demand for l ong-term travel
is higher.
The average single-trip mileage of cars for sharing has steadily increased,
with a YoY increase of 39.4% in 2021.
According to the data over the years (Table 4.20), in 2021, the single-trip mileage
of cars for sharing was 29.07 km, with an increase of 39.42% compared with 2020.
From 2019 to 2021, the average single-trip mileage of cars for sharing shifted towards
high mileage distribution, and the proportion of cars for sharing with an average
single-trip mileage of more than 20 km in 2021 was nearly 50% (Fig. 4.38).
The average single-trip mileage has a significant reference value for the distri-
bution of parking points and charging and swapping facilities for cars for sharing.
The proportion of cars for sharing with an average single-trip mileage of more than
Table 4.19 Average
single-trip travel duration of
cars for sharing-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-trip travel duration (h) 0.66 0.58 0.92
0
20
40
60
80
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip travel duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.36 Distribution of cars for sharing of different average single-trip travel durations—by year
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 111
0
20
40
Proportion (h)
Average singlr-trip travel duration (h)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.37 Distribution of cars for sharing of different average single-trip travel durations in 2021—
by city tier
Table 4.20 Average single-trip mileage of cars for sharing-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-trip mileage (km) 18.32 20.85 29.07
0
20
40
60
80
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.38 Distribution of cars for sharing of different average single-trip mileages—by year
112 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
10
20
30
0
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip travel mileage (km)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.39 Distribution of cars for sharing of different average single-trip mileages in 2021—by
city tier
30 km in first-tier cities reaches 56.4%, which is higher than that in cities of other
tiers (Fig. 4.39).
In 2021, the average single-trip speed of cars for sharing was 24.06 km/h,
with a decrease of 21.3% compared with 2020.
In 2021, the average single-trip speed of cars for sharing was 24.06 km/h, with a
YoY decrease of 21.3% (Table 4.21). Meanwhile, the proportion of cars sharing with
an average single-trip speed of less than 30 km/h increased from 55.7% in 2020 to
90.9% in 2021 (Fig. 4.40). Overall, it can be preliminarily concluded that the traffic
congestion in cities with newly added cars for sharing in 2021 was relatively severe,
or that the designated networks are mainly concentrated in areas with relatively
congested urban centers.
2. Average daily travel characteristics of cars for sharing
In 2021, the average daily travel duration of cars for sharing was 5.06 h, with a
significant increase compared with previous years.
In 2021, the average daily travel duration of cars for sharing was 5.06 h, signifi-
cantly increasing compared with 2019 and 2020 (Table 4.22). In 2021, the timeshare
rental market for short-distance travel was gradually shrinking, with the shared rental
market mainly focusing on monthly rentals or long-distance travel during holidays.
From the monthly average daily travel duration over the years (Fig. 4.41), it can be
seen that the average daily travel duration in winter is the shortest, which is related to
Table 4.21 Average
single-trip speed of cars for
sharing-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-trip speed (km/h) 28.65 30.56 24.06
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 113
0
20
40
60
80
0～10 10～20 20～30 30～40 40～50 >50
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip speed (km/h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.40 Distribution of cars for sharing of different average single-trip speeds—by year
Table 4.22 Average daily travel duration of cars for sharing-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average daily travel duration (h) 2.78 2.74 5.06
0
2
4
6
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Avearge daily travel duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.41 Monthly average of average daily travel duration of cars for sharing over the years
the combined factors of holidays and reduced battery performance in winter. Starting
from March 2021, the average daily travel duration of cars for sharing is close to 5 h,
stabilizing at more than 5 h.
114 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
10
20
30
40
50
Proportion (%)
Average daily travel duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.42 Distribution of cars for sharing of different average daily travel durations—by year
In 2021, the average daily travel duration of cars for sharing was more concentrated
in the distribution segments of 1–2 h and above 8 h (Fig. 4.42), indicating that
the operation of cars for sharing was concentrated at two distance segments. This
phenomenon suggests that operating enterprises should focus on short-distance and
long-distance travel regarding the reasonable network layout and user experience
improvement.
The distribution of the average daily travel duration of cars for sharing in first-tier
cities is somewhat different from cities of other tiers (Fig. 4.43), with each distribution
segment relatively average, indicating that vehicle turnover and utilization are slightly
better than cities of other tiers.
In 2021, the average daily mileage of cars for sharing was 123.96 km, and
more and more car owners are using it for monthly rental or long-distance travel
during holidays.
In the past three years, the average daily mileage of cars for sharing in China
has increased yearly. In 2021, the average daily mileage of cars for sharing was
123.96 km, with a YoY increase of 24.4% (Table 4.23), but lower than the average
daily mileage of taxis (201.88 km) and e-taxis (168.56 km). However, since taxis
and e-taxis have no passengers during travel, cars for sharing do not have such a
situation. If the daily mileage of cars for sharing can reach the level of e-taxis, it
can be considered that the travel of cars for sharing is more efficient, with better
operating economy under the same conditions.
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.44), the proportion of cars for sharing with an
average daily mileage of more than 150 km in 2021 was 40.56%, with an increase of
32.82% and 11.22% compared with 2019 and 2020, respectively. The daily mileage
is gradually transitioning towards the high mileage range.
There is a significant difference in the distribution of average daily mileage of cars
for sharing in first-tier cities compared with that in cities of other tiers (Fig. 4.45).
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 115
0
10
20
30
40
0
Proportion (%)
Average daily travel duration (h)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.43 Distribution of cars for sharing of different average daily travel durations in 2021—by
city tier
Table 4.23 Average daily mileage of cars for sharing
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average daily mileage (km) 77.30 99.63 123.96
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Proportion (%)
Average daily mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.44 Distribution cars for sharing of different average daily mileages—by year
116 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
10
20
30
40
50
Proportion (%)
Average daily mileage (km)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.45 Distribution cars for sharing of different average daily mileages in 2021—by city tier
The proportion of cars for sharing with an average daily mileage of 50 and 150 km
in first-tier cities is relatively high, while that of 0–50 km in cities of other tiers is
higher.
The proportion of cars for sharing traveling during morning rush hours and
forenoon in 2021 was higher than that in 2019 and 2020.
From the distribution of driving time (Fig. 4.46), the driving time of cars for
sharing is mainly concentrated during the day. In the past three years, the proportion
of cars for sharing traveling during morning rush hours and forenoon has shown
an increasing trend yearly. The distribution proportion of cars for sharing traveling
between 5:00 and 8:00 in 2021 was significantly higher than that in previous years.
By city tier, the proportion of cars for sharing traveling during the day is relatively
high in lower-tier cities; the proportion of cars for sharing traveling from 0:00 to 5:00
the next day in first-tier cities is 11.9%, slightly higher than that in cities of other
tiers (Fig. 4.47).
3. Average monthly travel characteristics of cars for sharing
In 2021, the average monthly travel days of cars for sharing were 21.74, with
an increase of 18% compared with last year (Table 4.24).
According to the data over the years (Fig. 4.48), the average monthly travel days
of cars for sharing in 2021 exceeded 20, with a significant increase compared to 2019
and 2020.
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.49), the proportion of cars for sharing with
average monthly travel days of 15 or more increased significantly from 67.60% in
2020 to 73.83% in 2021.
The average monthly mileage of cars for sharing is increasing yearly.
In 2021, the average monthly mileage of cars for sharing was 3103.41 km, with
a YoY increase of 18.8% (Table 4.25).
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 117
0
2
4
6
8
0123456789 1011121314151617181920212223
Proportion (%)
Time
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.46 Distribution of cars for sharing of different driving times—by year
0
2
4
6
8
0123456789 1011121314151617181920212223
Proportion (%)
Time
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.47 Distribution of cars for sharing of different driving times in 2021—by city tier
Table 4.24 Average monthly
travel days of cars for
sharing-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly travel days (day) 18.57 18.43 21.74
118 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
5
10
15
20
25
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Average monthly travel days (day)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.48 Average monthly travel days of cars for sharing over the years
0
10
20
30
40
<5 5～10 10～15 15～20 20～25 >25
Proportion (%)
Average monthly travel days (day)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.49 Distribution of cars for sharing of different average monthly travel days—by year
Table 4.25 Average monthly mileage of cars for sharing-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly mileage (km) 1582.7 2612.85 3103.41
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.50), the proportion of cars for sharing with an
average mileage of more than 3000 km increased from 28.31% in 2020 to 34.99%
in 2021, with an increase of 6.68%, which is mostly in line with the current market
situation of daily rental and long-term rental of cars for sharing.
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 119
0
10
20
30
40
50
Proportion (%)
Averafe monthly mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.50 Distribution of cars for sharing of different average monthly mileages—by year
4.2.5 Operation Characteristics of Logistics Vehicles
1. Average single-trip travel characteristics of l ogistics vehicles
The average single-trip travel duration of logistics vehicles in 2021 was 0.87 h,
which is significantly improved compared with that in 2019 and 2020.
The average single-trip travel duration of logistics vehicles in 2021 significantly
increased (Table 4.26), with an increase of 67.3% and 89.1% compared to 2019 and
2020, respectively. The average single-trip travel duration of logistics vehicles in
each month in 2021 was higher than the same period in the past two years, and each
month is relatively average without a significant trough, indicating that the use of
new energy logistics vehicles is more conventional. In the past three years, logistics
vehicles’ average monthly mileage has rapidly grown. In 2021, logistics vehicles’
average monthly mileage was 2270.33 km, with a YoY increase of 4.7% (Fig. 4.51).
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.52), the proportion of logistics vehicles with
an average single-trip travel duration of more than 1 h in 2021 was 30%, with a
significant increase compared with that in 2019 and 2020.
The average single-trip mileage of logistics vehicles in 2021 was 18.96 km,
which has increased compared with that in the past two years.
The average single-trip mileage of logistics vehicles has increased significantly
compared with the past two years (Table 4.27). In 2021, logistics vehicles’ monthly
average single-trip mileage exceeded 18 km (Fig. 3.102), far higher than the same
Table 4.26 Average
single-trip travel duration of
logistics vehicles-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-trip travel duration (h) 0.52 0.46 0.87
120 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Average single-trip travel duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.51 Monthly average of average single-trip travel duration of logistics vehicles—by year
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0～0.5 0.5～1 1～1.5 1.5～2 >2
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip travel duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.52 Distribution of logistics vehicles of different average single-trip travel durations—by
year
period in the past two years.
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.53), the proportion of logistics vehicles with
an average single-trip mileage of more than 20 km in 2021 was 12.4%, increasing
compared with 2019 and 2020.
Table 4.27 Average
single-trip mileage of
logistics vehicles-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-trip mileage (km) 13.12 11.29 18.96
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 121
0
10
20
30
40
50
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.53 Distribution of logistics vehicles of different average single-trip mileages—by year
The proportion of logistics vehicles with an average single-trip mileage of 20–
40 km in first-tier cities is significantly higher than that in cities of other tiers, reaching
43.1%. The distribution mileage of logistics vehicles is relatively high (Fig. 4.54).
The average single-trip speed of logistics vehicles in 2021 was 23.25 km/h,
with a decrease compared with last year.
The average single-trip speed in 2021 was 23.25 km/h, with a decrease of 4.6% and
17.3% compared with 2019 and 2020, respectively (Table 4.28). As the distribution
shows (Fig. 4.55), the proportion of logistics vehicles traveling at speeds above 30 km/
0
10
20
30
40
50
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip mileage (km)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.54 Distribution of logistics vehicles of different average single-trip mileages in 2021—by
city tier
122 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
h decreased from 26.3% in 2020 to 11.3% in 2021. The regional traffic efficiency of
newly arranged logistics vehicles is generally low.
2. Average daily travel characteristics of logistics vehicles
The average daily travel duration of logistics vehicles is increasing yearly.
In the past three years, the average daily travel duration of logistics vehicles in
China has increased yearly; in 2021, it reached 4.12 h, 1.27 h and 0.88 h longer than
2019 and 2020, respectively (Table 4.29).
According to the monthly average of average daily travel duration over the years
(Fig. 4.56), it can be seen that in the past three years, the average daily travel duration
of logistics vehicles has rapidly increased, and in 2021, it exceeded the same period
in previous years.
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.57), the proportion of logistics vehicles with an
average daily travel duration of more than 4 h gradually increased. The proportion
of logistics vehicles with an average daily travel duration of more than 4 h in 2021
was 50.2%, with an increase of 25.3% and 16.5% compared with 2019 and 2020,
respectively. The average daily travel duration of logistics vehicles has significantly
increased.
Table 4.28 Average single-trip speed of logistics vehicles-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-trip speed (km/h) 24.36 28.13 23.25
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip speed (km/h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.55 Distribution of logistics vehicles of different average single-trip speeds—by year
Table 4.29 Average daily travel duration of logistics vehicles-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average daily travel duration (h) 2.85 3.24 4.12
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 123
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Average daily travel duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.56 Monthly average of average daily travel duration of logistics vehicles—by year
0
10
20
30
Proportion (%)
Average daily travel duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.57 Distribution of logistics vehicles of different average daily travel durations—by year
From Fig. 4.58, the proportion of logistics vehicles with an average daily travel
duration of more than 5 h in first-tier cities was 38.1%, significantly higher than that
in cities of other tiers. Logistics vehicles’ average daily travel duration in third-tier
and below cities was more concentrated in 2–4 h.
The average daily mileage of logistics vehicles has shown an increasing trend
in the past three years, with an i ncrease of 8.7% compared with 2020.
According to the data over the years (Table 4.30), logistics vehicles’ average daily
mileage was 94.12 km in 2021, with an increase of 35.4% and 8.7%, respectively,
compared with 2019 and 2020, indicating a rapid increase in average daily mileage.
124 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
10
20
30
Proportion (%)
Average daily travel duration (h)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.58 Distribution of logistics vehicles of different average daily travel durations in 2021—by
city tier
Table 4.30 Average daily mileage of logistics vehicles-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average daily mileage (km) 69.53 86.62 94.12
0
10
20
30
40
50
Proportion (%)
Average daily mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.59 Distribution of logistics vehicles of different average daily mileages—by year
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.59), the average daily mileage of logistics vehi-
cles is mainly concentrated below 150 km, but the proportion of vehicles with mileage
above 150 km in 2021 significantly increased, from 5.7% in 2019 to 17.9% in 2021.
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 125
0
10
20
30
40
50
Proportion (%)
Average daily mileage (km)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.60 Distribution of logistics vehicles of different average daily mileages in 2021—by city
tier
The proportion of vehicles with high average daily mileage in first-tier cities is
higher than that in cities of other tiers (Fig. 4.60).
The driving time of logistics vehicles forms peaks during the morning and
afternoon working hours.
The driving time of logistics vehicles in 2021 was slightly ahead of that in 2019
and 2020. From the distribution of driving time (Fig. 4.61), two significant peaks
formed with 12:00–13:00 as the boundary, ranging from 8:00 to 10:00 and from 15:00
to 16:00, respectively. By city tier, the distribution of logistics vehicles traveling at
the two peaks in first-tier cities is lower than that in cities of other tiers and tends to
be more average (Fig. 4.62).
3. Average monthly travel characteristics of logistics vehicles
The average monthly travel days of logistics vehicles have shown a steadily
increasing trend in the past three years, with an increase of 11.7% compared
with last year.
In the past three years, logistics vehicles’ average monthly travel days have
increased yearly. The average monthly travel days of logistics vehicles in 2021
were 21.94, with an increase of 6.32 days and 2.29 days compared with that in
2019 and 2020, and the travel frequency of logistics vehicles significantly increased
(Table 4.31).
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.63), it can be seen that in 2021, over 60% of
logistics vehicles traveled for more than 20 days per month, indicating that logistics
vehicles are primarily in regular use.
The average monthly mileage of logistics vehicles has shown a steadily
increasing trend in the past three years, with an increase of 4.7% compared
with last year.
126 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
2
4
6
8
10
0123456789 1011121314151617181920212223
Proportion (%)
Time
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.61 Distribution of logistics vehicles of different driving times—by year
0
2
4
6
8
10
0123456789 1011121314151617181920212223
Proportion (%)
Time
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.62 Distribution of logistics vehicles of different driving times in 2021—by city tier
Table 4.31 Average monthly
travel days of logistics
vehicles-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly travel days (day) 15.62 19.65 21.94
Logistics vehicles’ average monthly mileage has rapidly grown in the past three
years. In 2021, logistics vehicles’ average monthly mileage was 2270.33 km, with a
YoY increase of 4.7% (Table 4.32).
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 127
0
10
20
30
40
Proportion (%)
Average monthly travel days (day)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.63 Distribution of logistics vehicles of different average monthly travel days—by year
Table 4.32 Average monthly mileage of logistics vehicles
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly mileage (km) 1425.45 2169.17 2270.33
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.64), the proportion of logistics vehicles with
an average monthly mileage of more than 3000 km rapidly increased from 10.7%
in 2019 to 29.2% in 2021, and new energy logistics vehicles are gradually tending
towards benign operation.
By city tier, the proportion of logistics vehicles in the high mileage segment in
first-tier cities was significantly higher than that in third-tier and below cities. From
Fig. 4.65, the proportion of logistics vehicles with average monthly mileage of more
than 3000 km in first-tier cities was 33.9%, while that in third-tier and below cities
was less than 25%.
4.2.6 Operation Characteristics of Buses
1. Average single-trip travel characteristics of buses
In 2021, the average single-trip travel duration of buses was 1.39 h, with an
increase of 0.41 h compared with last year.
The average single-trip travel duration of buses in 2021 was 1.39 h, with an
increase of 0.23 h and 0.41 h compared with 2019 and 2020, respectively (Table 4.33).
The monthly average single-trip travel duration of buses in 2021 significantly
128 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
20
40
60
Proportion (%)
Average monthly mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.64 Distribution of average monthly mileage of logistics vehicles—by year
0
10
20
30
40
Proportion (%)
Average monthly mileage (km)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.65 Distribution of logistics vehicles of different average monthly mileages in 2021—by city
tier
Table 4.33 Average
single-trip travel duration of
buses
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-trip travel duration (h) 1.16 0.98 1.39
exceeded the same period in previous years (Fig. 4.66). As the distribution shows
(Fig. 4.67), the proportion of buses with an average single-trip travel duration of
more than 1.0 h in 2021 increased from 39.93 in 2020 to 43.47% in 2021.
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 129
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Average single-trip travel duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.66 Monthly average of average single-trip travel duration of buses—by year
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip travel duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.67 Distribution of buses of different average single-trip travel durations—by year
By city tier, the proportion of buses with an average single-trip travel duration
of more than 1.5 h in first to third-tier cities was significantly higher than that in
third-tier and below cities (Fig. 4.68).
In 2021, the average single-trip mileage of buses was 25.10 km, returning to
pre-COVID-19 level.
In 2021, the average single-trip mileage of buses was 25.10 km, and the travel char-
acteristics of buses returned to the pre-COVID-19 level (Table 4.34). The proportion
of buses with an average single-trip mileage of 10–20 km accounted for the majority
(Fig. 4.69).
The average single-trip speed of buses over the years has been higher than
20 km/h, and buses in first and second-tier cities are more concentrated in the
low-speed segment.
130 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip travel duration (h)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.68 Distribution of buses of different average single-trip travel durations in 2021—by city
tier
Table 4.34 Average single-trip mileage of buses-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-trip mileage (km) 24.76 19.44 25.10
0
10
20
30
40
50
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.69 Distribution of buses of different average single-trip mileages—by year
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 131
The average single-trip speed of buses in the past three years has been slightly
higher than 20 km (Table 4.35), which is mostly the same each year. The proportion
of buses with an average single-trip speed of 10–30 km/h accounted for the majority
(Fig. 4.70).
The urban traffic environment affects first- and second-tier cities, resulting in a
higher frequency of road congestion. The proportion of buses with an average single-
trip speed of 10–20 km/h in the low-speed range is relatively more concentrated; on
the contrary, the proportion of buses with an average single-trip speed of more than
20 km/h in cities of other tiers is significantly higher than that in first and second-tier
cities (Fig. 4.71).
2. Average daily travel characteristics of buses
The daily operation of buses has strong regularity, and the average daily travel
duration of buses remains stable at around 7 h.
The average daily travel duration of buses has remained relatively stable over
the years, with an average daily travel duration of 6.85 h in 2021, which is mostly
consistent with previous years (Table 4.36); the proportion of vehicles with an average
daily travel duration of more than 8 h accounted for the majority, reading over 30%
(Fig. 4.72).
The distribution proportion of buses in first-tier cities i s higher during long travel
periods. By city tier, from Fig. 4.73, the proportion of buses with an average daily
Table 4.35 Average single-trip speed of buses-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-trip speed (km/h) 22.18 22.65 22.13
0
10
20
30
40
50
0～10 10～20 20～30 30～40 40～50 >50
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip speed (km/h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.70 Distribution of buses of different average single-trip speeds—by year
132 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0～10 10～20 20～30 30～40 40～50 >50
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip speed (km/h)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.71 Distribution of buses of different average single-trip speeds in 2021—by city tier
Table 4.36 Average daily travel duration of buses-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average daily travel duration (h) 7.01 6.75 6.85
0
10
20
30
40
Proportion (%)
Averafe daily travel duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.72 Distribution of buses of different average daily travel durations—by year
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 133
0
10
20
30
40
50
Proportion (%)
Average daily travel duration (h)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.73 Distribution of average daily travel duration of buses in 2021—by city tier
travel durationofmorethan8hinfirst-tiercities was 42.3%, significantly higher
than that in cities of other tiers.
The average daily mileage of buses in 2021 mainly remained unchanged
compared with previous years.
The average daily mileage in 2021 was 150.78 km, which mainly remained
unchanged compared with previous years ( Table 4.37). The average daily mileage
of buses concentrated at 100–200 km (Fig. 4.74).
From Fig. 4.75, due to the relatively low average speed, the proportion of buses
with average daily mileage within 150 km in first and second-tier cities was slightly
higher than that in cities of other tiers.
The proportion of buses for nighttime travel in first-tier cities is relatively
high.
From the distribution of driving time of buses over the years (Fig. 4.76), it can be
seen that the driving time of buses in 2021 was earlier than that of 2019 and 2020, and
the proportion of buses traveling between 8:00 and 16:00 was relatively stable, which
is in line with the travel characteristics of buses; the proportion of buses traveling
between 18:00 and 23:00 in first-tier cities was 16.6%, slightly higher than that in
cities of other tiers, with the latter all below 13% (Fig. 4.77).
3. Average monthly travel characteristics of buses
The average monthly travel days of more than 60% of buses were more than 25
in 2021.
Table 4.37 Average daily mileage of buses-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average daily mileage (km) 146.21 148.29 150.78
134 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
10
20
30
40
<50 50～100 100～150 150～200 200～250 250～300 >300
Proportion (%)
Average daily mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.74 Distribution of buses of different average daily mileages—by year
0
10
20
30
40
<50 50～100 100～150 150～200 200～250 250～300 >300
Proportion (%)
Average daily mileage (km)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.75 Distribution of buses of different average daily mileages in 2021—by city tier
The average monthly travel days of buses in 2021 were 23.44, mostly the same
as in previous years (Table 4.38). The proportion of vehicles with average monthly
travel days of 25 significantly increased, from 28.58% in 2020 to 61.74% in 2021
(Fig. 4.78). The operation of new energy buses has become more routine.
The average monthly mileage of buses has been relatively stable over the
years, with an average monthly mileage of 3712.63 km in 2021.
In 2021, the average monthly mileage of buses was 3712.63 km, which has been
relatively stable over the years (Table 4.39). The proportion of buses with an average
monthly mileage of more than 5000 km in 2021 increased compared to 2019 and
2020 (Fig. 4.79).
The proportion of buses with an average monthly mileage of more than 4000 km
in fifth-tier cities was higher than that in cities of other tiers (Fig. 4.80).
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 135
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0123456789 1011121314151617181920212223
Proportion (%)
Time
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.76 Distribution of buses of different driving times—by year
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Proportion (%)
Time
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.77 Distribution of buses of different driving times in 2021—by city tier
Table 4.38 Average monthly
travel days of buses-average Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly travel days (day) 22.15 22.55 23.44
4.2.7 Operation Characteristics of Heavy-Duty Trucks
1. Average single-trip travel characteristics of heavy-duty trucks
The average single-trip travel duration of heavy-duty trucks has remained stable
at 1.1 h in the past two years, with a significant increase compared with 2019.
136 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Proportion (%)
Average monthly travel days (day)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.78 Distribution of buses of different average monthly travel days—by year
Table 4.39 Average monthly mileage of buses-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly mileage (km) 3519.06 3682.57 3712.63
0
10
20
30
40
Proportion (%)
Average monthly mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.79 Distribution of buses of different average monthly mileages—by year
In the past two years, the average single-trip travel duration of heavy-duty has
remained relatively stable at around 1.1 h, and it was mostly the same as that in
2021 and 2020 (Table 4.40). The proportion of heavy-duty trucks with an average
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 137
0
10
20
30
40
Proportion (%)
Average monthly mileage (km)
First-tier cities Second-tier cities Third-tier cities
Fourth-tier cities Fifth-tier cities
Fig. 4.80 Distribution of buses of different average monthly mileages in 2021—by city tier
Table 4.40 Average
single-trip travel duration of
heavy-duty trucks-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-trip travel duration (h) 0.86 1.11 1.10
single-trip travel duration of more than 1.5 h in 2021 was 38.7%, close to 2020 but
9.5% higher than that in 2019 (Fig. 4.81).
The average single-trip mileage of heavy-duty trucks in 2021 remained the
same as that in 2020 but higher than that in 2019.
According to the average single-trip mileage of heavy-duty trucks over the years,
in 2021, the average single-trip mileage of heavy-duty trucks was 22.97 km, the same
as in 2020 (Table 4.41).
Heavy-duty trucks’ average single-trip mileage was mainly concentrated within
30 km (Fig. 4.82), with a proportion of 74.53% in 2021. However, the proportion of
heavy-duty trucks with an average single-trip mileage of more than 30 km is rising,
increasing from 12.5% in 2019 to 25.5% in 2021.
The average single-trip speed of heavy-duty trucks in the past two years has been
slightly higher than 20 km (Table 4.42). The average single-trip speed of heavy-duty
trucks in 2021 was 20.65 km/h, mostly the same as the previous year.
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.83), the proportion of heavy-duty trucks with
average single-trip speeds of more than 30 km/h increased from 4.1% in 2020 to
7.3% in 2021.
2. Average daily travel characteristics of heavy-duty trucks
The average daily travel duration of heavy-duty trucks is increasing yearly.
138 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip travel duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.81 Distribution of heavy-duty trucks of different average single-trip travel durations—by
year
Table 4.41 Average single-trip mileage of heavy-duty trucks-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-trip mileage (km) 15.44 22.98 22.97
0
10
20
30
40
50
0～10 10～20 20～30 30～40 40～50 >50
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.82 Distribution of heavy-duty trucks of different average single-trip mileages—by year
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 139
Table 4.42 Average single-trip speed of heavy-duty trucks-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-trip speed (km/h) 18.79 20.68 20.65
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0～10 10～20 20～30 30～40 40～50 >50
Proportion (%)
Average single-trip speed (km/h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.83 Distribution of heavy-duty trucks of different average single-trip speeds—by year
Table 4.43 Average daily
travel duration of heavy-duty
trucks-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average daily travel duration (h) 3.89 5.12 5.21
Heavy-duty trucks’ average daily travel duration has been relatively stable in the
past two years. Heavy-duty trucks’ average daily travel duration in 2021 was 5.21 h,
an increase of 1.8% compared with 2020 (Table 4.43).
According to the monthly average daily travel duration over the years (Fig. 4.84),
heavy-duty trucks’ average daily travel duration from January to May 2021 was
higher than the same period in 2020, then decreased slightly, approaching the same
period last year.
According to the distribution of average daily travel duration (Fig. 4.85), the
proportion of heavy-duty trucks is relatively scattered; the proportion of heavy-duty
trucks with average daily travel duration gradually shifted from low hours to high
hours, and the proportion of heavy-duty trucks with an average daily travel duration
of 4-7 h increased from 29.9% in 2019 to 49.1% in 2021.
The average daily mileage of heavy-duty trucks has gradually increased in
the past three years.
In 2021, logistics vehicles’ average monthly mileage was 2270.33 km, with a YoY
increase of 1.7% (Table 4.44). Heavy-duty trucks’ monthly average daily mileage in
2021 was primarily consistent with the same period in 2020 (Fig. 4.86).
140 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Average daily travel duraton (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.84 Monthly average of average daily travel duration of heavy-duty trucks—by year
0
5
10
15
20
<1 1～2 2～3 3～4 4～5 5～6 6～7 7～8 >8
Proportion (%)
Average daily travel duration (h)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.85 Distribution of heavy-duty trucks of different average daily travel durations—by year
Table 4.44 Average daily
mileage of heavy-duty
trucks-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average daily mileage (km) 71.02 105.73 107.57
As the distribution shows (Fig. 4.87), the proportion of heavy-duty trucks with an
average daily mileage of more than 100 km increased from 27.2% in 2019 to 48.4%
in 2021.
The proportion of heavy-duty trucks traveling in the early morning has been
increasing yearly.
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 141
0
30
60
90
120
150
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Average daily tarvel mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.86 Monthly average of average daily mileage of heavy-duty trucks—by year
0
10
20
30
40
50
<50 50～100 100～150 150～200 200～250 250～300 >300
Proportion (%)
Average daily mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.87 Distribution of heavy-duty trucks of different average daily mileages—by year
According to the distribution of the driving time of heavy-duty trucks over the
years (Fig. 4.88), the proportion of heavy-duty trucks with driving time between 0:00
and 7:00 has been increasing yearly, from 15.2% in 2019 to 25.8% in 2021, which
is in line with the driving characteristics of heavy-duty trucks.
3. Average monthly travel characteristics of heavy-duty trucks
The average monthly t ravel days of heavy-duty trucks have gradually increased
in the past three years.
142 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
2
4
6
8
10
0123456789 1011121314151617181920212223
Proportion (%)
Time
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.88 Distribution of heavy-duty trucks of different driving times—by year
In the past three years, the average monthly travel days of heavy-duty trucks
have been increasing yearly, and that in 2021 was 20.77, with an increase of 13.6%
compared with 2020 (Table 4.45).
According to the monthly average daily mileage over the years (Fig. 4.89), except
for February and November, the average daily mileage of heavy-duty trucks in other
months of 2021 was higher than that of the same period in 2020.
From the distribution of average monthly travel days of heavy-duty trucks
(Fig. 4.90), the proportion of vehicles with an average monthly travel day of more
than 20 significantly increased, from 41.9% in 2019 to 66.3% in 2021.
The average monthly mileage of heavy-duty trucks has been increasing
yearly, and that in 2021 was 2424.87 km.
The average monthly mileage of heavy-duty trucks in 2021 was 2424.87 km,
an increase of 8.8% compared with 2020 (Table 4.46). According to the average
monthly mileage over the years (Fig. 4.91), from January to May 2021, the average
monthly mileage of heavy-duty trucks was higher than that in the same period in
previous years and subsequently decreased; as the distribution shows (Fig. 4.92),
the proportion of heavy-duty trucks with an average monthly mileage of more than
2000 km increased from 27.2% in 2019 to 50.8% in 2021.
Compared to other types of vehicles, BEV heavy-duty trucks have a large body
and higher requirements for the three electric systems, including motor and elec-
tronic control. They need to adapt to more different scenarios, such as uphill and
Table 4.45 Average monthly travel days of heavy-duty trucks
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly travel days (day) 15.37 18.28 20.77
4.2 Operation Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 143
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Average monthly travel days (day)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.89 Average monthly travel days of heavy-duty trucks over the years
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Proportion (%)
Average monthly travel days
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.90 Distribution of heavy-duty trucks of different average monthly travel days—by year
Table 4.46 Average monthly mileage of heavy-duty trucks-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly mileage (km) 1318.65 2228.24 2424.87
144 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Average monthly travel mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.91 Average monthly mileage of heavy-duty trucks over the years
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
<1000 1000～2000 2000～3000 3000～4000 4000～5000 >5000
Proportion (%)
Average monthly mileage (km)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 4.92 Distribution of heavy-duty trucks of different average monthly mileages—by year
downhill roads, uneven roads, strong winds and snow, and other harsh weather envi-
ronments. BEV heavy-duty trucks are more suitable for short-distance or fixed-line
transportation to avoid sudden situations such as insufficient driving range. In this
context, battery-swapping heavy-duty trucks have high promotion and application
value. Battery-swapping-type heavy-duty trucks can complete battery swapping in
only 3–10 min, resulting in higher operational efficiency; Regarding the economy, the
purchase cost is reduced due to the separation of vehicles and electricity. Although
the initial purchase cost is still higher than that of fuel-powered heavy-duty trucks,
the economic efficiency during the operation process is higher than that of fuel-
powered trucks. According to publicly available data, the electricity consumption
of battery-swapping-type heavy-duty trucks is 1.2 kWh/km, saving approximately
60 yuan/100 km compared with fuel-powered heavy-duty trucks. Swapping-type
4.3 Summary 145
heavy-duty trucks have achieved good promotion and application results in multiple
scenarios, such as urban transportation, construction sites, mines, and ports. Although
the battery swapping mode can accelerate the process of electrification of heavy-duty
trucks, there are still many difficulties: firstly, regardless of leasing or purchasing
batteries, the current acquisition and operating costs are relatively high; secondly,
although the battery swapping time for a single vehicle is relatively short, due to the
limited number of battery swapping stations, the waiting time will be extended once
there is a queue for battery swapping, and it is uncertain whether there are suffi-
cient backup batteries in the swapping station. Continuous innovation in technology,
modes, and other aspects is still needed in the future.
4.3 Summary
1. Online rate
The online rate of NEVs in China has continued to grow in the past three years, with
basic stability of around 80% in 2020 and 2021. The online rate of PHEVs is higher
than that of BEVs and FCVs. It is worth noting that FCV is currently in the initial
stage of industrialization and commercial operation, and 2021, its average online rate
of 72% is close to 79.7% of BEV, and the vehicle operation tends to be routine.
Fourth and fifth-tier cities have a higher monthly online rate each year, indicating
a higher demand for vehicles. At the same time, its holdings are lower than that of
first and second-tier cities. Fourth and fifth-tier cities will be key promotion areas
for NEVs in the future, and promoting marketable models in combination with the
local market environment is necessary.
In each market segment, the monthly average online rate of e-taxis is the highest.
e-taxis and cars for sharing are both new business forms emerging in recent years.
From 2021, the online rate of the former (96.5%) is much higher than that of the
latter (63.8%), and the online rate of the latter is decreasing yearly. From this point,
the operators of cars for sharing need to make some breakthrough innovations in
network layout, use, parking, and vehicle condition maintenance, and improve the
online rate to achieve sustainable development. In the past three years, the online
rate of heavy-duty trucks has shown a significant increase trend, with the growth rate
ranking first among various segments, indicating that they are in a rapid release of
operating demand. The electrification of heavy-duty trucks is significant for China
to achieve the “carbon peaking and carbon neutrality” goal.
2. Operation characteristics of vehicles in key segments
(1) Passenger cars
•Private cars
The proportion of private cars with an average single-trip travel duration of more
than 0.5 h in China is 56.3%, with an increase of 27.7% compared with that in 2020,
146 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
which to some extent, indicates an increase in the proportion of long-distance travel
of private cars. The average single-trip mileage of private cars was mainly within
20 km, with the proportion over the years around 80%. The proportion of private cars
with an average single-trip mileage of more than 10 km in 2021 was 61.4%, with
an increase of 9.7% compared with that in 2020. Based on the average single-trip
driving time, it can be inferred that the daily travel radius of private cars is gradually
increasing.
In 2021, the proportion of private cars with an average monthly travel day of more
than 25 increased significantly, and private cars with an average monthly travel day of
more than 25 can be considered the primary means of transportation for households.
This phenomenon indicates that the proportion of new energy-private cars as the
first and only vehicle for households has increased, and the frequency of use has
significantly increased.
•Taxis and e-taxis
The average daily mileage of e-taxis is mainly 100–250 km, accounting for 84.8%.
This mileage range mostly conforms to the travel characteristics of commercial vehi-
cles, indicating that new energy passenger cars are preliminarily recognized for their
economy when used as e-taxis. The number of e-taxis with an average monthly
mileage of more than 5000 km is proliferating, and the proportion of such e-taxis
increased from 23.5% in 2020 to 34.2% in 2021. The main reason for the increase
in the proportion of e-taxis in the high average monthly mileage is that with the
gradual rationalization of the matching between charging and swapping devices and
vehicles, the e-taxis operation is further normalized.
The average daily mileage of taxis is mostly around 200 km, with taxis with
an average daily mileage of 100–250 km accounting for the main proportion; the
proportion of taxis with an average daily mileage of more than 5000 km in 2021 was
48.04%, with an increase of 2.1% and 10.5% compared with that in 2019 and 2020,
respectively.
•Cars for sharing
In 2021, the average daily travel duration and average daily mileage of cars for sharing
had significantly increased compared with previous years. The average daily travel
duration of cars for sharing was 5.1 h in 2021, with an increase of 82.0% and 84.7%
compared with that in 2019 and 2020, respectively; the average daily mileage of cars
for sharing in 2021 was 124.0 km, with a YoY increase of 24.4%. Due to issues such
as heavy assets and relatively low utilization rates in the timeshare rental market,
the timeshare rental market is gradually shrinking, while the shared rental market
for monthly rental or long-distance travel on weekends and holidays is proliferating,
with a significant increase in vehicle operating hours and mileage.
4.3 Summary 147
(2) Commercial vehicles
•Logistics vehicles
The average single-trip travel duration and average single-trip mileage of logistics
vehicles in 2021 were 0.87 h and 18.96 km, respectively, which showed an increase
compared with that in 2020 and gradually returned to pre-COVID-19 level, indicating
that the use of new energy logistics vehicles is gradually becoming more routine. In
the past three years, logistics vehicles’ average monthly mileage has rapidly grown.
In 2021, logistics vehicles’ average monthly mileage was 2270.33 km, with a YoY
increase of 4.7%. As the distribution shows, the proportion of logistics vehicles with
an average monthly mileage of more than 3000 km rapidly increased from 10.7%
in 2019 to 29.2% in 2021, and new energy logistics vehicles are gradually tending
towards benign operation.
•Buses
The daily operation of buses has a strong regularity, and the average daily travel
duration remains stable at around 7 h. The average daily mileage is mostly the same
as that in previous years, mainly concentrated in 100–200 km; Regarding monthly
travel characteristics, the average monthly travel days of over 60% of buses in 2021
was more than 25, and the average monthly mileage has been relatively stable over
the years, all of which are above 3500 km. With the normalization of bus operation,
new energy buses are gradually replacing more fuel buses and taking on the operation
tasks of longer routes.
•Heavy-duty trucks
As the distribution shows, in the past three years, heavy-duty trucks’ average single-
trip mileage was mainly concentrated within 30 km, with a proportion of 74.5%
in 2021. However, the proportion of heavy-duty trucks with an average single-trip
mileage of more than 30 km is rising, increasing from 12.5% in 2019 to 25.5% in
2021. The increase in average single-trip mileage provides more possibilities for
expanding the application scenarios of BEV heavy-duty trucks. In 2021, the average
daily travel duration and average daily mileage of heavy-duty trucks were 5.2 h and
107.6 km, respectively, increased compared with previous years, and vehicle opera-
tion is gradually becoming more routine. Currently, cities across China face pressure
to save energy and reduce emissions and heavy-duty trucks play a crucial role in
energy conservation and carbon reduction in transportation. It is necessary to pay
practical attention to how to improve the utilization rate of new energy heavy-duty
trucks, innovate from the perspectives including ROW, business model, and infras-
tructure i mprovement, and evaluate the energy consumption and carbon emissions
indicators of new energy heavy-duty trucks from an entire lifecycle perspective,
effectively enhancing the responsibility of “Pollution and Carbon Reduction” for
new energy heavy-duty trucks.
148 4 Operation of New Energy Vehicles
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Chapter 5
Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Charging infrastructure is an important guarantee for the green travel of electric
vehicle users and an important support for promoting the development of the NEV
industry, promoting the construction of new power systems, and helping to achieve
the goal of carbon peaking and carbon neutrality. On January 10, 2022, the National
Development and Reform Commission, the National Energy Administration, and
other departments jointly issued the Implementation Opinions of the National Devel-
opment and Reform Commission and other departments on Further Improving the
Service Guarantee Capacity of Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure (FGNYG
[2022] No. 53) (hereinafter referred to as the “Implementation Opinions”), which
make clears target plans and guidance for guiding the construction of a moderately
advanced, balanced, intelligent and efficient charging infrastructure system during
the “14th Five-Year Plan” period. This chapter analyzes the charging characteristics
of vehicles in different application scenarios, charging behavior in different charging
scenarios, and operation characteristics of battery swapping modes, and summarizes
the charging laws of electric vehicle users, providing certain research references for
further improving the layout and planning of China’s charging infrastructures.
5.1 Construction Situation of Charging Infrastructures
5.1.1 Progress in Charging Infrastructure Construction
The construction scale of charging facilities continues to maintain rapid growth,
and as of the end of 2021, the UIO of charging infrastructures in China has
reached 2.617 million units.
In recent years, China’s charging infrastructures have steadily developed from
charging technology and standard system to industrial ecology. China has built
the world’s most extensive charging infrastructure system with the most significant
number, radiation area, and comprehensive service vehicles. According to statistics
© China Machine Press Co., Ltd. 2024
Z. Wang, Annual Report on the Big Data of New Energy Vehicle in China (2022),
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6411-6_5
149
150 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
14.9 24.4 38.7 51.6
80.7
114.7
6.3 23.2
47.7
70.3
87.4
147.0
21.2
47.6
86.4
121.9
168.1
261.7
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
UIO (10,000 units)
Public Charging Piles Private Charging Piles
Fig. 5.1 UIO of charging infrastructures in China over the years. Source China Electric Vehicle
Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (EVCIPA)
from the China Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (here-
inafter referred to as the “EVCIPA”) (Fig. 5.1), as of the end of 2021, the s cale
of charging facilities in China has reached 2.617 million units, with 1298 battery
swapping stations, providing strong support for the development of China’s NEV
industry. With the rapid growth of charging facilities built along with vehicles, the
proportion of private charging piles has gradually increased. By 2021, the number
of private charging piles reached 1.47 million, accounting for 56.2% of the charging
infrastructures in China.
The number of new charging piles has increased significantly. In 2021, the
number of new charging piles was 936,000, with the increment ratio of vehicle
to pile being 3.7:1.
The number of charging infrastructures and the sales of NEVs showed explosive
growth in 2021. The sales of NEVs reached 3.521 million units, with a YoY increase
of 157.5%. In 2021, the charging infrastructures increased by 936,000 units compared
with 2020 (Fig. 5.2), with the increment ratio of vehicle to pile being 3.7:1. The
construction of charging infrastructures can mostly meet the rapid development of
NEVs.
In the field of public charging piles, the UIO of AC charging piles accounts for a
large proportion of the UIO of public charging facilities. As shown in Fig. 5.3,bythe
end of 2021, the UIO of AC charging piles reached 677,000, accounting for 59.0% of
the UIO of charging infrastructures; the UIO of DC charging piles reached 470,000,
accounting for 41.0% of the UIO of charging infrastructures, and there were 589 AC/
DC integrated charging piles. In 2020, the new public charging piles were mainly
AC charging piles.
5.1 Construction Situation of Charging Infrastructures 151
10 9.5 14.3 12.9
29.1 34.0
5.4
16.9
24.5 22.6
17.1
59.6
15.4
26.4
38.8 35.5
46.2
93.6
0
20
40
60
80
100
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Annual increase (10,000 uni ts)
Public Charging Piles Private Charging Piles
Fig. 5.2 Increment of charging infrastructures in China over the years. Source China Electric
Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (EVCIPA)
67.7
47
0.0589
17.9 16.1
0.0109
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
AC Charging Piles DC Charging Piles AC/DC Integrated Charging Piles
Quantity (10,000 units)
UIO in 2021 Increase in 2021
Fig. 5.3 UIO and new additions of public charging piles in China. Source China Electric Vehicle
Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (EVCIPA)
In the private field, the reasons why vehicle enterprises do not build charging piles
with vehicles are relatively concentrated. According to the accompanying informa-
tion of vehicles and piles sampled by the EVCIPA (Fig. 5.4), among the reasons why
new energy vehicles were not equipped with charging facilities in 2021, the main
reasons for not building charging facilities with vehicles were group users building
piles themselves, lack of fixed parking spaces in their residential areas, and lack of
coordination from residential properties, accounting for 48.6%, 10.3%, and 9.9%,
152 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.4 Proportion of
reasons why vehicle
enterprises did not build
charging piles with vehicles
in 2021. Source China
Electric Vehicle Charging
Infrastructure Promotion
Alliance (EVCIPA) Group Users Building
Piles Themselves, 48.6%
Lack of Fixed
Parking Spaces in
Residential Areas,
10.3%
Lack of Coordination from
Residential Properties, 9.9%
Users Choosing Dedicated
Charging Stations, No Fixed
Parking Spaces in Workplaces, and
difficulties in application for
installation, 31.2%
respectively, totaling 68.8%. The proportion of users choosing dedicated charging
stations, no fixed parking spaces in workplaces, and difficulties in application for
installation and other reasons accounted for 31.2%.
5.1.2 Progress in Charging Technology
The charging technology continues to improve, and the average charging power
of the public DC charging piles increases steadily.
As showninFig. 5.5, the average charging power of the public charging piles has
mostly remained stable, which has remained chiefly at about 9 kW since 2016; the
charging power of public DC charging piles has increased rapidly, and since 2019,
the average power of public DC charging piles has exceeded 100 kW to meet the
requirements of electric vehicles with long driving range and short charging time.
The trend of high power in the field of public charging facilities is gradually
emerging.
According to the average power change of the new public DC charging piles
over the years (Fig. 5.6), the high-power charging piles with 120 kW and above are
proliferating, and the charging piles are gradually developing towards high power.
With the increasingly urgent demand for high-power charging of NEVs, in June
2020, State Grid Corporation of China released the White Paper on ChaoJi Conduc-
tive Charging Technology for Electric Vehicles, marking the entry of ChaoJi charging
technology into a new stage of standard formulation and industrial application.
The cable components of ChaoJi conductive charging technology adopt the liquid
5.1 Construction Situation of Charging Infrastructures 153
9.3 9.2 9.2 9.1 8.9 8.8
72.4
85.2
96.9
107.8
114.4
120.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
2016 2 017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Average Power (kW)
Public Charging Piles Public DC Charging Piles
Fig. 5.5 Average power change of charging piles in public fields over the years. Source China
Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (EVCIPA)
0
10
20
30
40
Average Power (kW)
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Fig. 5.6 Average power change of new public DC charging piles over the years in China. Source
China Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (EVCIPA)
cooling method, with a maximum charging power of 900 kW, meeting the high-power
charging needs and making charging as fast as refueling. With the implementation
of the new generation of supercharging technology, it will stimulate the release of
more super quick-charging models. Since 2020, vehicle enterprises and operators
such as BYD, Geely, ARCFOX, Hyundai, GAC, Xiaopeng, Lixiang, Huawei have
successively released solutions and models equipped with 800 V high-voltage plat-
forms. ZEEKR, Xiaopeng, and BYD have set the mass production time for 800 V
voltage platform models in 2022. With the rapid growth of electrification in new
154 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
energy enterprises, choosing a high-voltage architecture at the vehicle enterprise
level is necessary to achieve high-power fast charging and improve users’ charging
experience.
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments
Through analysis of vehicles in six segments, including new energy private cars,
BEV e-taxis, BEV taxis, BEV cars for sharing, BEV logistics vehicles, and BEV
buses, this section analyzes and summarizes the charging characteristics of vehicles at
different periods with the average single-time charging characteristics, average daily
charging characteristics and average monthly charging characteristics as focuses
(Table 5.1), and draws a conclusion on the vehicle charging laws, intending to provide
a reference for the improvement of charging facility policies and the reasonable
layout of charging facilities by operators. The specific indicators under analysis are
as follows.
5.2.1 Charging Characteristics of New Energy Private Cars
(1) Average single-time charging characteristics of new energy private cars
The average single-time charging duration of new energy private cars concen-
trated at 1–4 h, and the proportion of new energy private cars with an average
Table 5.1 Analysis indicators for NEV segments
Analysis dimension Analysis indicator Definition
Average single-time charging
characteristics
Average single-time charging
duration
Average charging duration of
single charging
Average single-time charging
initial SOC
Average initial SOC of single
charging
Average daily charging
characteristics
Charging time Distribution of charging time
in asingleday (24h)
Average monthly charging
characteristics
Average monthly charging
times
Average charging times in a
single month
Average monthly fast charging
times
Average times of fast charging
in a single month
Average monthly slow
charging times
Average times of slow
charging in a single month
Average monthly charge Average charges in a single
month
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 155
single-time charging duration of 1–4 h in the past two years has reached over
60%.
In 2021, the average single-time charging duration of new energy private cars
was 3.7 h, which is 0.2 h shorter than that in 2020 (Table 5.2). The distribution
of vehicles’ average single-time charging duration in 2021 was mostly consistent
with that in 2020 (Fig. 5.7), with the average single-time charging duration mainly
concentrated in 1–4 h.
From the distribution of single-time charging durations for BEV private cars
on weekdays and weekends, it can be seen that the average single-time charging
durations for BEV private cars are mainly concentrated in 2–5 h. During weekends,
the proportion of BEV and PHEV private cars with average single-time charging
duration above 8 h is significantly higher than that during weekdays (Fig. 5.8). The
average single-time charging duration of PHEV private cars concentrated at 2–3 h,
and the distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV private cars is
relatively balanced (Fig. 5.9).
Regarding the charging methods for new energy private cars (Fig. 5.10), the fast
charging duration i s mainly concentrated within 2 h, with vehicles with a dura-
tion within 2 h accounting for 93.3%; t he distribution of slow charging duration is
relatively dispersed, with vehicles with a duration of 2–6 h accounting for 60%.
The average single-time charging initial SOC of private cars is 39.8%, which
is mostly the s ame as in previous years.
Table 5.2 Average single-time charging duration of new energy private cars over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-time charging duration (h) 4.0 3.9 3.7
Fig. 5.7 Distribution of average single-time charging duration of new energy private cars—by year
156 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.8 Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV private cars in 2021—by
weekday and weekend
Fig. 5.9 Distribution of average single-time charging duration of PHEV private cars in 2021—by
weekday and weekend
According to the data over the years, the average single-time charging initial SOC
of new energy private cars in 2021 was 39.8%, which is mostly the same as in previous
years (Table 5.3). The proportion of cars with an average single-time charging initial
SOC of over 50% for private cars in 2021 was 26.5% (Fig. 5.11), with an increase
of 2.7% and 3.9% compared with 2019 and 2020, respectively.
Regardless of BEVs or PHEVs, the proportion of private cars with a charging
initial SOC in the low battery range (10–20%) and in the high battery range (70–
90%) during weekends was higher than that on weekdays, while the number of private
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 157
Fig. 5.10 Distribution of average single-time charging duration of new energy private cars in
2021—by fast charging and slow charging
Table 5.3 Average single-time charging initial SOC of new energy private cars over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-time charging initial SOC (%) 39.3 41.6 39.8
Fig. 5.11 Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of new energy private cars—by
year
158 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
cars charged on weekends in other battery ranges (30–60%) was lower than that on
weekdays (Figs. 5.12 and 5.13). The increase in the number of private cars traveling
long distances on weekends makes charging reserves in advance more concentrated,
resulting in more charging behavior for vehicles in lower and higher SOC ranges.
Although commuting is the primary use of new energy private cars, it can already
meet the needs of medium to long-distance travel.
Fig. 5.12 Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV private cars in 2021—by
weekday and weekend
Fig. 5.13 Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of PHEV private cars in 2021—
by weekday a nd weekend
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 159
Fig. 5.14 Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of new energy private cars in
2021—by fast charging and slow charging
Regarding vehicle charging methods, the average single-time charging initial SOC
for fast charging of new energy private cars was more concentrated at 10–50%, with
the number of vehicles accounting for 80.3%, which is 14.4% higher than the number
of vehicles for slow charging; the average single-time charging initial SOC for slow
charging of new energy private cars was more concentrated in 20–60%, with the
number of vehicles accounting for 73.8% (Fig. 5.14). Fast charging is more used for
fast charging when the battery is low, while slow charging is more used for regular
charging.
(2) Average daily charging characteristics of new energy private cars
The average daily charging time for new energy private cars in 2021 concen-
trated during the morning rush hour and at night.
According to the distribution of charging times, in 2021, the charging of new
energy private cars concentrated in the morning rush hours and at night. Specifically,
the proportion of new energy private cars charged between 7:00 and 9:00 was 16.34%,
and that charged between 18:00 and 22:00 was 34.68%, significantly higher than that
in other periods (Fig. 5.15). The charging characteristics at commuting destinations
(work unit and residence) are apparent.
According to the daily charging characteristics of vehicles on weekdays and week-
ends, the proportion of BEV and PHEV private cars charged from 7:00 to 9:00 am
during the morning rush hours on weekdays was higher than on weekends (Figs. 5.16
and 5.17).
Regarding the charging methods, during the period from 8:00 to 18:00, the propor-
tion of vehicles using the fast charging method was generally higher than that of
160 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.15 Distribution of charging time of new energy private cars in 2021
Fig. 5.16 Distribution of charging time of BEV private cars in 2021—by weekday and weekend
vehicles using the slow charging method; from the 18:00 to 24:00 period, more vehi-
cles adopted the slow charging method. The proportion of vehicles using the slow
charging method from 18:00 to 22:00 reached 36.3% (Fig. 5.18).
(3) Average monthly charging characteristics of new energy private cars
In 2021, the average monthly charging times of new energy private cars were
8.8 times, with an increase from previous years (Table 5.4).
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 161
Fig. 5.17 Distribution of charging time of PHEV private cars in 2021—by weekday and weekend
Fig. 5.18 Distribution of charging time of new energy private cars in 2021—by fast charging and
slow charging
Table 5.4 Average monthly
charging times of new energy
private cars over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly charging times 8.0 7.4 8.8
162 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
According to the distribution of average monthly charging times of new energy
private cars, the proportion of new energy private cars with an average monthly
charging time of more than 5 was 61.3%, with an increase of 14.7% compared with
2020 (Fig. 5.19). It is mainly due to the increase in the proportion of vehicles with
high-frequency average monthly charging compared with 2020. BEV private cars’
average monthly charging times were mainly concentrated within 5 times, accounting
for 57.9%. However, the proportion of BEV private cars with an average monthly
charging time of 5–15 was significantly increased (Fig. 5.20); the proportion of PHEV
private cars with an average monthly charging time of less than 5 times increased
compared with 2020 (Fig. 5.21).
From the changes in vehicle charging methods over the years, the proportion
of slow charging for new energy private cars has remained mostly stable in the past
three years. In 2021, the proportion of slow charging in the average monthly charging
times of new energy private cars was 85.2%, which is mostly the same as that in 2020
(Fig. 5.22).
In 2021, the average monthly fast charging times of new energy private cars
were 1.3 times, with a slight increase from previous years.
In 2021, the average monthly fast charging times of new energy private cars were
1.3 times, slightly increasing from previous years (Table 5.5). The new energy private
cars with an average monthly fast charging time of less than 5 still accounted for
the main proportion, reaching 89.5% in 2021 (Fig. 5.23). The proportion of vehicles
with an average monthly fast charging time of more than 5 increased, from 3.4%
in 2019 to 10.6% in 2021, mainly due to the rapid growth of public fast charging
facilities and the increasing trend of fast charging times for new energy private cars.
In 2021, the average monthly slow charging times of new energy private cars
were 6.9 times, with an increase from 2020 (Table 5.6).
Fig. 5.19 Distribution of average monthly charging times of new energy private cars—by year
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 163
Fig. 5.20 Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV private cars—by year
Fig. 5.21 Distribution of average monthly charging times of PHEV private cars—by year
Slow charging is still the primary method for new energy private cars, accounting
for 85.2% of the monthly average charging times. From the distribution of times
(Fig. 5.24), the proportion of vehicles with an average monthly slow charging time
of 5 or more increased from 39.6% in 2020 to 54.1% in 2021, with a higher charging
frequency of slow charging for private cars in 2021.
The slow charging frequency of private cars with different driving modes is
increasing. The proportion of BEV private cars with an average monthly slow
164 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
12.3%
87.7%
15.4%
84.6%
14.8%
85.2%
Fast Charging
Slow Charging
Fig. 5.22 Distribution of average monthly charging times of new energy private cars over the
years—by fast charging and slow charging
Table 5.5 Average monthly fast charging times of new energy private cars over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly fast charging times 0.8 1.2 1.3
Fig. 5.23 Distribution of average monthly charging times of new energy private cars—by year for
fast charging
Table 5.6 Average monthly
slow charging times of new
energy private cars over the
years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly slow charging times 7.4 6.5 6.9
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 165
Fig. 5.24 Distribution of average monthly slow charging times of new energy private cars—by
year
Fig. 5.25 Distribution of average monthly slow charging times of BEV private cars—by year
charging time of over 5 increased from 39.2% in 2019 to 46.3% in 2021 (Fig. 5.25);
the proportion of PHEV private cars with an average monthly slow charging time of
over 5 increased from 40.8% in 2020 to 47.4% in 2021 (Fig. 5.26).
The average monthly charge of new energy private cars in 2021 was
105.5 kWh, with an increase of 25.3% compared with that in 2020 (Table 5.7).
The new energy private cars with an average monthly charge of less than 100 kWh
in 2021 controlled a large proportion of 44.3%. Regarding the trend of changes over
the years (Fig. 5.27), the proportion of vehicles with an average monthly charge of
more than 50 kWh showed a significant upward trend, increasing from 49.4% in 2019
to 55.7% in 2021. There are multiple reasons for the increase in average monthly
charge, mainly due to the increase in mileage and vehicle upsizing.
166 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.26 Distribution of average monthly slow charging times of PHEV private cars—by year
Table 5.7 Average monthly charge of new energy private cars over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly charge (kWh) 86 84.2 105.5
Fig. 5.27 Distribution of average monthly charge of new energy private cars—by year
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 167
5.2.2 Charging Characteristics of BEV E-taxis
(1) Average single-time charging characteristics of BEV e-taxis
The average single-time charging duration of BEV e-taxis was 1.6 h in 202,
which is mostly the same as that in 2020.
As shown in Table 5.8, the average single-time charging duration of BEV e-taxis
was 1.6 h in 202, which is mostly the same as in 2020. According to the distribution
of average single-time charging duration (Fig. 5.28), the proportion of BEV e-taxis
with an average single-time charging duration of more than 2 h increased from 26.1%
in 2020 to 32.9% in 2021, which to some extent indicates that the proportion of BEV
e-taxis using slow charging is increasing.
Regarding the charging methods, the fast charging of BEV e-taxis is mainly
concentrated within 1 h, with the number of vehicles accounting for 84.2%. The
average single-time charging durations of e-taxis using slow charging are relatively
dispersed (Fig. 5.29). For operation purposes, the average single-time charging dura-
tions of BEV e-taxis are more concentrated in 4–5 h, which is longer than 2–3 h of
BEV private cars.
The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV e-taxis was 42.5% in
2021, which is mostly the same as that in previous years.
Table 5.8 Average single-time charging duration of BEV e-taxis over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-time charging duration (h) 1.8 1.5 1.6
Fig. 5.28 Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV e-taxis—by year
168 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.29 Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV e-taxis in 2021—by fast
charging and slow charging
The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV e-taxis was 42.5% in 2021
(Table 5.9), which is mostly the same as in previous years. As the distribution shows
(Fig. 5.30), the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV e-taxis concentrated
at 30–50%, and the proportion of vehicles in this range over the years is more than
75%.
Regarding charging methods, the average single-time charging initial SOC of
BEV e-taxis using fast charging is concentrated at 20–50%, and that using slow
charging is relatively dispersed (Fig. 5.31).
(2) Average daily charging characteristics of BEV e-taxis
In 2021, the overall charging time of BEV e-taxis was mainly distributed at
noon and night, which is higher than that of the same period of the previous
two years.
In 2021, the charging time of BEV e-taxis was mainly distributed at noon and
night, of which the proportion of vehicles charged from 19:00 to 0:00 the next day
increased from 30.9% in 2019 to 41% in 2020 (Fig. 5.32). During the charging peak
period from 11:00 am to 12:00 am in 2021, the proportion of vehicles increased
compared with previous years.
Regarding the charging methods, the slow charging period of BEV e-taxis is
mainly concentrated at night, with 55.3% of vehicles charged from 19:00 to 0:00 the
Table 5.9 Average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV e-taxis over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-time charging initial SOC (%) 43.2 43.4 42.5
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 169
Fig. 5.30 Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV e-taxis-by year
Fig. 5.31 Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV e-taxis in 2021—by
fast charging and slow charging
next day; the charging time of vehicles using fast charging is mainly concentrated
from 11:00 to 16:00 and 22:00 to 0:00 the next day, which is mainly related to the
operation attribute of e-taxis. Some e-taxis operate at night, so there will be a high
demand for fast charging after 22:00 (Fig. 5.33).
170 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.32 Distribution of charging time of BEV e-taxis—by year
Fig. 5.33 Distribution of charging time of BEV e-taxis in 2021—by fast charging and slow charging
(3) Average monthly charging characteristics of BEV e-taxis
The average monthly charging times of BEV e-taxis were 28.9 times, and the
proportion of vehicles with high charging times increased.
The average monthly charging times of BEV e-taxis reached 28.9 times in 2021,
which increased significantly compared with the previous two years (Table 5.10).
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 171
Regarding the average monthly charging times (Fig. 5.34), the proportion of BEV e-
taxis with average monthly charging times of more than 30 increased from 28.8% in
2020 to 43.9% in 2021, with an increase of 15.1%. Regarding the charging methods,
the proportion of BEV e-taxis using fast charging was slightly higher (Fig. 5.35).
In 2021, the average monthly fast charging times of BEV e-taxis were 21.7
times, and the overall fast charging times increased.
Table 5.10 Average monthly charging times of BEV e-taxis over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly charging times 26.6 25.0 28.9
Fig. 5.34 Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV e-taxis—by year
Fig. 5.35 Distribution of
average monthly charging
times of BEV e-taxis over
the years—by fast charging
and slow charging
172 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
The average monthly fast-charging times of BEV e-taxis in 2021 were 21.7 times
higher than that in the previous two years (Table 5.11). As the distribution shows
(Fig. 5.36), the proportion of BEV e-taxis with an average monthly fast charging
time of more t han 30 was 26.3%, with an increase of 7.9% and 9.3%, respectively,
compared to the previous two years. In general, more and more vehicles are choosing
fast charging to replenish their battery quickly.
The monthly average slow charging times of BEV e-taxis are mainly within
10 times.
The average monthly slow charging times of BEV e-taxis in 2021 were 7.2 times,
mostly consistent with that in 2019 and 2021 (Table 5.12). From the distribution of
average monthly slow charging times (Fig. 5.37), the BEV e-taxis with an average
monthly slow charging time of less than 10 accounts for the main proportion, with
the proportion in the recent three years of more than 70%.
Table 5.11 Average monthly fast charging times of BEV e-taxis over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly fast charging times 19.2 18.0 21.7
Fig. 5.36 Distribution of average monthly fast charging times of BEV e-taxis-by year
Table 5.12 Average monthly slow charging times of BEV e-taxis over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly slow charging times 7.5 7.0 7.2
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 173
Fig. 5.37 Distribution of average monthly slow charging times of BEV e-taxis—by year
Table 5.13 Average monthly charge of BEV e-taxis over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly charge (kWh) 640.4 548.4 652.8
The average monthly charge of BEV e-taxis in 2021 was 652.8 kWh, with an
increase of 19.0% compared with that in 2020 (Table 5.13).
As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.38), the proportion of BEV e-taxis using fast
charging with an average monthly charge of more than 1000 kWh increased from
4.9% in 2020 to 12.5% in 2021, with the highest growth rate, indicating that BEV
e-taxis tends to use fast charging during high mileage travel. In 2021, the proportion
of BEV e-taxis using slow charging with an average monthly charge of more than
500 kWh increased significantly (Fig. 5.39).
5.2.3 Charging Characteristics of BEV Taxis
(1) Average single-time charging characteristics of BEV taxis
The distribution of BEV taxis’ annual average single-time charging duration is
mainly concentrated within 1 h.
The average single-time charging duration of BEV taxis in 2021 was 1.1 h, the
same as in 2020 (Table 5.14). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.40), the distribution of
average single-time charging duration of BEV taxis was mainly concentrated within
1 h, and the proportion of vehicles with an average charging single-time charging
174 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.38 Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV e-taxis—by year for fast charging
Fig. 5.39 Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV e-taxis—by year for slow charging
duration of less than 1 h increased from 52.2% in 2019 to 68.9% in 2021, which is
related mainly to the continuous increase of average power of public DC charging
piles.
Regarding charging methods, BEV taxis with shorter average single-time charging
duration are dominant, with those using fast charging with an average single-time
charging duration of less than 1 h accounting for 86.6% and those using slow charging
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 175
Table 5.14 Average single-time charging duration of BEV taxis-average
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-time charging duration (h) 1.5 1.2 1.1
Fig. 5.40 Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV taxis—by year
with an average single-time charging duration of less than 2 h accounting for 61%
(Fig. 5.41). Regardless of fast or slow charging, it is a practical requirement for BEV
taxis to have a charging duration of less than 2 h as much as possible.
The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV taxis was mainly the
same as in previous years.
In 2021, the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV taxis was 42.2%,
which showed little change compared with 2020 (Table 5.15). As the distribution
shows (Fig. 5.42), the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV taxis was
mainly distributed in the range of 30–50%, but the proportion of vehicles increased
from 58.7% in 2020 to 61.6% in 2021.
Regarding charging methods, the average single-time charging initial SOC of
BEV taxis using fast charging was mainly concentrated at 30–50%, and that using
slow charging was relatively dispersed (Fig. 5.43).
(2) Average daily charging characteristics of BEV taxis
The proportion of BEV taxis charged between 11:00 and 17:00 during the day
in 2021 was significantly higher than that in previous years.
According to the distribution of charging time (Fig. 5.44), in 2021, BEV taxis
charged more intensively during the noon, afternoon, and night periods, with a higher
peak than that in the previous two years. With the acceleration of the electrification
176 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.41 Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV taxis in 2021—by fast
charging and slow charging
Table 5.15 Average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV taxis over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-time charging initial SOC (%) 44.2 43.3 42.2
Fig. 5.42 Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV taxis—by year
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 177
Fig. 5.43 Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV taxis in 2021—by fast
charging and slow charging
Fig. 5.44 Distribution of charging time of BEV taxis—by year
process of taxis, if the concentration of charging periods continues to increase, espe-
cially when taxis choose high-rate fast charging, attention should be paid to the power
grid load.
Considering the charging method, the fast charging of BEV taxis was mainly
concentrated from 11:00 to 17:00, 23:00 to 0:00 the next day; the slow charging was
mainly concentrated from 21:00 to 1:00 the next day (Fig. 5.45), which is in line with
the operation characteristics of taxis charging during peak travel demand periods.
178 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.45 Distribution of charging time of BEV taxis in 2021—by fast charging and slow charging
Table 5.16 Average monthly
charging times of BEV taxis
over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly charging times 31.2 28.6 41.0
(3) Average monthly charging characteristics of BEV taxis
The average monthly charging times of BEV taxis in 2021 were 41 times, with
an increase compared with the previous two years.
Regarding the average monthly charging times (Table 5.16), the proportion of
BEV taxis with average monthly charging times of more than 30 increased from
42.1% in 2019 to 66.8% in 2021 (Fig. 5.46). It indicates that in 2021, nearly 70% of
BEV taxis charge more than once a day.
Considering the charging methods, BEV taxis mainly choose fast charging
to supplement their electricity, with 80.2% of them using fast charging in 2021
(Fig. 5.47).
In 2021, the average monthly fast charging times of BEV taxis was 32.9 times,
with a YoY increase of 44.9% (Table 5.17).
As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.48), the proportion of BEV taxis with average
monthly fast charging times of more than 30 showed an upward trend, increasing
from 27.5% in 2019 to 59% in 2021. Among them, the proportion of BEV taxis
with average monthly fast charging times of more than 60 had increased 8.6 times
compared with 2019. It can be seen that the demand for fast recharging of BEV
taxis is very high, and the increase in fast charging behavior has put forward higher
requirements for vehicle battery safety management and vehicle safety monitoring.
The average monthly slow charging times of BEV taxis in 2021 were 8.1 times,
with an increase compared with that in 2020.
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 179
Fig. 5.46 Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV taxis—by year
Fig. 5.47 Distribution of
average monthly charging
times of BEV taxis over the
years—by fast charging and
slow charging
Table 5.17 Average monthly
fast charging times of BEV
taxis over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly fast charging times 22.6 22.7 32.9
The average monthly slow charging times of BEV taxis in 2021 were 8.1 times,
with an increase compared with 2020 (Table 5.18). As the distribution shows
(Fig. 5.49), it was mainly concentrated within the average monthly slow charging
times of 10. In 2021, the proportion of vehicles with average monthly slow charging
times of more than 10 increased.
The average monthly charge of BEV taxis was 944.5 kWh in 2021, with a
YoY increase of 43.9%.
180 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.48 Distribution of average monthly fast charging times of BEV taxis—by year
Table 5.18 Average monthly slow charging times of BEV taxis over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly slow charging times 8.5 5.8 8.1
Fig. 5.49 Distribution of average monthly slow charging times of BEV taxis—by year
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 181
Table 5.19 Average monthly charge of BEV taxis over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly charge (kWh) 742.8 656.5 944.5
Fig. 5.50 Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV taxis—by year for fast charging
The average monthly charge of BEV taxis was 944.5 kWh in 2021, with an increase
compared with the previous two years (Table 5.19). From the distribution of average
monthly charge (Fig. 5.50), the proportion of BEV taxis using fast charging with
an average monthly charge of more than 1000 kWh increased from 10.7% in 2019
to 39% in 2021; the proportion of BEV taxis using slow charging with an average
monthly charge of more than 1000 kWh increased from 20.5% in 2020 to 32% in
2021 (Fig. 5.51).
5.2.4 Charging Characteristics of BEV Cars for Sharing
(1) Average single-time charging characteristics of BEV cars for sharing
The average single-time charging duration of BEV cars for sharing is mainly
concentrated within 1 h.
The average single-time charging duration of BEV cars for sharing in 2021 was
1.4 h, with a decrease of 0.3 h compared with that in 2020 (Table 5.20). As the
distribution shows (Fig. 5.52), the proportion of BEV cars for sharing with an average
single-time charging duration of less than 1 h in 2021 reached 51%, with a significant
increase compared with that in 2019 and 2020.
182 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.51 Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV taxis—by year for slow charging
Table 5.20 Average single-time charging duration of BEV cars for sharing over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-time charging duration (h) 2.2 1.7 1.4
Fig. 5.52 Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV cars for sharing—by year
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 183
Considering the charging duration on weekdays and weekends, the proportion of
BEV cars for sharing with an average single-time charging duration of less than 2 h
during weekdays is lower than that during weekends (Fig. 5.53).
Regarding the charging methods, the average single-time charging duration of
over 80% of BEV cars for sharing using fast charging is mainly concentrated within
1 h; the average single-time charging duration of BEV cars for sharing using slow
charging is relatively dispersed (Fig. 5.54).
The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV cars for sharing was
mainly concentrated at 30–50%, which is mostly the same as the previous year.
The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV cars for sharing was 42.5%
in 2021, which is mostly the same as in 2020 (Table 5.21). As the distribution shows
(Fig. 5.55), the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV cars for sharing
was mainly concentrated at 30–50%, and the proportion of vehicles within this range
over the years was more than 50%.
From the distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of vehicles on
weekdays and weekends, the proportion of BEV cars for sharing with an average
single-time charging initial SOC of more than 40% during weekdays was higher than
that during weekends (Fig. 5.56), indicating that the proportion of vehicles charging
during high SOC periods on weekdays is higher.
Regarding charging methods, the average single-time charging initial SOC of
BEV cars for sharing using fast charging was mainly concentrated at 30–50%, with
the proportion of vehicles accounting for 61.9%, and that using slow charging was
relatively dispersed (Fig. 5.57).
Fig. 5.53 Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV cars for sharing in 2021—
by weekday a nd weekend
184 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.54 Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV cars for sharing in 2021—
by fast charging and slow charging
Table 5.21 Average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV cars for sharing over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-time charging initial SOC (%) 44.0 42.6 42.5
(2) Average daily charging characteristics of BEV cars for sharing
The proportion of BEV cars for sharing charged between 11:00 and 16:00 during
the day in 2021 was significantly higher than that in previous years.
Regarding the charging time (Fig. 5.58), the proportion of BEV cars for sharing
charged from 11:00 to 16:00 in 2021 significantly increased compared with the
previous two years, with more pronounced peaks.
According to the daily charging characteristics of vehicles on weekdays and week-
ends, the charging distribution curve of vehicles at different times is mainly consis-
tent, but the proportion of BEV cars for sharing charged from 11:00 to 12:00 on
weekdays is higher than that on weekends (Fig. 5.59).
Considering the charging methods, the charging time of BEV cars for sharing
using fast charging is concentrated at two time periods: 11:00–16:00 and 23:00–
01:00 the next day; the charging time of BEV cars for sharing using slow charging
is more distributed at night (Fig. 5.60).
(3) Average monthly charging characteristics of BEV cars for sharing
The average monthly charging times of BEV cars for sharing in 2021 were 27.2
times, with an increase of 68.9% compared with 2020.
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 185
Fig. 5.55 Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV cars for sharing—by
year
Fig. 5.56 Distribution of average single-time charging i nitial SOC of BEV cars for sharing in
2021—by weekday and weekend
186 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.57 Distribution of average single-time charging i nitial SOC of BEV cars for sharing in
2021—by fast charging and slow charging
Fig. 5.58 Distribution of charging time of BEV cars for sharing—by year
The average monthly charging times of BEV cars for sharing in 2021 were 27.2
times, with an increase compared with the previous two years (Table 5.22). As the
distribution shows (Fig. 5.61), the proportion of BEV cars for sharing with average
monthly charging times of more than 30 increased from 24.1% in 2019 to 41.4% in
2021, indicating an increase in usage frequency. Considering the charging methods,
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 187
Fig. 5.59 Distribution of charging time of BEV cars for sharing in 2021—by weekday and weekend
Fig. 5.60 Distribution of charging time of BEV cars for sharing in 2021—by fast charging and
slow charging
in the past two years, fast charging has been the primary charging method for BEV
cars for sharing, with 75.7% of them adopting fast charging in 2021 (Fig. 5.62).
The average monthly fast charging times of BEV cars for sharing show an
increasing trend yearly.
The average monthly fast charging times of BEV cars for sharing were 15.4 times,
with an increase of 4.5 times compared with 2020 (Table 5.23). As the distribution
188 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Table 5.22 Average monthly charging times of BEV cars for sharing over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly charging times 16.7 16.1 27.2
Fig. 5.61 Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV cars for sharing—by year
Fig. 5.62 Distribution of
average monthly charging
times of BEV cars for
sharing over the years—by
fast charging and slow
charging
shows (Fig. 5.63), the proportion of BEV cars for sharing with average monthly fast
charging times of 20 or more has shown an increasing trend yearly, from 21.5% in
2019 to 39.9% in 2020.
The average monthly slow charging times of BEV cars for sharing in 2021
were 11.8 times, 2.27 times higher than 2020.
The average monthly slow charging times of BEV cars for sharing in 2021 were
11.8 times, with a significant increase compared with 2020 (Table 5.24). As the
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 189
Table 5.23 Average monthly fast charging times of BEV cars for sharing over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly fast charging times 6.9 10.9 15.4
Fig. 5.63 Distribution of average monthly fast charging times of BEV cars for sharing—by year
Table 5.24 Average monthly slow charging times of BEV cars for sharing over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly slow charging times 9.7 5.2 11.8
distribution shows (Fig. 5.64), in the past three years, the average monthly slow
charging times of BEV cars for sharing were mainly concentrated within 10 times. In
2021, this indicator accounted for 61.0%, but the proportion of BEV cars for sharing
with average monthly slow charging times of more than 10 increased significantly
compared with 2020, in a scattered distribution compared with 2020.
The m onthly average charge of BEV cars for sharing is 463.4 kWh, with a
significant YoY increase.
In 2021, the average monthly charge of BEV cars for sharing was 463.4 kWh, with
a significant YoY increase (Table 5.25). From the distribution of average monthly
charge (Fig. 5.65), the proportion of BEV cars for sharing using fast charging with
an average monthly charge of more than 400 kWh increased from 21.8% in 2019 to
39.5% in 2021; the proportion of BEV cars for sharing using fast charging with an
average monthly charge of more than 1000 kWh was 12.0%, much higher than the
previous two years.
190 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.64 Distribution of average monthly slow charging times of BEV cars for sharing—by year
Table 5.25 Average monthly charge of BEV cars for sharing over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly charge (kWh) 220.6 293.9 463.4
Fig. 5.65 Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV cars for sharing—by year for fast
charging
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 191
Fig. 5.66 Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV cars for sharing—by year for slow
charging
Compared to 2020, in 2021, the average monthly charge of BEV cars for sharing
using slow charging shifted to higher levels (Fig. 5.66), with vehicles with an average
monthly charge of more than 500 kWh accounting for 6.9%, showing a significant
breakthrough.
5.2.5 Charging Characteristics of BEV Logistics Vehicles
(1) Average single-time charging characteristics of BEV logistics vehicles
The average single-time charging duration of BEV logistics vehicles in 2021 has
increased compared with that in 2020.
The average single-time charging duration of BEV logistics vehicles in 2021 was
2.1 h, which is mostly consistent with that in 2020 (Table 5.26). From the distribution
of average single-time charging duration (Fig. 5.67), the proportion of vehicles with
an average single-time charging duration of less than 1 h and more than8hincreased
compared with the previous two years.
Table 5.26 Average single-time charging duration of BEV logistics vehicles over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-time charging duration (h) 2.9 2.0 2.1
192 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.67 Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV logistics vehicles—by year
The distribution pattern of the number of vehicles with an average single-time
charging duration of less than 2 h during weekdays and weekends is mostly consistent.
The proportion of vehicles with an average single-time charging duration of less than
2 h during weekdays and weekends is 62%, but the proportion of vehicles with an
average single-time charging duration of more than 8 h during weekends is higher
(Fig. 5.68). This phenomenon is related to the working nature of BEV logistics
vehicles. There is little change in the working intensity of BEV logistics vehicles
seven days a week.
The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV logistics vehicles was
48.4%, mostly the same as that in previous years.
The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV logistics vehicles was 48.4%
in 2021, which is mostly the same as in previous years (Table 5.27). As the distribution
shows (Fig. 5.69), the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV logistics
vehicles is concentrated at 40–60%, and the proportion of vehicles in this range over
the years is more than 50%. During weekdays and weekends, the distribution of
vehicles in each charging initial SOC segment is mainly consistent (Fig. 5.70).
(2) Average daily charging characteristics of BEV logistics vehicles
The proportion of BEV logistics vehicles with charging time distributed during
the day in 2021 is significantly higher than that in previous years.
The charging time of BEV logistics vehicles in 2021 concentrated at three periods,
namely around 0:00 in the morning, around 12:00 in the noon, and 17:00 to 18:00
peak (Fig. 5.71); there is no significant difference in the distribution of BEV logistics
vehicles at different charging times on weekdays and weekends (Fig. 5.72).
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 193
Fig. 5.68 Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV logistics vehicles in 2021—
by weekday a nd weekend
Table 5.27 Average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV logistics vehicles over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-time charging initial SOC (%) 49.3 49.0 48.4
Fig. 5.69 Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV logistics vehicles—by
year
194 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.70 Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV logistics vehicles in
2021—by weekday and weekend
Fig. 5.71 Distribution of charging time of BEV logistics vehicles in 2021
(3) Average monthly charging characteristics of BEV logistics vehicles
The average monthly charging times of BEV logistics vehicles show an
increasing trend yearly.
The average monthly charging times of BEV logistics vehicles were 25.7 times
in 2021, showing a YoY growth trend compared with the previous two years
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 195
Fig. 5.72 Distribution of charging time of BEV logistics vehicles in 2021—by weekday and
weekend
(Table 5.28). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.73), the proportion of BEV logis-
tics vehicles with average monthly charging times of more than 30 increased from
11.2% in 2019 to 35.2% in 2021. This phenomenon is related to the gradual improve-
ment of fast charging pile facilities, and the increase in fast charging times has driven
a rapid increase in the overall charging times.
Considering the charging methods (Fig. 5.74), BEV logistics vehicles tend to
choose fast charging to supplement their electricity, with their proportion reaching
58.9%.
The average monthly fast charging times of BEV logistics vehicles have
significantly increased.
In 2021, the average monthly fast charging times of BEV logistics vehicles were
15.4 times, with a rapid increase in fast charging times (Table 5.29). As the distribu-
tion shows (Fig. 5.75), the proportion of BEV logistics vehicles with average monthly
charging times of more than 10 increased from 18.1% in 2019 to 63.2% in 2021.
The overall distribution in 2021 was relatively scattered, with fast charging moving
towards high frequency.
The average monthly slow charging times of BEV logistics vehicles in 2021
were 10.2 times, with a slight decrease compared with the previous two years.
The average monthly slow charging times of BEV logistics vehicles in 2021 were
10.2 times (Table 5.30), with a slight decrease compared with the previous two
Table 5.28 Average monthly charging times of BEV logistics vehicles over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly charging times 17.7 20.6 25.7
196 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.73 Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV logistics vehicles—by year
Fig. 5.74 Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV logistics vehicles over the
years—by fast charging and slow charging
Table 5.29 Average monthly fast charging times of BEV logistics vehicles over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly fast charging times 5.3 9.0 15.4
years. Specifically, the proportion of BEV logistics vehicles with average monthly
slow charging times of less than 10 was 67.55% (Fig. 5.76), and the number of BEV
logistics vehicles using slow charging has decreased. Under the premise of multiple
charging methods coexisting, BEV logistics vehicles tend to choose fast charging,
mainly for time costs.
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 197
Fig. 5.75 Distribution of average monthly fast charging times of BEV logistics vehicles—by year
Table 5.30 Average monthly slow charging times of BEV logistics vehicles over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly slow charging times 12.5 11.6 10.2
Fig. 5.76 Distribution of average monthly slow charging times of BEV logistics vehicles—by year
198 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Table 5.31 Average monthly charge of BEV logistics vehicles over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly charge (kWh) 396.1 435.6 552.5
Fig. 5.77 Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV logistics vehicles—by year for fast
charging
The average monthly charge of BEV logistics vehicles shows an increasing
trend yearly.
The average monthly charge of BEV logistics vehicles was 552.5 kWh, showing
a YoY growth trend compared with the previous two years (Table 5.31). As the
distribution shows (Fig. 5.77), the proportion of BEV logistics vehicles using fast
charging with an average monthly charge of more than 800 kWh increased from
3.4% in 2019 to 11.0% in 2021.
The average monthly charge of BEV logistics vehicles using slow charging is
mainly concentrated within 100 kWh, which has increased from 50.2% in 2019 to
58.2% in 2021 (Fig. 5.78).
5.2.6 Charging Characteristics of BEV Buses
(1) Average single-time charging characteristics of BEV buses
The average single-time charging duration of BEV buses is mainly concentrated
around 1 h, which is mostly consistent with previous years.
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 199
Fig. 5.78 Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV logistics vehicles—by year for slow
charging
BEV buses’ average single-time charging duration was 1.1 h in 2021, mostly
consistent with previous years (Table 5.32). The proportion of BEV buses with an
average single-time charging duration of less than 2 h in 2021 was the highest, with
the proportion of vehicles over the years of more than 70% (Fig. 5.79).
The distribution of charging initial SOC has remained mostly above 50%
over the years, and the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV buses
in 2021 was 54.6%.
In 2021, the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV buses was 54.6%,
which decreased compared with the previous two years (Table 5.33). As the distri-
bution shows (Fig. 5.80), the average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV buses
concentrated at 40–70%, and the proportion of vehicles within this range in 2021 was
74.2%. Regarding the annual distribution trend, the proportion of vehicles with an
average single-time charging initial SOC of more than 60% increased from 27.9%
in 2019 to 33.4% in 2021. The improvement of public charging pile construction
makes charging more convenient and improves the single-time charging initial SOC
to a certain extent. At the same time, the high charging initial SOC is related to the
regular charging operation mechanism of buses.
The charging rate of BEV buses shows an increasing trend yearly.
Table 5.32 Average single-time charging duration of BEV buses over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-time charging duration (h) 1.1 1.0 1.1
200 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.79 Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV buses—by year
Table 5.33 Average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV buses over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-time charging initial SOC (%) 57.7 58.0 54.6
Fig. 5.80 Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV buses—by year
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 201
From changes in the average charging rate of BEV buses over the years
(Table 5.34), the charging rate of BEV buses has shown an increasing trend yearly.
The average charging rate of BEV buses in 2021 was 0.81 C, an increase of 3.85%
compared with 2020.
The proportion of BEV buses with a charging rate ranging from 0.2 to 0.6 C is
relatively high (Fig. 5.81); from the development trend of charging rate of BEV buses
over the years, the proportion of BEV buses with a charging rate ranging from 1 to
2 C has been increasing yearly, while the proportion of BEV buses with a charging
rate of 2 C and above has been little change from year to year.
(2) Average daily charging characteristics of BEV buses
The proportion of BEV buses charged during the day in 2021 is significantly
higher than that in previous years.
As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.82), the charging time presents a “W”-shaped
distribution. BEV buses form a small charging peak at 12:00, with valleys around
5:00–6:00 and 17:00, but relatively shallow valleys at 17:00. After 6:00 in t he
morning, the number of buses in operation begins to increase rapidly, welcoming the
Table 5.34 Average charging rate of BEV buses over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average charging rate of BEV buses (C) 0.77 0.78 0.81
Fig. 5.81 DistributionofchargingrateofBEV busesoverthe years
202 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.82 Distribution of charging time of BEV buses—by year
morning rush hour; at about 17:00, some vehicles need to be charged after daytime
operation, so the valley of buses is shallow at 17:00, and the proportion of vehicles
charged between 7:00 and 19:00 is higher than that in 2019 and 2020.
(3) Average monthly charging characteristics of BEV buses
The average monthly charging times of BEV buses in 2021 were 44.7 times,
higher than that in previous years.
The average monthly charging times of BEV buses in 2021 were 44.7 times, with
an increase compared with the previous two years (Table 5.35). As the distribution
shows (Fig. 5.83), the proportion of BEV buses with average monthly charging times
of more than 30 increased from 38% in 2019 to 60.7% in 2021.
The average monthly charge of BEV buses was 2607.7 kWh in 2021, with a
YoY increase of 36.3%.
In 2021, the average monthly charge of BEV buses was 2607.7 kWh, which
increased compared with the previous two years (Table 5.36). As the distribution
shows (Fig. 5.84), the proportion of BEV buses with an average monthly charge of
over 2400 kWh was 50.8%, with an increase of 22.6% compared with 2020, with
the overall trend towards high charge.
Table 5.35 Average monthly charging times of BEV buses over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly charging times 34.6 32.3 44.7
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 203
Fig. 5.83 Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV buses—by year
Table 5.36 Average monthly charge of BEV buses over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly charge (kWh) 2242.5 1913.1 2607.7
Fig. 5.84 Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV buses—by year
204 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
5.2.7 Charging Characteristics of BEV Heavy-Duty Trucks
(1) Average single-time charging characteristics of BEV heavy-duty trucks
The average single-time charging duration of BEV heavy-duty trucks shows a
decreasing trend yearly.
The average single-time charging duration of BEV heavy-duty trucks in 2021 was
1.5 h, which is mostly consistent with that in 2020 (Table 5.37). As the distribution
shows (Fig. 5.85), the proportion of vehicles with a single-time charging duration
of less than2hincreased from 53.1% in 2019 to 83.8% in 2021. The improvement
of charging facilities has increased the proportion of fast charging, and the charging
power of fast charging piles has gradually increased, resulting in a trend of shortened
charging time.
The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV heavy-duty trucks was
49.5%, mostly the same as that in previous years.
The average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV heavy-duty trucks was
49.5% in 2021, which is mostly the same as in previous years (Table 5.38). As
the distribution shows (Fig. 5.86), the average single-time charging initial SOC of
BEV is 49.5%, concentrated at 40–60%. The proportion of vehicles with an average
single-time charging initial SOC of more than 40% increased from 77.9% in 2020 to
Table 5.37 Average single-time charging duration of BEV heavy-duty trucks over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-time charging duration (h) 2.1 1.5 1.5
Fig. 5.85 Distribution of average single-time charging duration of BEV heavy-duty trucks—by
year
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 205
80.4% in 2021. The improvement of charging pile construction makes charging more
convenient and improves the average single-time charging initial SOC to a certain
extent.
(2) Average monthly charging characteristics of BEV heavy-duty trucks
The average monthly charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks show an
increasing trend yearly.
The average monthly charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks were 28.7 times
in 2021, showing a YoY growth trend compared with the previous two years
(Table 5.39). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.87), the proportion of BEV heavy-
duty trucks with average monthly charging times of more than 20 increased from
47.8% in 2019 to 66.8% in 2021, which is related to the increase in average monthly
mileage and the improvement of public charging facilities.
Considering the charging methods, BEV heavy-duty trucks mainly choose fast
charging to supplement their electricity. As shown in Fig. 5.88, in 2021, the proportion
of fast charging times for BEV heavy-duty trucks was relatively high, reaching 72.8%.
Table 5.38 Average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV heavy-duty trucks over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average single-time charging initial SOC (%) 49.9 48.6 49.5
Fig. 5.86 Distribution of average single-time charging initial SOC of BEV heavy-duty trucks—by
year
206 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Table 5.39 Average monthly charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly charging times 21.1 25.7 28.7
Fig. 5.87 Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks—by year
Fig. 5.88 Distribution of
average monthly charging
times of BEV heavy-duty
trucks over the years—by
fast charging and slow
charging
Commercial vehicles are more likely to choose fast charging due to time costs.
Additionally, due to the high charging capacity of BEV heavy-duty trucks, it is more
appropriate for them to choose fast charging.
The average monthly fast charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks show an
increasing trend yearly.
The average monthly charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks were 20.9 times
in 2021, showing a YoY growth trend compared with the previous two years
5.2 Charging Characteristics of Vehicles in Key Segments 207
(Table 5.40). As the distribution shows (Fig. 5.89), the proportion of BEV heavy-
duty trucks with average monthly fast charging times of more than 20 increased from
34.4% in 2019 to 48.1% in 2021, and more BEV heavy-duty trucks tend to use the
high-frequency fast charging method during operation.
The monthly average slow charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks show
an overall downward trend.
The average monthly slow charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks in 2021
were 7.8 times, with a s light decrease compared with 2020 (Table 5.41). As the
distribution shows (Fig. 5.90), the monthly average slow charging times of BEV
heavy-duty trucks are mainly concentrated within 10 times, with the proportion of
vehicles accounting for 67.3%.
The average monthly charge of BEV heavy-duty trucks increases yearly.
In 2021, the average monthly charge of BEV heavy-duty trucks was 4516.1 kWh,
with a YoY increase of 4.7% (Table 5.42), 2.18 times that of 2019. As the distribu-
tion shows, BEV heavy-duty trucks with an average monthly charge of more than
1000 kWh account for the absolute majority, and the proportion of BEV heavy-duty
trucks using fast charging with an average monthly charge of more than 1000 kWh
increased from 65.8% in 2019 to 77.2% in 2021 (Fig. 5.91).
Table 5.40 Average monthly fast charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly fast charging times 10.9 17.3 20.9
Fig. 5.89 Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks—by year for
fast charging
208 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Table 5.41 Average monthly slow charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly slow charging times 10.2 8.4 7.8
Fig. 5.90 Distribution of average monthly charging times of BEV heavy-duty trucks—by year for
slow charging
Table 5.42 Average monthly charge of BEV heavy-duty trucks over the years
Year 2019 2020 2021
Average monthly charge (kWh) 2073.4 4314.7 4516.1
5.3 Analysis of User Charging Behavior in Different
Charging Scenarios
Considering that under different charging scenarios, there may be great differences
in the type of charged vehicle, the distribution of charging start time, and the charging
duration, this section, based on the three different charging scenarios including an
urban public charging station, community charging station, and expressway charging
station, analyzes the user’s charging behavior characteristics.
5.3 Analysis of User Charging Behavior in Different Charging Scenarios 209
Fig. 5.91 Distribution of average monthly charge of BEV heavy-duty trucks—by year for fast
charging
5.3.1 Analysis of Charging Behavior of Users in Public
Charging Stations
Most vehicles charge for less than1hin public charging stations, and the number
of fast-charging vehicles in public charging stations increases rapidly during the
day.
This section is intended for the charging stations open to the whole society in urban
public places, and by fitting the vehicle charging data of a city with the location
data of the charging station, the public charging stations are identified. As shown
in Fig. 5.92, the service targets of public charging stations are mainly private cars
and taxis/e-taxis, which are mainly due to large scale of UIO of private cars and
the high operation intensity of taxis/e-taxis; from the distribution of vehicles in key
segments of public charging stations, the proportion of private cars and public buses
charged in public charging stations has decreased; the proportion of taxis/e-taxis,
logistics vehicles and other types of vehicles charged at public charging stations has
increased significantly, and the types of vehicles charged in public charging stations
are diversified.
As shown in Fig. 5.93, The charging time of NEVs in public charging stations
is mainly concentrated during the day, with a relatively high proportion of vehi-
cles charged from 8:00 to 17:00. The period of 15:00–16:00 is the charging peak.
According to the distribution of vehicles charged at different times in public charging
210 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.92 Difference in distribution of vehicles charged in public charging stations—by key
segments
Fig. 5.93 Distribution of vehicle charging time in public charging stations in 2021—by fast
charging and slow charging
stations over the years (Fig. 5.94), the proportion of vehicles using fast charging
during the day has significantly increased.
As shown in Fig. 5.95, the staying duration of most vehicles in public charging
stations is less than 1 h. Specifically, the proportion of private cars, taxis/e-taxis,
logistics vehicles, and buses staying in public charging places for less than 1 h
accounts for 52.3%, 71.6%, 53.6%, and 57.1%, respectively.
5.3 Analysis of User Charging Behavior in Different Charging Scenarios 211
Fig. 5.94 Proportion of fast charging vehicles at different charging times in public charging stations
over the years in 2021
Fig. 5.95 Distribution of single-time charging staying duration of vehicles in public charging
stations—by key segments
5.3.2 Analysis of Charging Behavior of Users in Community
Charging Stations
The charging in the community charging stations mainly takes place from
15:00 to 24:00, and the proportion of taxis/e-taxis staying for less than 1 h
in community charging stations is up to 63.6%.
212 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
This section is intended for the charging stations constructed in urban communities
for public service, and by fitting the vehicle charging data of a city with the location
data of the charging station, the community charging stations will be identified. As
showninFig.
5.96, the community charging stations mainly serve private cars and
taxis/e-taxis, with private cars taking the lead with a charging proportion of up to
77.1% in 2021; Regarding annual changes, the proportion of other types of vehicles
charged in community charging stations other than private cars increased. In 2021, the
proportion of taxis/e-taxis and other vehicles charged in community charging stations
increased significantly, while the proportion of private passenger cars declined.
As showninFig. 5.97, the users of community charging stations are mainly private
cars, the charging time in community charging stations is mainly 15:00–24:00, and
the staying duration of vehicles in community charging stations is more than 8 h.
Considering the proportion of vehicles charged at different charging times in the past
two years (Fig. 5.98), the proportion of vehicles using fast charging has increased in
the two time periods of around 10:00 and 15:00–16:00 in 2021, while the proportion
of vehicles using fast charging during the day has increased.
As shown in Fig. 5.99, the vehicles charged in community charging stations are
mainly private cars and taxis/e-taxis, and the staying duration of most vehicles in
community charging stations is less than 1 h. The proportion of private cars and taxis/
e-taxis with a staying duration of less than 1 h after charging is 45.45% and 63.47%,
respectively.
Fig. 5.96 Distribution of vehicles in community charging stations over the years—by key segments
5.3 Analysis of User Charging Behavior in Different Charging Scenarios 213
Fig. 5.97 Distribution of vehicle charging time in community charging stations over the years
Fig. 5.98 Proportion of fast charging vehicles at different charging times in community charging
stations over the years
5.3.3 Analysis of Charging Behavior of Users in Expressway
Charging Stations
1. Analysis of Charging Behavior of Users in Expressway Charging Stations
The charging time in expressway charging stations is mainly concentrated from
9:00 to 17:00, and the staying duration of most vehicles in expressway charging
stations is less than 1 h.
This section is intended for the charging stations constructed along expressways
for public service, and by fitting the vehicle charging data of a city with the location
214 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.99 Distribution of single-time charging staying duration of vehicles in community charging
stations—by key segments
Fig. 5.100 Distribution of vehicles charged in expressway charging stations—by key segments
data of the charging station, the expressway charging stations will be identified.
As shown in Fig. 5.100, private cars take the largest proportion among all vehicles
charged in expressway charging stations, up to 48.4% in 2021. According to the
changes in the proportion of vehicle structure over the years, the proportion of private
cars, logistics vehicles, and other types of vehicles charged in expressway charging
stations has significantly increased.
As shown in Fig. 5.101, The charging time in expressway charging stations is
mainly concentrated during the day. Compared with 2020, in 2021, the proportion
5.3 Analysis of User Charging Behavior in Different Charging Scenarios 215
Fig. 5.101 Proportion of fast charging vehicles at different charging times in expressway charging
stations over the years
of vehicles charged in expressway charging stations has significantly increased from
15:00 to 16:00 and from 22:00 to 01:00 the next day. The fluctuation of expressway
charging capacity can be an important reference for power grid companies to regulate
grid loads.
As shown in Fig. 5.102, the staying duration of most vehicles in expressway
charging stations is less than 1 h. Specifically, the proportion of private cars, taxis/
e-taxis, and logistics vehicles staying in expressway charging stations for less than
1 h accounts for 86.2%, 90.2%, and 67.0%, respectively. Regarding different types
of vehicles, the proportion of logistics vehicles with a charging duration of 1–2 h in
expressway charging stations is significantly higher than that of other vehicles.
2. Analysis of Charging Behavior of Users in Expressway Charging Stations
Before and After Holidays
Charging stations along expressways exhibit typical holiday peak characteris-
tics.
Taking the National Day of 2021 as an example, 66 charging stations along the
Shanghai-Suzhou-Wuxi-Changzhou intercity expressway in the Yangtze River Delta
were selected as the research objects to analyze the charging and waiting character-
istics of vehicles in expressway charging stations in order to provide a relevant
reference for further optimizing the layout of expressway charging stations.
According to the research results of the 2022 Monitoring Report on Charging
Infrastructures in China’s Major Cities jointly prepared by the China Academy of
Urban Planning & Design and the National Big Data Alliance of New Energy Vehicles
(Fig. 5.103), the average daily turnover rate of a single pile of 66 charging stations
along the Shanghai-Suzhou-Wuxi-Changzhou intercity expressway in the Yangtze
216 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
Fig. 5.102 Distribution of single-time charging staying duration of vehicles in expressway charging
stations-by key segments
Fig. 5.103 Comparison of daily turnover rate and time utilization rate of charging stations along
the intercity expressway in the Yangtze River Delta. Source 2022 Monitoring Report on Charging
Infrastructures in China’s Major Cities. Note The average time utilization rate is the ratio of the
charging working hours of all public piles in the charging station to the total service hours available
in a day; the average turnover rate is the ratio of the total number of vehicles served by the charging
station throughout the day to the total number of public piles
River Delta is 6.5 vehicles/pile·day. Specifically, 94% of charging stations have a
higher turnover rate during the National Day holiday than on normal days. The
average turnover rate during the National Day holiday is 9.2 vehicles/pile·day, higher
than the 5.7 vehicles/pile·day during normal days. The time utilization index of
the sample stations along the line also shows holiday characteristics, with the time
utilization rate during the National Day holiday being higher than that during normal
days.
The service targets of expressway charging stations are mainly private cars.
5.3 Analysis of User Charging Behavior in Different Charging Scenarios 217
Fig. 5.104 Distribution of main vehicle types served by charging stations along the Shanghai-
Suzhou-Wuxi-Changzhou intercity expressway
According to the calculation results of the matching of vehicle piles at expressway
charging stations (Fig. 5.104), the main types of vehicles served by charging stations
along the Shanghai-Suzhou-Wuxi-Changzhou intercity expressway are passenger
cars and logistics vehicles, accounting for 72.5% and 27.3% of the total number
of vehicles charged. Further dividing electric passenger cars into private cars, taxis,
official cars (including business cars), and cars for sharing, it can be found that private
cars account for the highest proportion at 31.7%. In contrast, official cars, cars for
sharing, and taxis (including business cars) account for 15.2%, 12.9%, and 12.7%
respectively with little difference in proportion.
During the National Day holiday, the increase in passenger cars is the highest,
while the decrease in logistics vehicles is significant.
The demand for long-distance travel across cities during the National Day
holiday in October 2021 was relatively strong. Regarding the types of vehicles
served by charging stations along the Shanghai-Suzhou-Wuxi-Changzhou Intercity
Expressway (Fig. 5.105), the number of passenger cars charged in such stations has
increased significantly, reaching 69.4%. However, the charging behavior of vehicles
for operational purposes has significantly decreased, and the number of logistics
vehicles charged in such stations has significantly decreased by 46.8% compared
with normal days.
The number of passenger cars charged during the National Day holiday has
increased by 33% compared with normal days, with rental cars experiencing
the highest growth rate.
Although private passenger cars are still the main model of vehicles charged
among various types of passenger cars (Fig. 5.106), accounting for 43% of the total
number of vehicles charged, the highest increase during the National Day holiday
compared with normal days is in cars for sharing, reaching 153%; followed by taxi,
with the number of charged taxi increased by 110.8%. The number of private cars
charged has increased by 66.3%. The high growth rate of cars for sharing reflects
users’ confidence in new energy passenger cars for long-distance travel and their
affirmation of the economic advantages of new energy passenger cars for travel.
218 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
69.4
-46.8
-16
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
Passenger car Logistics vehicle Bus
Growth rate (%)
Number of vehicles ch arged (times)
Normal days
National Day holiday
Growth rate of vehicles charged during National Day holiday compared to normal days
Fig. 5.105 Charging of vehicles along the expressway in the Yangtze River Delta during the 2021
National Day holiday and normal days
110.8
9.2
66.3
153
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
Taxis Official car Private car Car for sharing
Growth ra te (%)
Number of vehicles charged (times)
Normal days
National Day holiday
Growth rate of vehicles charged during National Day holiday compared to normal days
Fig. 5.106 Charging of passenger cars along the expressway in the Yangtze River Delta during the
2021 National Day holiday and normal days
Comprehensively improving the service efficiency of charging piles along
expressways during holidays should be based on potential tapping, supplemented
by densification and new construction. On the one hand, through measures such as
improving the power of DC charging piles, getting through the network of charging
5.3 Analysis of User Charging Behavior in Different Charging Scenarios 219
operators, and unifying the intelligent charging platform, users are guided to reason-
ably select charging stations and charging periods, thus reducing users’ waiting time
and improve the charging experience on holidays; on the other hand, in combination
with the assessment results, additional measures shall be considered, such as densi-
fication of new charging stations and introduction of battery swapping facilities,
to resolve the range anxiety of intercity travelers further and promote the healthy
development of the electric vehicle industry. Besides, in guiding users’ charging
behavior, time-sharing and classified differences can guide the charging behavior of
expressway vehicles, creating a compatible and orderly charging service environment
with passengers and goods separated.
5.3.4 Analysis of Charging Behavior of Users in Township
Charging Stations
The charging in the township charging stations mainly takes place from 17:00 to
24:00, and the proportion of private cars staying for more than 8 h in township
charging stations is up to 37.2%.
This section is intended for the charging stations constructed in township areas
for public service, and by fitting the vehicle charging data of a city with the location
data of the charging station, the township charging stations will be identified. As
showninFig.
5.107, township charging stations mainly serve private cars and taxis/
e-taxis, mainly private cars, with a proportion up to 63.6%. Township charging piles
are mainly private charging piles.
Fig. 5.107 Difference in distribution of vehicles charged in township charging stations in 2021—by
key segments
220 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
As shown in Fig. 5.108, the users of township charging stations are mainly private
passenger cars. The charging time in township charging stations is mainly 13:00–
17:00.
As shown in Fig. 5.109, the vehicles charged in township charging stations are
mainly private cars, taxis/e-taxis, and logistics vehicles. The proportion of taxis/e-
taxis with a charging staying duration of less than 1 h at township charging stations
is the highest, reaching 84.2%; followed by private cars and logistics vehicles with
a charging staying duration of less than 1 h, accounting for 62.7% and 47.1%,
respectively.
Fig. 5.108 Distribution of vehicle charging time in township charging stations
Fig. 5.109 Distribution of single-time charging staying duration of vehicles in township charging
stations—by key segments
5.4 Summary 221
5.4 Summary
Through the analysis of charging characteristics of new energy vehicles on the
National Monitoring and Management Platform, this chapter draws the following
conclusions for the charging characteristics of vehicles in key segments:
The scale of charging infrastructures continues to grow rapidly, and the
charging technology has made significant progress. By the end of 2021, the UIO
of charging infrastructures in China has reached 2.617 million, and the number of
new charging piles has increased significantly. The vehicle-to-pile increment ratio
is 3.7:1, and the construction of charging infrastructures can mostly meet the rapid
development of NEVs; the charging technology has continued to improve, and the
average charging power of public DC charging piles has steadily increased. The
number of new public DC charging piles with an average power of 120 kW and
above has proliferated over the years, and the trend of high power in the field of
public charging facilities has gradually emerged.
Regarding charging methods, new energy private cars mainly rely on slow
charging, supplemented by fast charging; other operating vehicles mainly rely on
fast charging, supplemented by slow charging. The average monthly charging times
of private cars in 2021 has increased compared with 2020, with an average of 8.8
charging times per month and about 2 charging times per week; private cars mainly
rely on slow charging, and the proportion of new energy private cars using slow
charging in 2021 was 85.2% in the average monthly charging times. According to
the distribution of charging time for private cars, the average daily charging time for
new energy private cars in 2021 was concentrated during the morning rush hours and
at night, with charging at the destination work units in the morning rush hours and
charging mainly in the residential areas at night. In the field of operating vehicles,
e-taxis, taxis, cars for sharing, logistics vehicles, buses, and heavy-duty trucks rely
on fast charging. Operating vehicles have relatively high time costs, and the propor-
tion of vehicles choosing to recharge electricity quickly during the day is increasing
yearly.
Diversified charging venues meet the charging needs of vehicles in different
application scenarios. Community charging stations, expressway charging stations,
and township charging stations mainly serve private cars, accounting for 77.1%,
48.4%, and 63.6%, respectively. With the policy of promoting NEVs to the country-
side, vehicle promotion and application in township charging scenarios tend to be
diversified. In addition to private cars, cars for sharing, e-taxis, and logistics vehi-
cles also account for a certain proportion; with the rapid growth of the NEV industry,
rapidly increased charging orders of expressway charging stations during the holiday
period, prolonged waiting time f or charging and poor user charging experience have
become important propositions for improving the charging service experience in the
next stage.
222 5 Charging of New Energy Vehicles
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Chapter 6
Battery Swapping of New Energy
Vehicles
The battery swapping mode is one of the important ways of energy supply for new
energy vehicles, which can effectively solve the pain points of slow and fast charging
methods, alleviate the impact from the grid, improve battery safety, and have a posi-
tive promoting effect on improving the convenience and safety of NEVs. With the
deepening development of China’s NEV industry, many automobile enterprises and
operators have successively launched the battery-swapping-type mode and battery-
swapping infrastructure, accumulating rich practical experience in the field of battery
swapping. Since 2021, the support policies based on the battery swapping mode at
the national level have been accelerated, and the pilot work for battery swapping
has been officially launched. The development of universal national and group stan-
dards in battery swapping is accelerating. This section sorts out the current status
of policies and standard systems related to the battery-swapping mode of BEVs.
Based on the promotion of battery-swapping-type vehicle enterprises and battery-
swapping-type vehicles on the National Monitoring and Management Platform, an
analysis is conducted on the battery-swapping behavior and economic efficiency of
battery-swapping-type vehicles, which provides some experience and reference for
promoting the application of battery swapping mode of BEVs and the healthy and
sustainable development of battery swapping infrastructure in China.
© China Machine Press Co., Ltd. 2024
Z. Wang, Annual Report on the Big Data of New Energy Vehicle in China (2022),
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6411-6_6
223
224 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
6.1 Current Status of Industrial Policies and Standards
for Battery Swapping Mode
6.1.1 Accelerated Implementation of Battery Swapping Mode
Support Policy and Officially Launched Pilot Work
The battery swapping mode has certain advantages in reducing the cost of the first-
time car purchase, eliminating range anxiety, improving the safety level. It can effec-
tively address the demand for energy supplement efficiency of operating vehicles,
commercial vehicles, and other subdivision segments. The Government Work Report
in 2020 and 2021 mentioned “increasing facilities such as charging piles and battery
swapping stations,” the battery swapping stations will be developed together with
charging piles as supporting facilities in the future (Table 6.1).
As the first stage of promoting the battery-swapping model nationwide, pilot cities
for battery-swapping will accelerate the formation of replicable and promotable
experiences in the battery-swapping industry. On October 28, 2021, the Ministry
of Industry and Information Technology issued the Notice on Launching the Pilot
Work of Application of Battery Swapping Mode for New Energy Vehicles (here-
inafter referred to as the “Notice”), deciding to launch the pilot work of applica-
tion of battery swapping mode for new energy vehicles. There are a total of 11
cities included in the pilot scope, including 8 cities of comprehensive application
category (Beijing, Nanjing, Wuhan, Sanya, Chongqing, Changchun, Hefei, Jinan),
and 3 heavy-duty trucks featured cities (Yibin, Tangshan, Baotou). The goal is to
promote over 100,000 battery-swapping-type vehicles and construct over 1000 new
battery-swapping stations.
On January 10, 2022, the Implementation Opinions of the National Development
and Reform Commission and other departments on Further Improving the Service
Guarantee Capacity of Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure (FGNYG [2022] No.
53) (referred to as the “Implementation Opinions”) were released. The Implementa-
tion Opinions respectively mention the battery swapping mode in optimizing urban
public charging networks, strengthening innovation and standard support of charging
and swapping technology, and accelerating the promotion and application of battery
swapping modes, with an aim to arrange battery swapping stations according to local
conditions, promote the formation of unified battery swapping standards in main
application fields, and improve the safety, reliability, and economy of the battery
swapping mode; propose to accelerate the promotion and application of the battery
swapping mode to support the construction and layout of dedicated battery swapping
stations around scenarios such as mines, ports, and urban transportation; accelerate
the exploration and promotion of the separation mode of vehicle and battery, and
promote the electrification transformation of heavy-duty trucks and container trucks
in ports; explore shared battery swapping mode in rental, logistics and transportation
fields, and optimize and enhance the shared battery swapping service.
6.1 Current Status of Industrial Policies and Standards for Battery Swapping … 225
Table 6.1 Summary of relevant policies on battery swapping at the national level since 2021
Time Released by Name Content
March 5,
2021
The Fourth
Session of the 13th
National People’s
Congress
2021 Government
Work Report
Steadily increase mass consumption of
automobiles and household appliances,
increase parking lots, charging piles, battery
swapping stations, and other facilities, and
accelerate the construction of power battery
recycling systems
October 21,
2021
General Office of
the Chinese
Communist Party,
General Office of
the State Council
Opinions on
Promoting Green
Development in
Urban and Rural
Construction
Reasonably arrange and construct electric
vehicle charging and swapping stations,
accelerate the development of intelligent
connected vehicles, new energy vehicles,
smart parking, and accessible infrastructure
October 28,
2021
Ministry of
Industry and
Information
Technology
Notice on
Launching the
Pilot Work of
Application of
Battery Swapping
Mode for New
Energy Vehicles
Decided to launch pilot work on the
application of battery swapping mode for
new energy vehicles. There are a total of 11
cities included in the pilot scope, including 8
cities of comprehensive application category
(Beijing, Nanjing, Wuhan, Sanya,
Chongqing, Changchun, Hefei, Jinan), and 3
heavy-duty trucks featured cities (Yibin,
Tangshan, Baotou)
January 10,
2022
National
Development and
Reform
Commission
Implementation
Opinions of the
National
Development and
Reform
Commission and
other departments
on Further
Improving the
Service Guarantee
Capacity of
Electric Vehicle
Charging
Infrastructure
Optimize the layout of urban public charging
network construction. Arrange the battery
swapping stations according to local
conditions to enhance the guaranteed
capacity of public charging service;
Strengthen the innovation and standard
support of charging and swapping
technology. Promote the formation of unified
battery swapping standards in major
application fields, and improve the safety,
reliability, and economy of the battery
swapping mode;
Accelerate the promotion and application of
the battery-swapping mode. Support the
construction and layout of dedicated battery
swapping stations around scenarios such as
mines, ports, and urban transportation;
accelerate the exploration and promotion of
the separation mode of vehicle and battery.
Moreover, promote the electrification
transformation of heavy-duty trucks and
container trucks in ports. Explore shared
battery swapping mode in rental, logistics,
and transportation fields, and optimize and
enhance the shared battery swapping service
Source Official websites of the General Office of the State Council, the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry
of Industry and Information Technology, and www.gov.cn
226 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
Local governments provide different levels of financial subsidies for the
construction and operation of battery-swapping stations. In order to speed up the
construction of battery-swapping stations, Hainan, Guangzhou, Chongqing, Dalian,
Chengdu, Guangxi, and other provinces or cities have successively issued subsidy
standards for the construction of battery-swapping stations. For example, on May 13,
2021, Chongqing Municipal Finance Bureau and Chongqing Economic and Informa-
tion Commission jointly issued the Notice of Chongqing on the Financial Subsidy
Policies for Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles in 2021, which
provides a one-time construction subsidy of 400 yuan/kW according to the rated
charging power of the charging module of the battery swapping equipment or the
rated output power of the transformer (whichever is smaller) for the battery swapping
stations in the public service field that has been completed, accepted and put into
use, with a maximum subsidy for a single station not exceeding 500,000 yuan; on
July 30, 2021, Hainan Provincial Development and Reform Commission issued the
“Guiding Opinions on Supporting the Construction of Electric Vehicle Battery Swap-
ping Stations in Hainan Province (Trial)”, which provides a one-time construction
subsidy of 15% of the project equipment investment for battery swapping stations
that have been completed and put into operation before December 31, 2022 and
serve the key application fields of the battery swapping mode; on October 9, 2021,
Dalian Development and Reform Commission, Dalian Industry and Information
Technology Bureau, Dalian Science and Technology Bureau, and Dalian Finance
Bureau jointly issued the “Management Measures of Dalian for New Energy Vehicle
Charging Infrastructure Construction Rewards and Subsidies”, which provides a one-
time subsidy of no more than 30% of the battery swapping facility investment for new
energy vehicle battery swapping stations that meet the conditions, with a maximum
subsidy not exceeding 2 million yuan.
Regarding operating subsidies for battery-swapping facilities, Shanghai,
Guangxi, Guangzhou, and other provinces or cities have provided different
levels of operating subsidies for battery-swapping infrastructure. On April 1,
2020, Shanghai Municipal Development & Reform Commission and four other
departments jointly issued the Interim Measures of Shanghai Municipality for
Promoting the Orderly Development of the Interconnection of Electric Vehicle
Charging (Swapping) Facilities (HFGZ [2020] No. 4), proposing that charging facil-
ities should shift from construction to operation. The support direction should shift
from equipment subsidies to KWH subsidies, and for special charging piles and
battery swapping facilities, subsidy standards should be determined according to the
star level of the stations. The basic KWH subsidy for a “One Star” station is 0.1 yuan/
kWh, 0.2 yuan/kWh for a “Two Star” station, and 0.3 yuan/kWh for a “Three Star”
station, with a maximum subsidy of 2000 kWh/kW-year. The subsidy standards
for 2021 and beyond will adopt a two-year mechanism based on factors such as the
overall operational efficiency of charging facilities. The specific calculation plan will
be proposed by the municipal platforms and approved by the municipal development
and reform commissions before implementation.
6.1 Current Status of Industrial Policies and Standards for Battery Swapping … 227
With the rapid growth of battery swapping stations in the future, various provinces
and cities may gradually introduce subsidy standards. At present, the battery-
swapping industry is still in the early stage of development. With the gradual unifi-
cation of the standards of the battery-swapping industry in the future and the gradual
improvement of the subsidy policies of various provinces and cities, the growth rate
of the battery-swapping station will also be further improved, consistent with the
development history of the charging pile.
6.1.2 Gradually Unified Standards for Battery Swapping
Regarding formulating specific standards in the field of battery swapping, the formu-
lation of national and group standards based on the field of battery swapping has been
gradually accelerated. On March 16, 2021, the Ministry of Industry and Informa-
tion Technology announced the Key Points of Industry and Information Technology
Standards in 2021, proposing to promote the development of standards for new tech-
nologies, new industries, and new infrastructures and vigorously carrying out the
research and development of standards for electric vehicles, charging and swapping
systems, FCEVs.
On April 30, 2021, the recommended national standard GB/T 40032-2021, Safety
Requirements of Battery Swap for Electric Vehicles, proposed by the Ministry of
Industry and Information Technology and under the jurisdiction of the National
Technical Committee of Automotive Standardization, was approved for release by
the State Administration for Market Regulation and the National Standardization
Administration Committee, it has been officially implemented since November 1,
2021 (Fig. 6.1). The Safety Requirements of Battery Swap for Electric Vehicles
applies to BEVs of category M1 whose batteries can be swapped. It specifies the
safety requirements, test methods, and rules for electric vehicles with swappable
batteries. This standard is the first basic universal national standard developed by the
automotive industry in the field of battery swapping, which solves the problem of no
standard for the battery swapping mode, helps guide enterprises in product research
and development, and ensures the safety of battery-swapping-type vehicles.
In commercial vehicles, heavy-duty trucks, and mining trucks, it is relatively easy
to unify battery pack standards. Currently, the battery capacity of heavy-duty trucks
in the market is mostly concentrated at 282 and 350 kWh. In the Global Intelligent
Mobility Conference held in June 2021, 11 of the 13 battery-swapping-type heavy-
duty trucks participating in the exhibition are equipped with 282 kWh CATL LFP
batteries; in addition, unlike in the field of passenger cars, commercial vehicles place
more emphasis on actual operational efficiency rather than appearance and driving
experience, and the demand for personalized customization of batteries is not high,
which provides favorable conditions for unified battery swapping standards.
Regarding passenger cars, the China Association of Automobile Manufacturers
announced in October 2021 that the group standard Construction Requirements for
EV Shared Swap Station (hereinafter referred to as “Construction Requirements”) has
228 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
Safety requirements for
battery swapping
Test methods
Safety requirements
Inspection specification
General requirements
Vehicle requirements
Parts requirements
General provisions
Appearance, structure and
function inspection
Vehicle test
Parts test
Test process and qualification
Road driving and battery swapping
Appendix A
Fig. 6.1 Framework of the safety requirements of battery swap for electric vehicles. Source Safety
requirements of battery swap for electric vehicles (GB/T 40032-2021)
been reviewed and officially released on December 22 of the same year (Table 6.2).
The standard was jointly formulated by battery suppliers (CATL, Sunwoda, GAC,
NIO, BAIC BJEV) and third-party operators (including Botan, GCL-ET, Aulton
New Energy), and provides for battery swapping stations in 12 aspects, including
battery pack, battery swapping mechanism, and layout planning of battery swapping
stations, aiming to ultimately achieve the sharing of the battery pack platform and
battery modules for the battery swapping station with the “three-step” approach.
6.2 Current Development Status of Battery Swapping
Infrastructure
The construction of battery swapping stations is gradually advancing, and as
of the end of 2021, the total number of battery swapping stations in China has
reached 1298.
Regarding mainstream battery-swapping operators, the current battery-swapping
infrastructure market is on a relatively small scale and is facing a good opportunity for
development. Aulton New Energy, Botan, and Nio are the main operators of battery-
swapping facilities. Aulton New Energy and Botan are oriented to the public sector
(including public transport, taxis), while Nio is oriented to private battery swapping
stations (private users). As shown in Fig. 6.2, as of the end of 2021, the total number
6.2 Current Development Status of Battery Swapping Infrastructure 229
Table 6.2 Relevant standards in the field of battery swapping in 2021
Time Released by Name Content
March 16,
2021
Ministry of Industry
and Information
Technology
Key Points of
Industry and
Information
Technology
Standards
Promote the development of standards for
new technologies, new industries, and new
infrastructures. Vigorously research and
develop standards for electric vehicles,
charging and swapping systems, FCEVs
April 30,
2021
State Administration
for Market
Regulation, National
Standardization
Administration
Committee
GB/T
40032-2021,
Safety
Requirements
of Battery
Swap for
Electric
Vehicles
Specify the safety requirements, test
methods, and test rules for electric
vehicles with swappable batteries;
October
2021
China Association of
Automobile
Manufacturers
T/CAAMTB
55,
Construction
Requirements
for EV Shared
Swap Station
Part 1: General provisions;
Part 2: Technical requirements for change
platform and e quipment;
Part 3: Technical requirements for
changing battery communication protocol;
Part 4: Technical requirements for vehicle
identification system;
Part 5: Requirement of swappable battery
pack;
Part 6: Technical requirements for lock
mechanism and unlock mechanism;
Part 7: Technical requirements for the
electrical connector;
Part 8: Technical requirements for the
liquid cooling connector;
Part 9: Requirements for charging
equipment, handling equipment, and
battery storage system;
Part 10: Technical requirements for data
security and data warning analysis;
Part 11: Requirements for safety
protection emergency;
Part 12: Requirements for planning and
layout of a change station;
Part 13: Requirements for identification,
safe operation, equipment transportation,
and installation;
of battery swapping stations in China was 1298, with an increase of 743 compared
with 2020, indicating a rapid growth rate in the construction of battery swapping
stations. Among the three major battery swapping operators, Nio’s battery swapping
station ranks first regarding the growth in construction quantity. As of the end of
2021, the total number of Nio’s battery swapping stations has reached 789, with an
230 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
286 307 308 304 314 338 344
379 417
609
701
789
182 192 198 206 233
271 312
363
366
370
384
402
94
104 107 107
107
107
107
107
107
107
107
107
562
603 613 617
654
716
763
849
890
1086
1192
1298
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Battery Swapping Stations Number
Nio Aulton Botan
Fig. 6.2 Number of battery swapping stations owned by major battery swapping operators in China
in 2021. Source China Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance
annual increase of 503; the total number of Aulton’s battery swapping stations was
402, with an increase of 227 in 2021.
The number of battery swapping stations in Beijing ranks first in China,
accounting for nearly 1/5 of the total number in the country.
Regarding the number of battery swapping stations in various provinces (Fig. 6.3),
Beijing r anks first. As of the end of 2021, its number of battery swapping stations
reached 255, accounting for nearly 1/5 of the total number in China, followed by
Guangdong, Zhejiang, Shanghai, and Jiangsu, with over 90 battery swapping stations,
accounting for over 7% of the total number in China.
National policy support and investment in the battery-swapping industry.
With the gradual launch of battery-swapping-type models, the speed of construc-
tion of battery-swapping stations in the industry has significantly accelerated, and
various operators of battery-swapping stations have announced plans to construct
battery-swapping stations in the next five years. Aulton New Energy and Changan
New Energy said that by 2025, they would invest and build more than 10,000
battery swapping stations. Sinopec, Geely, and GCL-ET plan to build 5000 battery-
swapping stations. Nio and SPIC respectively, plan to add 4000 battery-swapping
stations. According to enterprise planning, the number of battery-swapping stations
is expected to reach more than 20,000 by 2025.
6.3 Promotion of Battery-Swapping-Type BEVs 231
255
178
118
96 92
52 51 45 41 40
19.6
13.7
9.1
7.4 7.1
4.0 3.9 3.5 3.2 3.1
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Beijing Guangdong Zhejiang Shanghai Jiangsu Sichuan Shandong Fujian Hebei Hubei
Proportion (%)
Battery Swapping Stations Number
Number Proportion
Fig. 6.3 Number of battery swapping stations in major provinces in China in 2021 (units, %).
Source China electric vehicle charging infrastructure promotion alliance
Regarding vertical and horizontal collaboration in the battery swapping industry,
operators of battery swapping stations such as Aulton and Botan have accelerated the
construction of battery swapping stations, actively cooperated with vehicle manu-
facturers, and energy enterprises such as Sinopec have carried out strategic coop-
eration with Nio to carry out the construction and operation of battery swapping
stations. Huawei, SoftBank, and other capitals invest in the battery-swapping mode,
and companies such as CATL have also entered the battery-swapping industry. On
the one hand, they can improve battery sales through charging and swapping. On the
other hand, they have set up battery asset management companies with Nio, to leap
from production to energy service, and the battery swapping market is expected to
usher in rapid development.
6.3 Promotion of Battery-Swapping-Type BEVs
6.3.1 National Promotion of Battery-Swapping-Type BEVs
As of the end of 2021, China has promoted over 140,000 battery-swapping-type
BEVs, with battery-swapping-type BEV private passenger cars in the majority.
According to data from the National Monitoring and Management Platform, as
of the end of 2021, over 140,000 battery-swapping-type BEVs have been accessed
in China. In 2021, the access volume of battery-swapping-type vehicles increased
rapidly, reaching 97,000 annually, with an increase of 4.8 times compared to 2020.
Regarding vehicle usage, the promotion of battery-swapping-type BEV private
passenger cars is dominant, with a total of 88,000 ones accessed, accounting for
232 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
Taxi car,3.3
others, 43.7%,
3.1% Rental car,0.3
Logistics Special Vehicles,0.1
Engineering Special Vehicles,0.029
Sanitation Special Vehicles,0.002
Private Passenger
Cars,8.8
Official Cars,1.7
Fig. 6.4 Cumulative access and proportion of battery-swapping-type BEVs—by class (10,000
units)
62.0%, followed by taxi cars and official cars, with a total of 33,000 and 17,000
accessed, accounting for 23.2% and 12.0% respectively (Fig. 6.4).
The battery-swapping-type BEVs have a relatively high market concentration
(Fig. 6.5). Nio mainly focuses on private passenger cars. By the end of 2021, Nio
had 95,000 battery-swapping-type BEVs accessed, accounting for 66.4% in China.
BAIC and BAIC BJEV are mainly engaged in the taxi, official car, and rental car
markets. The two enterprises have 26,000 and 14,000 battery-swapping-type BEVs
accessed, respectively, accounting for 18.5 and 9.5% in China.
According to the promotion of battery-swapping-type BEVs in the TOP10
provinces (Fig. 6.6), Beijing has a cumulative access volume of 31,000 battery-
swapping-type BEVs, accounting for 21.7% in China, followed by Shanghai,
Guangdong, and Zhejiang, all with a cumulative access volume of over 15,000
battery-swapping-type BEVs, accounting for over 10% in China.
Nio,9.49
BAIC,2.65
BAIC BJEV,1.36
Maple Auto,0.35
SAIC Motor,0.17
Chongqing Lifan,0.06
JAC,0.05
XCMG,0.05
CAMC Hualing,0.03
Others,0.05
Others,0.8, 5.6%
Fig. 6.5 Cumulative access and proportion of battery-swapping-type BEVs—by vehicle enterprise
(10,000 units)
6.3 Promotion of Battery-Swapping-Type BEVs 233
3.1
2.2 2.0
1.6
1.2
0.6
0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3
21.7
15.2 14.3
11.1
8.7
4.0 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.2
0
10
20
30
40
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Proportion (%)
Access Volume (10,000 cars)
Cumulative Access Volume Proportion
Fig. 6.6 Cumulative access and proportion of battery-swapping-type BEVs in the TOP 10 provinces
The concentration of urban promotion of battery-swapping-type BEVs is rela-
tively high (Fig. 6.7), and Beijing ranks first in the cumulative access volume of
battery-swapping-type BEVs in various cities in China; followed by Shanghai and
Guangzhou, with a cumulative access volume of over 10,000 battery-swapping-type
BEVs.
6.3.2 Promotion of Battery-Swapping-Type Heavy-Duty
Trunks
As the core carrier of logistics transportation and engineering construction, heavy-
duty trucks have high sensitivity to operation efficiency. According to data from the
Ministry of Transport, the road freight transportation volume in China in 2021 was
39.14 billion tons, accounting for 75.1% of the total freight transportation volume
in China. Heavy-duty trucks, with their advantages of long-haul distance, large
volume, and high transportation efficiency, are commonly used in logistics transporta-
tion, engineering construction, and specialized fields and are important production
materials for economy and life.
The field of battery-swapping-type heavy-duty trucks is still in the demonstration
operation stage, and with policy support, mainstream commercial vehicle companies
are gradually accelerating the pace of launching battery-swapping-type heavy-duty
trucks. Judging from the mainstream commercial vehicles and new energy heavy-
duty truck models launched by enterprises in 2021 (Table 6.3), such enterprises
234 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
3.1
2.2
1.1
0.8
0.5 0.5 0.5
0.3 0.3 0.3
21.7
15.2
7.8
5.6
3.5 3.4 3.3 2.3 2.2 2.1
0
10
20
30
40
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Proportion (%)
Access Volume (10,000 cars)
Access Volume Proportion
Fig. 6.7 Cumulative access and proportion of battery-swapping-type BEVs in the TOP10 cities
as Maxus, Dongfeng Motor, CAMC, Chufeng, and Dayun Motor have all started
their layout in the field of battery-swapping-type heavy-duty trucks. The new energy
heavy-duty trucks are mainly equipped with LFP batteries, which use the integrated
charging and swapping mode to recharge. The motor suppliers like CRRC EV and Top
Gear account for a relatively high proportion of supporting facilities. The endurance
mileage of battery-swapping-type heavy-duty trucks is generally between 150 and
200 km.
As of the end of 2021, nearly 1,000 battery-swapping-type BEV heavy-duty
trucks has been cumulatively accessed to the National Monitoring and Manage-
ment Platform, with traction heavy-duty truck as the main promotion vehicle
type.
According to the statistical results on the National Monitoring and Management
Platform (Fig. 6.8), as of the end of 2021, 941 battery-swapping-type BEV heavy-
duty trucks have been accessed nationwide. Regarding specific purposes, the main
promoted models are the battery-swapping-type BEV semi-trailer tractor and tractor,
with cumulative access volume of 300 and 247 units, accounting for 31.9 and 26.2%
of the battery-swapping-type BEV heavy-duty trucks in China.
The promotion area of the battery-swapping-type BEV heavy-duty trucks
has a high distribution concentration. Tangshan, Hebei Province, takes the lead
in the access volume of battery-swapping-type heavy-duty trucks, and other
heavy industrial cities have achieved remarkable promotion results.
The promotion area of battery-swapping-type heavy-duty trucks has a relatively
high concentration. As of the end of 2021, Hebei Province has cumulative access
volume of 590 battery-swapping-type BEV heavy-duty trucks, accounting for 62.7%
in China (Fig. 6.9). Tangshan, as an important bulk material (steel) and cargo transport
6.3 Promotion of Battery-Swapping-Type BEVs 235
Table 6.3 Parameter configuration of new energy heavy-duty trucks exhibited at the 2021 Global
Intelligent Mobility Conference
Enterprise name Model Battery
type
Charging
mode
Motor
brand
Peak
power
Endurance
mileage
(km)
FAW Jiefang
Automotive Co.,
Ltd
J6P6*4tractor with
integrated charging
and swapping device
LFP Integrated
charging
and
swapping
CRRC 360 150–200
FAW Jiefang
Automotive Co.,
Ltd
J6P slag car with
integrated charging
and swapping device
LFP Integrated
charging
and
swapping
CRRC 360 200
Dongfeng
Trunks Co., Ltd
Dongfeng Tianlong
battery-swapping-type
tractor
LFP Integrated
charging
and
swapping
SNC 360 /
BAIC Fot on
Motor Co., Ltd
Zhilan heavy-duty
truck
LFP Integrated
charging
and
swapping
Top Gear 360 200
SAIC Hongyan
Truck Co., Ltd
Jieshi H6 6*4BEV
tractor
LFP Integrated
charging
and
swapping
CRRC/
Top Gear
360 /
SAIC Hongyan
Truck Co., Ltd
Jieshi H6 4*2BEV
tractor
LFP Integrated
charging
and
swapping
CRRC/
Top Gear
360 /
Chengdu Dayun
Automobile
Group Co., Ltd
E8
battery-swapping-type
tractor
LFP Integrated
charging
and
swapping
Inovance/
Top Gear/
IVKON
/120
Hanma
Technology
Group Co., Ltd
Battery-swapping-type
tractor
LFP Integrated
charging
and
swapping
Top Gear 360 200
Hanma
Technology
Group Co., Ltd
Battery-swapping-type
dumper
LFP Integrated
charging
and
swapping
/360 130–150
Hanma
Technology
Group Co., Ltd
Battery-swapping-type
mixer
LFP Integrated
charging
and
swapping
/360 100
(continued)
236 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
Table 6.3 (continued)
Enterprise name Model Battery
type
Charging
mode
Motor
brand
Peak
power
Endurance
mileage
(km)
Chtc KINWIN
(Nanjing)
AUTOMOBIL E
Co., Ltd
Battery-swapping-type
dumper
LFP Integrated
charging
and
swapping
CVCT 240 160
Xuzhou XCMG
Automobile
Manufacturing
Co., Ltd
E7006*4
battery-swapping-type
tractor
LFP Integrated
charging
and
swapping
Jiangsu
Weiteli
360 200
Source https://www.cvworld.cn/, 2021 Global Intelligent Mobility Conference
300
247
143
107
81
63
31.9
26.2
15.2
11.4
8.6
6.7
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Proportion (%)
Access Volume
Cumulative Access Volume Proportion
Fig. 6.8 Cumulative access and proportion of battery-swapping-type BEV heavy-duty trucks
6.3 Promotion of Battery-Swapping-Type BEVs 237
590
111
79 58
22 20 20 18 10 5
62.7
11.8 8.4 6.2
2.3 2.1 2.1 1.9 1.1 0.5 0
20
40
60
80
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Proportion (%)
Access Volume
Cumulative Access Volume Proportion
Fig. 6.9 Cumulative access and proportion of battery-swapping-type BEV heavy-duty trucks in
the TOP10 provinces
port city and a powerful industrial city in the Circum-Bohai Sea Region, as well as a
national pilot city of battery-swapping-type heavy-duty trucks, has realized the batch
replacement of battery-swapping-type BEV heavy-duty trucks in 2021. By the end of
2021, Tangshan has achieved a cumulative access volume of 378 battery-swapping-
type BEV heavy-duty trucks, accounting for 40.2% of cumulative access in cities
across China (Fig. 6.10).
According to the promotion of battery-swapping-type BEV heavy-duty trucks in
other cities, the cumulative accessed volumes in Handan, Xuzhou, Zhengzhou, Yulin,
and other heavy industrial cities in central and western China reached 136, 90, 60,
and 50 units, respectively, all accounting for more than 5% in China.
The promotion market of the battery-swapping-type BEV heavy-duty trucks
has a high distribution concentration, and the access proportion of XCMG and
CAMC exceeds 4/5 of the national market.
According to the promotion of the vehicle enterprises of battery-swapping-type
BEV heavy-duty trucks (Fig. 6.11), XCMG and CAMC have cumulative access
volume of 451 and 336 battery-swapping-type BEV heavy-duty trucks, accounting
for 47.9% and 35.7% respectively in China. In addition, other commercial vehicle
enterprises, such as BEIBEN Trucks, Dayun Motor, Foton Motors, JAC, SANY, are
respectively making a layout of the market of battery-swapping-type BEV heavy-duty
trucks.
238 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
378
136
90
60 50
33 30 20 20 18
40.2
14.5
9.6
6.4 5.3 3.5 3.2 2.1 2.1 1.9 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
100
200
300
400
Proportion (%)
Access Volume
Cumulative Access Volume Proportion
Fig. 6.10 Cumulative access and proportion of battery-swapping-type BEV heavy-duty trucks in
the TOP10 cities
451
336
51 49
24 14 12 22
47.9
35.7
5.4 5.2
2.6 1.5 1.3 0.2 0.2 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
100
200
300
400
500
Proportion (%)
Access Volume
Cumulative Access Volume Proportion
Fig. 6.11 Cumulative access and proportion of battery-swapping-type BEV heavy-duty trucks—by
vehicle enterprise
6.4 Operation Characteristics of Battery-Swapping-Type Vehicles 239
6.4 Operation Characteristics of Battery-Swapping-Type
Vehicles
By selecting battery-swapping-type BEVs with battery-swapping behavior on the
National Monitoring and Management Platform, this section compares and analyzes
the battery-swapping characteristics of various types of vehicles and their charging
characteristics with BEVs, summarizes the battery-swapping characteristics of vehi-
cles and the progress of battery swapping pilot work, and evaluate the progress of
China’s pilot work of battery-swapping-type BEVs, which provides some experience
and reference for the wider operation of battery-swapping-type vehicles.1
6.4.1 Operation Characteristics of Battery-Swapping-Type
BEV Passenger Cars
The average mileage traveled by private cars during a single battery swapping is
higher than that of operating passenger cars during a single battery swapping.
In 2021, the average mileage traveled by private cars during a single battery
swapping was significantly higher than the average monthly mileage traveled by
taxis and cars for sharing during a single battery swapping (Fig. 6.12). Nio mainly
aims at private cars, with an average mileage of 213.7 km during a single battery
swapping. The average monthly mileage traveled by taxis and cars for sharing during
a single battery swapping is mostly the same, maintaining around 170 km.
There is a relatively significant seasonal difference in the average monthly
mileage traveled by battery-swapping-type passenger cars during a single
battery swapping.
According to the monthly mileage during a single battery swapping (Figs. 6.13
and 6.14), the mileage of taxis, cars for sharing, and private cars during a single
battery swapping in winter is significantly affected and significantly lower. The low
temperature in winter, the low-temperature charging and discharging characteristics
of the power battery, and the use of the air conditioning in the vehicles affect the
mileage during a single battery swapping; in the spring and autumn seasons, vehicles
can travel a longer mileage during a single battery swapping.
1 Description of battery swapping behavior: There is no charging behavior between vehicle shut-
down and restart; the time interval between vehicle shutdown and restart is not more than 15 min;
SOC when the vehicle is restarted—SOC when the vehicle is shutdown ≥ 40%. The shutdown
interval with the above three characteristics is marked as a one-time battery swapping.
240 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
213.7
168.6 170.2
0
50
100
150
200
250
Private Car Taxi Car for Sharing
Mileage Driven/km
Fig. 6.12 Average mileage traveled by battery-swapping-type BEV passenger cars during a single
battery swapping in 2021—by type
160
180
200
220
240
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Mileage Driven/km
Fig. 6.13 Comparison of monthly mileage of private cars during a single battery swapping in 2021
6.4.2 Operation Characteristics of Battery-Swapping-Type
BEV Commercial Vehicles
Compared with passenger cars, the mileage during a single battery swapping of BEV
logistics vehicles and heavy-duty trucks in the commercial vehicle field is shorter,
at 101.6 km and 149.6 km, respectively (Fig. 6.15). Some cities have demonstrated
good results in battery-swapping-type logistics vehicles and heavy-duty trucks, with
relatively high battery-swapping rates. This section selects enterprises with more
6.4 Operation Characteristics of Battery-Swapping-Type Vehicles 241
100
125
150
175
200
January February Mar ch April May June July August September October November December
Mileage Driven/km
Taxi Car for Sharing
Fig. 6.14 Comparison of average monthly mileage of operating passenger cars during a single
battery swapping in 2021
101.6
149.6
0
40
80
120
160
Logistics Vehicle Heavy-duty Trucks
Mileage Driven/km
Fig. 6.15 Average mileage traveled by battery-swapping-type BEV commercial vehicles during a
single battery swapping in 2021—by type
than 10 battery-swapping-type logistics vehicles and heavy-duty trucks accessed in
some typical cities, with the actual battery-swapping rate as shown in Table 6.4.In
2021, the actual battery swapping rate of battery-swapping-type BEV cargo trucks
promoted by JAC in Haikou has reached 66.67%, and that promoted by Dayun
in Shenzhen and Suzhou has reached 33.33% and 50%, respectively. In addition,
the actual battery swapping rate of battery-swapping-type BEV semi-trailer tractors
promoted by XCMG in Tangshan has reached 30%.
242 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
Table 6.4 Actual battery swapping rates of typical battery swapping enterprises in some cities in
2021
City name Enterprise name Ve h icl e u se Actual battery swapping
rate (%)
Shenzhen Chengdu Dayun
Automobile Group Co.,
Ltd
Battery-swapping-type
BEV cargo truck
33.33
Suzhou Chengdu Dayun
Automobile Group Co.,
Ltd
Battery-swapping-type
BEV cargo truck
50.00
Haikou Anhui Jianghuai
Automobile Group
Crop., Ltd
Battery-swapping-type
BEV cargo truck
66.67
Tangshan Anhui Hualing
Automobile Co., Ltd
Battery-swapping-type
BEV tractor
9.72
Xuzhou XCMG
Automobile
Manufacturing Co., Ltd
Battery-swapping-type
BEV semi-trailer tractor
30.00
Yuli n Anhui Hualing
Automobile Co., Ltd
Battery-swapping-type
BEV tractor
14.00
Zhengzhou Anhui Hualing
Automobile Co., Ltd
Battery-swapping-type
BEV concrete mixer
20.51
Xuzhou XCMG
Automobile
Manufacturing Co., Ltd
Battery-swapping-type
BEV concrete mixer
15.00
Xuzhou Xuzhou XCMG
Automobile
Manufacturing Co., Ltd
Battery-swapping-type
BEV garbage dump truck
17.65
The monthly mileage of commercial vehicles during a single battery swapping
is within 150 km.
The mileage of commercial vehicles during a single battery swapping is mostly
stable (Fig. 6.16). Regarding different types of vehicles, the monthly mileage during
a single battery swapping of heavy-duty trucks is significantly higher than that of
logistics vehicles. From the average monthly mileage of vehicles during a single
battery swapping, it can be seen that heavy-duty trucks have a shorter mileage from
January to February, which is closely related to construction progress factors.
Regarding the operation characteristics of battery-swapping-type heavy-duty
trucks (Fig. 6.17), the mileage during a single battery swapping concentrated at
120–160 km range. The proportion of vehicles with a mileage of 120–160 km during
a single battery swapping in 2021 was 78.56%, which is mostly consistent with the
distribution of vehicles with a mileage of 120–160 km in 2020. From the changes in
vehicle distribution in the past two years, the proportion of heavy-duty trucks with a
mileage of over 140 km during a single battery swapping in 2021 was significantly
higher than that in 2020.
6.4 Operation Characteristics of Battery-Swapping-Type Vehicles 243
0
50
100
150
200
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Mileage Driven/km
Logistics Vehicle Heavy-duty Trucks
Fig. 6.16 Comparison of average monthly mileage of commercial vehicles during a single battery
swapping in 2021
0.0
2.0
5.1
12.1
40.4
36.4
4.0
0.0 0.0
2.0
4.0
10.1
37.8
40.8
5.1
0.3
0
10
20
30
40
50
<60 60~80 80~100 100~120 120~140 140~160 160~180 >180
Distribution (%)
2020 2021
Fig. 6.17 Distribution of heavy-duty trucks in different mileage segments during a single battery
swapping—by year
244 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
6.5 Battery Swapping Characteristics
6.5.1 Characteristics of Battery-Swapping-Type Vehicles
Across China
The initial SOC of monthly battery swapping for various types of vehicles is
generally lower than the initial SOC of charging.
From the comparison of the initial SOC of charging and swapping for different
types of BEVs (Fig. 6.18), it can be seen that the initial SOC of swapping for different
types of BEVs is generally lower than the average monthly initial SOC of charging.
Among them, the difference in initial SOC of swapping for commercial vehicles,
buses, and heavy-duty trucks is relatively large compared with the average monthly
initial SOC of charging; the average monthly initial SOC of swapping for private cars
is relatively low, at 26.3%, which is 13.5% lower than the initial SOC of charging at
9.8%.
The distribution of initial SOCs of charging and swapping of private cars, repre-
sented by private cars and taxis, is shown in Fig. 6.19. The initial SOC of swapping
for private cars is mainly distributed in 0–30%, with vehicles accounting for 69.78%;
the initial SOC of charging is concentrated at 30–50%. The distribution of the initial
SOC of swapping for taxis is relatively scattered, and the initial SOC of charging is
mainly concentrated at 30–50% (Fig. 6.20).
From the comparison of SOCs at the end of charging and swapping for different
types of BEVs (Fig. 6.21), there is a significant difference in SOCs at the end of
39.8
42.2 42.5
48.4
54.6
49.5
26.3
37.2
32.4
39.1
31.5 30.9
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Private Car Taxi Car for Sharing Logistics Vehicle Bus Heavy-duty Truck
SOC(%)
Initial SOC of Charging Initial SOC of Swapping
Fig. 6.18 Comparison between initial SOC of charging and initial SOC of swapping for battery-
swapping-type vehicles and BEVs of the same type in 2021
6.5 Battery Swapping Characteristics 245
0
10
20
30
0~10 10~20 20~30 30~40 40~50 50~60 60~70 70~80 80~90 90~100
Distribution (%)
Initial SOC (%)
Initial SOC of Charging
Initial SOC of Swapping
Fig. 6.19 Distribution of SOCs of charging and swapping for battery-swapping-type private cars
and rechargeable private cars in 2021
0
10
20
30
40
0~10 10~20 20~30 30~40 40~50 50~60 60~70 70~80 80~90 90~100
Distribution (%)
Initial SOC (%)
Initial SOC of Charging
Initial SOC of Swapping
Fig. 6.20 Distribution of SOCs of charging and swapping for battery-swapping-type taxis and
rechargeable taxis in 2021
246 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
96.9
92.7
95.7
92.4
98.6
89.9
90.9
95.1
96.8
91.8
97.7 97.5
70
80
90
100
110
Private Car Taxi Car for Sharing Logistics Vehicle Bus Heavy-duty Truck
SOC(%)
SOCs at the End of Charging SOCs at the End of Swapping
Fig. 6.21 Comparison of average monthly SOCs at the end of charging and swapping between
battery-swapping vehicles and rechargeable BEVs in 2021
charging and swapping for vehicles. The SOC of heavy-duty trucks, taxis, and cars
for sharing at the end of battery swapping is higher than that of charging. Among
them, the SOC of heavy-duty trucks at the end of charging is significantly lower than
that of battery swapping, i.e., 4.6% lower than the latter. The SOC of private cars at
the end of battery swapping is relatively low, and with the rapid growth of the scale
of battery-swapping-type private cars, if there is a waiting or urgent situation at the
battery-swapping stations, the battery-swapping-type vehicles may be loaded with
not fully-charged battery packs for travel.
From the distribution of heavy-duty trucks with SOCs at the end of charging and
swapping (Fig. 6.22), the SOCs at the end of charging and swapping for heavy-duty
trucks are both mainly concentrated in 90%–100%, with vehicles accounting for
66.51% and 81.57%, respectively.
6.5.2 Battery Swapping Characteristics of Vehicles in Pilot
Cities for Battery Swapping
This section focuses on the 11 pilot cities for battery swapping included in the pilot
scope of battery swapping based on the “Notice on Launching the Pilot Work of
Application of Battery Swapping Mode for New Energy Vehicles” issued by the
Ministry of Industry and Information Technology of China in 2021. Starting from
cities of comprehensive application category and heavy-duty trucks featured cities,
this section analyzes the operation and electricity consumption characteristics of
6.5 Battery Swapping Characteristics 247
0
30
60
90
0~60 60~70 70~80 80~90 90~100
Distribution (%)
SOCs at the End
SOCs at the End of Charging SOCs at the End of Swapping
Fig. 6.22 Distribution of heavy-duty trucks with SOCs at the end of charging and swapping in
2021
battery-swapping-type vehicles in the two types of cities, and promptly summarizes
successful experiences, committed to providing experience and reference for large-
scale market-oriented operation of battery swapping.
1. Cities of comprehensive application category
Pilot cities for battery swapping have accumulated certain experiences in promoting
battery-swapping BEVs. As of the end of 2021, a total of 40,000 battery-swapping-
type BEVs have been accessed i n 8 comprehensive application pilot cities nation-
wide, with Beijing accounting for the main proportion of access, mainly consisting
of private passenger cars and taxi cars; other comprehensive application pilot cities
for battery swapping mainly promote the battery-swapping-type passenger cars
(Figs. 6.23 and 6.24).
The average monthly mileage of battery-swapping-type vehicles in comprehen-
sive application pilot cities during a single battery swapping is shown in Fig. 6.25.
The mileage of battery-swapping-type vehicles during a single battery swapping
shows obvious seasonal characteristics, and the average mileage between swapping
in winter is significantly lower than that in other seasons.
From the comparison of specific cities in the comprehensive application cate-
gory (Fig. 6.26), the average monthly mileage of battery-swapping-type vehicles
in Beijing, Changchun, and Jinan in the northern region shows obvious seasonal
characteristics, with relatively shorter mileage in winter; the battery-swapping-type
vehicles in Wuhan, Chongqing, and Nanjing operate well. The mileage of battery-
swapping-type vehicles in Sanya is good in the first half of the year but is affected
in the second half.
248 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
30995
2060 1519
270
2333
112
1968
561
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
Beijing Nanjing Wuhan Sanya Chongqing Changchun Hefei Jinan
Access Volume (cars)
Fig. 6.23 Cumulative access volume of battery-swapping-type BEVs in comprehensive application
pilot cities
0
20
40
60
80
100
Access Volume Proportion (%)
Logistics Special Vehicles
Construction Special Vehicles
Leased Passenger Cars
Official Business Passenger Cars
Rental Passenger Cars
Private Passenger Cars
Fig. 6.24 Distribution of battery-swapping-type BEVs in comprehensive application pilot cities in
2021
6.5 Battery Swapping Characteristics 249
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Mileage/km
Fig. 6.25 Average monthly mileage of battery-swapping-type vehicles in cities of comprehensive
application category during a single battery swapping
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Mileage/km
Beijing Nanjing Wuhan Sanya Chongqing Changchun Hefei Jinan
Fig. 6.26 Comparison of average monthly mileage of battery-swapping-type vehicles in cities of
comprehensive application category during a single battery swapping
Regarding the specific practice of cities of comprehensive application category,
taking the typical urban cases of Nanjing and Sanya as an example, the development
achievements of the urban battery swapping industry are summarized in combination
with local industrial development characteristics.
250 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
• Nanjing
As of November 2021, State Grid Nanjing Power Supply Company has successfully
built 5 bus battery charging stations in Nanjing, serving 170 battery-swapping-type
buses, with a total of over 500,000 swapping times and a mileage of approximately
22.48 million km. According to the pilot work plan, Nanjing will expand the battery
swapping mode to five major application scenarios, including municipal engineering,
industrial ports, logistics transportation, taxis, and private cars. It is planned that by
the end of 2023, the city will strive to promote the application of more than 20,000
battery-swapping-type vehicles, build no less than 260 battery-swapping stations of
all types, and explore and form experiences that can be replicated nationwide. Nearly
100 battery swapping stations are mainly used for municipal engineering slag cars.
• Sanya
Since 2019, Sanya has promoted battery swapping mode for NEVs in many cities and
counties. By the end of December 2021, Sanya has built and used 12 battery swapping
stations, with more than 300 power batteries equipped. Among them, Aulton New
Energy has built 8 battery swapping stations, mainly serving battery-swapping-type
cruising taxis; Hainan Huapu has built 2 battery swapping stations, mainly serving
battery-swapping-type cars for sharing; Nio has built 2 battery swapping stations,
mainly providing battery-swapping service for private cars. A citywide BEV battery
swapping service network has been preliminarily established.
By the end of December 2021, Sanya has promoted more than 1600 battery-
swapping-type vehicles, accounting for 6.2% of the city’s new energy vehicle popu-
lation. Among them are about 800 battery-swapping-type cruising taxis, about 400
battery-swapping-type cars for sharing, and about 400 private cars.
2. Heavy-duty trucks featured cities
The environmental policies of carbon peaking and carbon neutrality jointly promote
the transformation from fuel vehicles to BEV heavy-duty trucks from supply and
demand sides. Rechargeable heavy-duty trucks face problems such as short range,
slow charging, and high one-time purchase costs. However, battery-swapping-type
heavy-duty trucks adopting the “separation of vehicle and battery” mode can effec-
tively solve the pain points of rechargeable heavy-duty trucks, improve the vehicle
operation efficiency and reduce purchase costs.
Some heavy-duty trucks have simpler application scenarios than passenger cars,
and those used for short-distance transportation account for a larger proportion. They
carry out point-to-point transportation according to established routes, including
6.5 Battery Swapping Characteristics 251
dedicated line transportation, straight short haul, port, and trunk transportation.
Among them, the transportation distances for dedicated line transportation, straight
short-haul, and port transportation are relatively short, with the one-way distance
mainly concentrated within 150 km (Table 6.5). According to the distribution of
battery-swapping-type heavy-duty trucks with an average daily mileage on the
National Monitoring and Management Platform (Table 6.5), heavy-duty trucks with
an average daily mileage of less than 150 km account for the main proportion,
reaching 76.1% (Fig. 6.27).
In the battery-swapping industry, suppliers of key components such as batteries,
motors, and electronic control systems are in the upstream of the industry chain
(Fig. 6.28), while enterprises that design, develop, and produce battery-swapping-
type unpowered vehicle bodies, battery leasing/operating companies that provide
battery leasing services, and auto financial service companies are in the midstream.
Table 6.5 Relatively simple application scenarios for heavy-duty trucks
Transportation
scenario
Transportation route One-way
distance
Dedicated line
transportation
Dedicated line for fixed freight transportation, coal washery to
the railway, engineering material transportation, etc
≤ 100 km
Straight short
haul
Straight short haul from centralized stations to surrounding
cities, such as railway/port container transportation
≤ 150 km
Port
transportation
Repeated short-haul transportation within closed scenarios,
such as cargo transportation within ports, container
transportation, etc
Short
distance
Trunk
transportation
Inter-cities highway transportation, such as auto parts,
department store goods, etc
Longer
distance
Source www.21-sun.com, CICC Securities
Fig. 6.27 Distribution of
new energy heavy-duty
trucks with an average daily
mileage in 2021
24.0%
27.7%
24.4%
13.8%
5.5%
2.4% 2.3%
<50
50~100
100~150
150~200
200~250
250~300
>300
252 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
Downstream customers are operating enterprises and logistics enterprises with trans-
portation needs. It is necessary to connect various links in the upstream, midstream,
and downstream of the industrial chain, including purchasing batteries from upstream
battery suppliers, negotiating unified battery standards with vehicle manufacturers,
and establishing infrastructure such as battery swapping stations based on user needs.
Currently, the mainstream battery swapping stations for BEV heavy-duty trucks
in China mainly adopt the top-lifting battery swapping mode. A battery swapping
station covers an area of less than 200 m2 and is suitable for models covering tractors,
dump trucks, slag cars, and other heavy-duty truck models (Table 6.6). Regarding
the operational efficiency of the battery swapping station, a single-channel 8 × 7
heavy-duty truck battery swapping station is equipped with 8 battery workstations,
including 7 with batteries at full capacity and 1 with a buffer battery. The battery
swapping station adopts a double-layer container structure, which is easy to install,
disassemble, and displace. The upper layer is equipped with batteries and a battery-
swapping mechanism, while the lower layer consists of a charging compartment,
a control compartment, and a monitoring room. The charging rate is 1C, which is
determined based on the battery capacity. The duration of battery swapping for a
single vehicle at the power station is ≤ 5 min. If a vehicle flow rate is 10 min/vehicle,
the battery swapping station can achieve 24-h uninterrupted battery swapping and
serve no less than 50 battery-swapping-type heavy-duty trucks.
In 2021, among the pilot cities launched by the Ministry of Industry and Informa-
tion Technology of China to apply battery swapping mode for NEVs, there are three
heavy-duty trucks featured pilot cities: Yibin, Tangshan, and Baotou. Each pilot city
relies on local vehicle enterprises and unique application scenarios to comprehen-
sively promote the construction of pilot work around various links such as techno-
logical innovation and vehicle supply, battery swapping facility construction, appli-
cation scenario expansion, and policy support, in combination with battery swapping
operators and power battery supporting enterprises. The content below will analyze
the battery-swapping-type heavy-duty truck industry chain system by combining the
local characteristics of Yibin, Tangshan, and Baotou.
• Yibin
As a heavy-duty trucks featured pilot city for battery swapping, it is planned to
build 60 or more battery-swapping stations by the end of 2025 and promote 3000 or
more battery-swapping-type heavy-duty trucks. Regarding the ecological construc-
tion of the battery-swapping industry cluster, Yibin has a complete battery-swapping
industry chain for new energy heavy-duty trucks. Relying on Chery Commercial
Vehicles, CATL Sichuan Company, Yibin KeyPower, Fuxi power station, Yibin Port
Group, Baichuan Logistics, Yibin Sanjiang Investment and Construction Group, and
other enterprises, Yibin has established a demonstration operation consortium of
battery swapping for new energy heavy-duty trucks. Regarding the construction of the
battery-swapping infrastructure network, Yibin has integrated the needs of the appli-
cation scenarios, conducted overall planning for the layout of the battery-swapping
network, and established the operation supervision platform for the charging and
6.5 Battery Swapping Characteristics 253
Battery factory
Battery swapping
station operator
System construction
Vehicle
manufacturer/dealer
Battery bank
Customer
(private car/taxi
company/company of cars
for sharing/logistics
company/scene demander,
etc.)
Battery swapping
station 1
Operating
vehicle
1
Station
building
Operation
Store
Standardized battery
packs in separate
boxes
Battery swapping
station equipment
Battery
swapping
cloud data
Loan
Battery
finance
Battery
swapping
service
Selling of vehicle
only with standard
accessories
Financial plan
Technical
standards
Core
components
Technical
standards
Core
components
Vehicle-battery separation
Battery swapping
station 2
Battery swapping
station 3
Operating
vehicle 2
Operating
vehicle
3
Battery swapping
service
Fig. 6.28 Business chain system of participants in battery swapping mode
254 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
Table 6.6 Solution of a battery swapping operator’s battery swapping station for BEV heavy-duty
trucks
Product series 8 workstations—automatic battery
swapping station for heavy-duty
trucks
10 workstations—automatic
battery swapping station for
heavy-duty trucks
Overall dimension
(mm)
25,000(L) * 7000(W) * 7000(H) 27,000(L) * 7000(W) * 7000(H)
Floor area (m2)150 170
Battery swapping time
(min)
4~5 4~5
Battery swapping
success rate (%)
99 99
Battery swapping
working time (h)
7*24 7*24
Charging power (kW) 2560(8 * 320 kW) 3200(10 * 320 kW)
Single-compartment
charging capacity (A)
Dual-charger 400 A Dual-charger 400 A
Number of spare
batteries (Nrs)
7 9
Service capability
(time/24 h)
240 240
Battery swapping mode Top lifting battery swapping Top lifting battery swapping
Suitable models Tractor, dump truck, slag car Tractor, dump truck, slag car
Suitable battery
capacity
282 kW/321 kW/350 kW 321 kW/350 kW
Vehicle positioning
system
Laser guidance system Laser guidance system
Vehicle identification
system
Identification by RFID + VIN
code
Identification by RFID + VIN
code
Software platform Main control system + cloud
platform operation system
Main control system + cloud
platform operation system
Source Official website of a battery swapping operator
swapping facilities. A wide range of application scenarios suitable for promoting and
demonstrating pilot projects of battery swapping for heavy-duty trucks are covered,
including large-scale urban construction, industrial parks, mines, ports, power plants,
etc.
Regarding policy support and guarantee, Yibin has currently introduced policies
that provide for a purchase subsidy of 300 yuan/kWh for battery-swapping-type
heavy-duty trucks, and give priority to land indicators for the construction of battery
swapping stations; and has established the first 6 billion yuan industrial development
fund to provide capital support for high-quality battery swapping projects.
6.5 Battery Swapping Characteristics 255
• Tangshan
As an important port city for bulk materials (steel) and cargo transportation and a
powerful industrial city in the Circum-Bohai Sea Region, Tangshan, Hebei Province,
has built into a heavy-duty trucks featured pilot city to meet the needs of current trans-
formation and development. Tangshan’s battery-swapping market for heavy-duty
trucks has ushered in new opportunities. Most iron and steel enterprises in Tangshan
are located in Tangshan and some surrounding areas. In addition to the demand for
high-frequency short-haul in the factories, the trunk transportation generated by the
outward transportation of finished crude steel is also part of enterprises’ urgent desire
to achieve green upgrading. By 2021, Tangshan had more than 100,000 heavy-duty
trucks. With the increasing pressure on air pollution control, accelerating the electri-
fication transformation of freight vehicles has become a top priority for Tangshan’s
industrial transformation. In 2021, Tangshan was listed as one of the heavy-duty
trucks featured pilot cities for battery swapping. According to the development needs
of Tangshan’s industrial chain, Tangshan plans to operate 2600 battery-swapping-
type heavy-duty trucks, build and put into operation at least 60 battery swapping
stations, set up at least one battery asset management company and 2–4 demon-
stration enterprises for battery swapping in the pilot period. Regarding the battery
swapping infrastructure construction, Tangshan has designed a “three vertical and
one horizontal” trunk battery swapping network layout to meet the needs of large
steel enterprises to transport finished products to Jingtang Port and Caofeidian Port
(Table 6.7). By the end of November 2021, Tangshan has built 7 battery swapping
stations, of which 5 are in the steel enterprise plant, 2 are trunk battery swapping
stations, and another 5 are under construction.
Table 6.7 Construction planning of battery swapping station in Tangshan
Planning for battery swapping
station
Laying route for battery
swapping station
Steel enterprises passed by
Line 1: Qian’an—Jingtang
Port
Laying along the
Pingquan-Qinglong-Laoting
Line (with a trunk of 100 km)
Passing by steel mills such as
Yanshan Iron and Steel,
Xinda, Jiujiang, Shougang
Qian’an, etc
Line 2: Qianxi—Caofeidian Laying along the
Qian’an-Caofeidian Line (with
a trunk of 170 km)
Passing by steel mills such as
Jinxi, Chunxing, Guoyi,
Jing’an, and Donghai
Line 3: Zunhua—Caofeidian Laying along
Tangshan-Fengrun
Expressway (with a trunk of
175 km)
Passing by steel mills such as
Ganglu, Jinzhou, Zhengfeng,
Tianzhu, Ruifeng, and
Donghua
Line 4: Fengnan—Jingtang
Port
Trunk of 175 km Passing by Zongheng,
Wen feng
256 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
Regarding the policy guarantee for pilot work, Tangshan will give policy support
in planning land use, power expansion, facility construction, and other aspects in
combination with the actual operation demand of vehicles. For battery-swapping
infrastructure projects built on newly requisitioned land, the nature of land plan-
ning is determined according to the land for public facilities, and priority is given to
land supply; free power expansion support is provided for the power demand for the
construction of battery-swapping infrastructure. At the same time, green transporta-
tion convenience support is provided for new energy heavy-duty trucks and green
transportation permits are issued, with no restrictions on travel in urban areas.
• Baotou
With the goal of integrated development of “enterprise, vehicle, station, and battery,”
Baotou has continued to make efforts in various links such as technological innova-
tion and vehicle production, battery swapping infrastructure construction, applica-
tion scenario expansion, and strengthening policy support in the construction of the
battery swapping industry ecosystem, to comprehensively promote the pilot work.
Relying on the new energy heavy-duty truck models of BEIBEN Trucks as the main
force, the vehicle enterprises have successively launched the battery-swapping-type
heavy-duty truck models in the fields of battery-swapping-type tractors, dump trucks,
and special vehicles; Regarding the construction of supporting battery swapping
infrastructure, Baotou has successively carried out technical research and develop-
ment on battery swapping station with Aulton New Energy, GCL-ET and UNEX, and
plan to arrange more than 60 battery swapping stations; Regarding vehicle applica-
tion scenarios, in combination with the mine transportation scenarios of Baotou and
based on increasing the proportion of battery-swapping-type heavy-duty trucks in
mining areas, thermal power plants, and steel plants, Baotou has actively expanded
the transport scenarios such as waste handling, slag removal, logistics parks, and
municipal sanitation to form a diversified demonstration effect.
Regarding strengthening policy guarantee, Baotou has formulated appropriate
management measures for battery charging and swapping stations, built standard-
ized standard systems such as review service and operation management for battery
swapping stations, worked hard to provide a package solution for pilot work, and
actively guided the participation of social capital, finance and insurance, to build a
guarantee system in all fields.
6.6 Summary
By sorting out the national policy and standard system of the battery-swapping
industry, the status quo of battery-swapping-type vehicles and battery swapping
infrastructure industry, and the operation of battery-swapping-type vehicles, this
paper mainly draws the following conclusions:
6.6 Summary 257
1. The acceleration of implementing the battery-swapping industry policy has
driven the rapid development of the industry. On the one hand, the battery-
swapping infrastructure is proliferating. According to data from the China Elec-
tric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance, as of the end of 2021,
the total number of battery swapping stations in China was 1298, with an increase
of 743 compared with 2020. NIO, Aulton, and Botan are the three major battery-
swapping operators. In the field of passenger cars, Nio and BAIC BJEV have
implemented the layout in the fields of private passenger cars and taxis in succes-
sion, and domestic mainstream commercial vehicle enterprises such as CAMC,
SAIC Hongyan, BAIC Foton, etc. have implemented the layout in the field of
battery-swapping-type heavy-duty trucks in succession. As of December 31,
2021, the National Monitoring and Management Platform has a cumulative
access volume of over 100,000 battery-swapping-type BEVs, with passenger
cars occupying the leading position i n battery swapping and commercial vehi-
cles occupying a relatively small proportion but showing a rapid growth trend.
With the gradual implementation of policies, more and more enterprises will
implement the layout in the battery-swapping market.
2. The battery-swapping-type vehicles have a high power supplement efficiency
and have been rapidly promoted in public operation fields such as taxis, cars
for sharing, and heavy-duty trucks. The battery-swapping-type vehicles have
significant advantages Regarding power supplement efficiency. The initial SOC
of swapping for battery-swapping-type vehicles is generally lower than the initial
SOC of charging, and battery swapping can be completed in 3–5 min. For public
operating vehicles such as taxis, cars for sharing, and heavy-duty trucks, on the
one hand, it solves the problem of high battery purchase cost, and on the other
hand, high-frequency and fast power supplement demand is more applicable than
the charging mode. Regarding the total cost of ownership of battery-swapping-
type heavy-duty trucks within five years, the total cost of battery-swapping-type
heavy-duty trucks is significantly lower than that of fuel-powered heavy-duty
trucks. Driven by environmental benefits and innovative business models, the
scale of battery-swapping-type heavy-duty trucks will rapidly increase.
3. The electrification of heavy-duty trucks significantly affects “energy conser-
vation and carbon reduction,” and local governments need to make compre-
hensive planning and design at the levels of ROW, subsidies, and supporting
facilities. Currently, the governance efforts of the national and local govern-
ments towards fuel-powered heavy-duty trucks are still increasing. The battery-
swapping-type BEV heavy-duty trucks effectively solve the problems of high
purchase cost and long charging time in the practical application process
while greatly reducing user purchase costs and achieving high user accep-
tance. Currently, although some cities have already promoted the application of
some battery-swapping-type BEV heavy-duty trucks, some battery-swapping-
type heavy-duty truck fleets often choose fast charging methods, resulting in
lower actual battery swapping rates due to the problems s uch as low load oper-
ation of some vehicles, lagging construction of battery swapping stations, and
low operational efficiency. The scale and layout of infrastructure construction
258 6 Battery Swapping of New Energy Vehicles
and the quality and maintenance of charging facilities will all affect the driving
behavior of owners of battery-swapping-type BEV heavy-duty trucks. Therefore,
government departments shall conduct in-depth research and analysis, coordinate
planning and design, and address the experience of cities with better promotion of
battery-swapping-type heavy-duty trucks Regarding ROW, subsidies, supporting
facilities, etc., in order to improve the utilization rate of battery-swapping-type
heavy-duty trucks.
4. The construction of a battery swapping station requires a high investment
amount, so it is necessary to collaborate with financial institutions in the
battery swapping industry chain, battery swapping service providers, and
upstream and downstream industry chains of vehicle enterprises for coor-
dinated development. According to research results, the investment required
for a single battery swapping station (including land) for passenger cars is
about 5.072 million yuan, of which 2.6072 million yuan is for the equipment,
accounting for about 52%. In addition, investment in lines, batteries, etc., is
also required. A single battery swapping station for heavy-duty trucks requires
more investment, of about 4.2014 million yuan, about twice the total investment
for passenger cars. In addition, the battery-swapping mode also requires enter-
prises to invest a significant amount of research and development costs to design
the battery-swapping-type vehicle models. Automobile enterprises need to make
targeted modifications to the vehicle chassis, power batteries, and body structure.
With the implementation of national policies and the promotion of pilot cities for
battery swapping, the market space for the battery swapping mode is gradually
emerging. Battery-swapping operators can lead the development of the industry
by integrating multiple forces to participate together.
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Chapter 7
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
As clean and efficient secondary energy, hydrogen energy brings new opportunities
for developing FCEVs. In recent years, China has attached great importance to devel-
oping the hydrogen energy industry and included hydrogen energy in the national
“14th Five-Year Plan” and the 2035 Long-Range Objectives. In 2021, China’s
Ministry of Finance and four other ministries and commissions have successively
approved the first and second batches of FCEV demonstration urban agglomerations,
aiming to effectively create a green energy community and drive the sustainable
development of the entire hydrogen energy industry chain through the collaboration
of the FCEV industry chain and the demonstration and promotion of cross-regional
scenarios. From the perspective of FCEVs, this section sorts out the current national
and local fuel cell industry policies, demonstration and promotion status, and vehicle
operation, evaluates the promotion and application status of FCEV demonstration
urban agglomerations, analyzes the current characteristics of local FCEV industry
promotion, helps the demonstration urban agglomerations continuously improve the
demonstration and application level, and explores replicable and scalable advanced
experiences for large-scale promotion and application.
7.1 Development Status of FCEV Industry
7.1.1 Continuously Increasing Industrial Policies
1. National top-level designaccelerates the transformationof clean energy, and
the hydrogen energy industry is listed as a forward-looking industry
Hydrogen energy is an important development direction of the global energy tech-
nology revolution. Accelerating the development of the hydrogen energy industry is
a strategic choice to address global climate change, ensure national energy supply
security, and achieve sustainable development. As an important direction for China’s
© China Machine Press Co., Ltd. 2024
Z. Wang, Annual Report on the Big Data of New Energy Vehicle in China (2022),
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6411-6_7
259
260 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
energy transformation, hydrogen energy will play an important role in synergy
with other energy sources to achieve China’s goal of “Carbon Peaking and Carbon
Neutrality”.
According to the development of China’s FCEV industry, the overall FCEV
industry is still in the policy-driven stage. In the series of policy documents
on carbon peaking and carbon neutrality released at the national level, the
hydrogen energy and the fuel cell industry have been gradually incorporated
into the green and low-carbon transformation, achieving one of the goals of
carbon peaking and carbon neutrality. On March 11, 2021, the 4th Session of the
2021 National People’s Congress adopted the Resolution of the 4th Session of the
2021 National People’s Congress on the 14th Five-Year Plan for National Economic
and Social Development and the Outline of the 2035 Long-Range Objectives, which
included hydrogen energy as a frontier technology and industrial transformation
field in the document, “Organize the implementation of future industry incubation
and acceleration plans in frontier technologies and industrial transformation fields
including hydrogen energy and energy storage, and plan to lay out a batch of future
industries”; the Opinions of the CPC Central Committee and State Council on the
Complete, Accurate and Comprehensive Implementation of the New Development
Concept to Do a Good Job in Carbon Peaking and Carbon Neutrality (hereinafter
referred to as the “Opinions”), was released on October 24, 2021, and pointed out
that carbon peaking and carbon neutrality should be included in the overall economic
and social development, led by the comprehensive green transformation of economic
and social development, and green and low-carbon development as the key. Actively
developing non-petrochemical energy and coordinating the full chain development
of hydrogen energy production, storage, transportation, and utilization: on October
26, 2021, the Notice of the State Council on Issuing the Action Plan for Carbon
Peak before 2030 (GF [2021] No. 23) (referred to as the “Notice”) was officially
released. The Notice clearly stated that China would actively expand the application
of new and clean energies such as hydrogen and natural gas in the transportation
field, vigorously promote new energy vehicles, and gradually reduce the proportion
of traditional fuel vehicles in the production, sales, and holdings of new vehicles,
promote the electrified substitution of urban public service vehicles, and promote
FCEVs and other electric heavy-duty freight vehicles.
A series of supporting policies for the development of the NEV industry have
been issued at the national level, clearly accelerating the demonstration, promo-
tion, and commercial application of FCEVs and comprehensively promoting
the development of the whole chain of hydrogen energy “production, storage,
transportation and use.” The industry has shown a clear acceleration signal.
On November 2, 2020, the State Council issued the Notice of the General Office
of the State Council on Issuing the Development Plan for the New Energy Vehicle
Industry (2021–2035) (GBF [2020] No. 39), which established the medium and
long-term development goals of the fuel cell industry. The policy stated that “after
15 years of sustained efforts, China’s core technology of new energy vehicles will
reach the international advanced level, and the quality brands will have strong interna-
tional competitiveness. The commercial application of FCEVs will be realized. The
7.1 Development Status of FCEV Industry 261
construction of hydrogen fuel supply systems will be steadily promoted”. Regarding
industrial development goals, according to the “Technology Roadmap for Energy-
Saving and New Energy Vehicles (2.0)”, by 2025, the number of FCEVs will reach
about 100,000, and the number of hydrogen refueling stations will reach 1000; by
2035, the number of FCEVs will reach about 1 million, and the number of Hydrogen
refueling stations will reach 5000.
In fuel cell technology innovation and standardization, the fuel cell common
technologies, engineering applications, and key component technology innova-
tion have been successively laid out around the entire hydrogen energy industry
chain at the national level. On May 11, 2021, the Notice of the Ministry of Science
and Technology on Issuing the 2021 Project Guidelines for the National Key R&D
Program “Information Photonics Technology” and Other Key Special Projects of the
14th Five-Year Plan (GKFZ [2021] No. 133) was officially released. The 2021 project
guidelines for key hydrogen energy technology projects point out that the overall goal
of key projects is t o be guided by major needs such as the energy revolution and a
country with strong transportation network, systematically lay out the green produc-
tion, safe and dense storage and transportation and efficient utilization technologies
of the hydrogen energy, connect the links of foundation and foresight, common
and key technology, engineering application and evaluation standard, and achieve
China’s hydrogen energy technology research and development level entering the
international advanced ranks by 2025. The 2021 guidelines revolve around four tech-
nical directions: green hydrogen production and large-scale transfer storage system,
safe hydrogen storage and rapid transmission and distribution system, convenient
hydrogen upgrading and efficient power system, and comprehensive demonstration
of “hydrogen entering thousands of households.” Based on basic frontier technolo-
gies, common and key technologies, and demonstration applications, 18 projects will
be launched, with a planned national allocation of 795 million yuan. On December
4, 2021, the Ministry of Science and Technology of China released the formula
list of key proposed projects of the national key R&D program in 2021, including
35 hydrogen energy and fuel cell technologies in five categories of key projects,
including hydrogen technology (17), new energy vehicle (2), catalytic science (12),
high-end function and smart material (3), and frontier research on large-scale scien-
tific facility (1), mostly covering common and key technologies in the entire industry
chain of hydrogen energy and FCEV.
On June 28, 2021, the First Department of Equipment Industry of the Ministry of
Industry and Information Technology of China released the “Key Points for Auto-
motive Standardization in 2021”. Among them, in the field of FCEVs, the Key Points
proposed to focus on the use of FCEVs, promote the standard formulation and revi-
sion for FCEV energy consumption and driving range, low-temperature cold start,
power performance, on-board hydrogen system, and hydrogen refueling nozzle, etc.,
accelerate innovation and breakthroughs in key components, and carry out standard
formulation and revision for power batteries, supercapacitors, drive motor systems,
and insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) modules.
262 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
2. The pilot scope of demonstration urban agglomerations is gradually
expanding, with a focus on supporting industrial chain technology break-
throughs and strengthening regional synergy and complementarity
Regarding accelerating the construction of the FCEV industry chain and the promo-
tion and application of FCEVs, the national level is committed to fully mobilizing
the comparative advantages of each city, giving play to the radiation and driving role
of leading cities, focusing on cultivating distinctive industrial clusters, and rewarding
the owners of FCEVs to replace fiscal and tax policies, and promote the coordinated
development of the fuel cell industry within and between urban agglomerations,
and strive to drive the complementary, interactive, mutually beneficial and win–win
development of cities.
In August 2021, the Ministry of Finance and four other ministries and commis-
sions issued the Notice of the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Industry and Infor-
mation Technology, the Ministry of Science and Technology, the National Develop-
ment and Reform Commission, and the National Energy Administration on Starting
the Demonstration and Application of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (CJ [2001] No.
266), marking the first batch of FCEV demonstration urban agglomerations including
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration, Shanghai Urban Agglomeration led by
Shanghai and Guangdong Urban Agglomeration led by Foshan City have officially
landed, further clarifying the determination to accelerate the development of the
FCEV industry (Table 7.1).
In August 2021, the Ministry of Finance and four other ministries and commis-
sions issued the Notice of the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Industry and
Information Technology, the Ministry of Science and Technology, the National
Development and Reform Commission, and the National Energy Administration
Table 7.1 List of the first batch of FCEV demonstration and application urban agglomerations in
2021
Urban
agglomeration
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
urban agglomeration
Shanghai urban
agglomeration
Guangdong urban
agglomeration
Led by Beijing Municipal
Bureau of Finance,
Daxing District,
Beijing
Shanghai Foshan
Component Beijing: Six districts,
including Haidian
District, Changping
District
Tianjin: Binhai New
Area
Hebei: Baoding,
Tangshan
Shandong: Binzhou,
Zibo
Jiangsu: Suzhou,
Nantong
Zhejiang: Jiaxing
Shandong:Zibo
Ningxia: Ningdong
Energy and Chemical
Industry Base
Inner Mongolia:
Ordos
Guangdong: Guangzhou,
Shenzhen, Zhuhai,
Dongguan, Zhongshan,
Yangjiang, Yunfu
Fujian: Fuzhou
Shandong:Zibo
Inner Mongolia:Baotou
Anhui:Lu’an
Source Planning data of various provinces and cities
7.1 Development Status of FCEV Industry 263
on Starting A New Round of Demonstration and Application of Fuel Cell Electric
Vehicles (CJ [2001] No. 437). It listed Hebei Urban Agglomeration, led by Zhangji-
akou, and Henan Urban Agglomeration, led by Zhengzhou, as the second batch of
FCEV demonstration urban agglomerations. The formal establishment of the five
major demonstration urban agglomerations is expected to fully leverage each city’s
resource endowment and technological industry advantages, committed to creating
a leading model for the development of the hydrogen energy industry (Table 7.2).
3. Intensive introduction of policies for demonstration urban agglomerations,
with a total number of vehicles in demonstration and application exceeding
33,000
As of the end of 2021, the national “3 + 2” FCEV demonstration urban agglomeration
pattern has been formed, and industrial policies are gradually being implemented.
The first batch of demonstration urban agglomerations, Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban
Agglomeration, Shanghai Urban Agglomeration, and Guangdong Urban Agglom-
eration, have obvious advantages in the promotion and application of fuel cell key
technologies and are the pioneer areas in the promotion and application of FCEVs
in China strong economic strength. Hebei Urban Agglomeration and Henan Urban
Agglomeration take the opportunity of vehicle demonstration and application and
combine their advantages to continue forming local promotion characteristics, which
are expected to drive the development of local industries. According to the 4-year
demonstration period (2022–2025), the five major demonstration urban agglomera-
tions are expected to promote 33,000 FCEVs of various types. With the continuous
growth of vehicles in demonstration and application, various technological break-
throughs, large-scale product promotion, and hydrogen refueling infrastructure in
the upstream and downstream of the fuel cell industry chain will also have good
development opportunities.
Table 7.2 List of the second batch of FCEV demonstration and application urban agglomerations
in 2021
Urban
agglomeration
Hebei urban agglomeration Henan urban agglomeration
Led by Zhangjiakou, Hebei Zhengzhou
Component Hebei: Tangshan, Baoding City,
Handan City, Qinhuangdao City,
Dingzhou City, Xinji, Xiong’an New
Area
Inner Mongolia: Wuhai
Xinjiang: Bazhou, Korla
Shanghai: Fengxian District
Henan: Zhengzhou
Shandong: Liaocheng, Zibo
Henan: Xinxiang, Luoyang, Kaifeng,
Anyang, Jiaozuo
Shanghai: Jiading District, Fengxian
District, Lin-gang Special Area of
China (Shanghai) Pilot Free Trade
Zone
Hebei: Zhangjiakou, Baoding, Xinji
Shandong: Yantai, Zibo, Weifang
Guangdong: Foshan
Ningxia: Ningdong Town
Source Planning data of various provinces and cities
264 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
The Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration is committed to building
an ecotope with independent technological innovation, closed-loop sustain-
able development of the entire industry chain, and regional integration and
coordination.
Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei are geographically connected, with integrated indus-
tries, creating an inherent advantage of jointly conducting FCEV demonstrations.
The Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration, led by Daxing District, Beijing,
was established in conjunction with six districts, including Haidian and Chang-
ping, and the Economic and Technological Development Zone in Beijing, as well
as 12 cities (districts) including Tianjin Binhai New Area, Baoding and Tangshan
in Hebei, Binzhou and Zibo in Shandong Province. On December 25, 2021, the
construction of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei FCEV Demonstration Urban Agglomera-
tion was officially launched. The demonstration of urban agglomeration will be led
by Beijing’s technological innovation and commitment to building a green energy
community. According to the Implementation Plan for the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
FCEV Demonstration Urban Agglomeration, the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Demonstra-
tion Urban Agglomeration has set a “1 + 4 + 5” goal task system, which aims
to complete an overall goal of building an ecotope with independent technological
innovation, closed-loop sustainable development of the entire industry chain, and
regional integration and coordination; also achieve 4 sub-goals: 100% localization
of key technologies, construction of high-quality industrial clusters, vehicle promo-
tion and application, and creation of a friendly demonstration environment, with
supporting key tasks covering 5 major fields; and establish the division of labor
and positioning of “one core, two chains, and four districts” based on the location
conditions and resource endowments of each city (Table 7.3).
Table 7.3 Positioning and division of labor in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei demonstration urban
agglomeration
Key
indicators
Specific contents
One core • Beijing—To play a leading role in technological innovation, key component and
vehicle R&D, and manufacturing
Two
chains
• Beijing-Tianjin-Baoding-Zibo industrial development chain
• Beijing-Baoding-Binzhou hydrogen energy supply chain
Four
districts
• Yanqing District, Beijing—winter Olympics scenario distinctive demonstration
zone
• Tianjin Binhai New Area—port scenario distinctive demonstration zone
• Baoding, Hebei—building materials transportation scenario distinctive
demonstration zone
• Tangshan, Hebei—ore and steel heavy load scenario distinctive demonstration
zone
Source Data for the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei FCEV demonstration urban agglomeration kickoff
meeting
7.1 Development Status of FCEV Industry 265
The Shanghai Urban Agglomeration is committed to building a fuel cell
industry cluster with the largest industrial scale, the best ecological environ-
ment, and the strongest overall competitiveness in China.
The Shanghai Urban Agglomeration, led by Shanghai, is jointly established by
six cities (districts), including Suzhou and Nantong in Jiangsu, Jiaxing in Zhejiang,
Zibo in Shandong, Ningdong Energy and Chemical Base in Ningxia, and Ordos in
Inner Mongolia. On November 11, 2021, the first joint meeting on the demonstration
and application of FCEVs in Shanghai Urban Agglomeration was held, marking
the official launch of the demonstration work in Shanghai Urban Agglomeration.
The Shanghai Urban Agglomeration has strengthened organizational support and
established a joint meeting system. The joint meeting will be held twice a year, and
each city will establish a dedicated team for FCEV demonstration and application
work.
Regarding financial support, on November 3, 2021, Shanghai issued Several Poli-
cies on Supporting the Development of the City’s Fuel Cell Vehicle Industry (“Several
Policies”) (HFGZ [2021] No. 10), involving incentives for supporting the purchase of
complete vehicles, incentives for key parts, incentives for vehicle operation, subsidies
for supporting bus operations, subsidies for the construction of hydrogen refueling
stations, and subsidies for hydrogen retail prices. The “Several Policies” clearly
propose that by 2025, the municipal finance department of Shanghai will contribute
following the 1:1 ratio of the national fuel cell vehicle demonstration central finan-
cial incentive fund, and give 200,000 yuan/point incentives in support of the vehicle
product demonstration and application.
The Guangdong Urban Agglomeration is committed to creating a vehicle
demonstration and application and technological innovation highland with a
sound industry chain, advanced technologies, and leading scale.
On December 8, 2021, the Guangdong FCEV Demonstration and Application
Urban Agglomeration was officially launched. The Guangdong Urban Agglomera-
tion, led by Foshan City, jointly established by cities such as Guangzhou, Shenzhen,
Zhuhai, Dongguan, Zhongshan, Yangjiang, Yunfu, Fuzhou, Zibo, Baotou, and Lu’an,
aiming to build a technological innovation highland with global competitiveness for
the FCEV industry by 2025 by taking the opportunity of FCEV demonstration and
application. According to the Action Plan of Guangdong Province to Accelerate the
Construction of Fuel Cell Vehicle Demonstration Urban Agglomeration (2021–2025)
(the “Draft for Comments”) released by the Guangdong Provincial Development and
Reform Commission in December 2021, by the end of the demonstration period, the
Guangdong Demonstration Urban Agglomeration will realize the independent and
controllable technology of eight key parts including cell stack, membrane electrode,
bipolar plate, proton exchange membrane, catalyst, carbon paper, air compressor, and
hydrogen circulation system, have products with independent intellectual property
rights supporting applications, promote more than 10,000 FCEVs, form more than
460,000 tons of hydrogen supply system, build more than 200 hydrogen refueling
stations, reduce the price of hydrogen to 35 yuan/kg below (30 yuan/kg below in the
province), and build a sound FCEV policy system.
266 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
In the field of financial support, the “Draft for Comments” proposes to provide
financial incentives to enterprises that have obtained the “Key Component R&D
Industrialization” bonus points for Guangdong in the national demonstration urban
agglomeration assessment, to be specifically, the provincial financial department
will provide supporting funds in accordance with the 1:1 ratio of national reward
and subsidy standard, and local financial department of demonstration cities in the
province will provide supporting subsidies in accordance with the 1:1 ratio of national
and provincial reward and subsidy standard; Regarding the subsidy standard for the
construction of hydrogen refueling stations, the provincial financial department will
subsidize hydrogen refueling stations that have been built and put into use during
the “14th Five-Year Plan” period and have a daily hydrogen refueling capacity of
500 kg or more, and an energy supply station that integrates fuel, hydrogen, and
gas will be provided with a subsidy of 2.5 million yuan per station; an independent
fixed hydrogen refueling station will be provided with a subsidy of 2 million yuan per
station; a skid-mounted hydrogen refueling station will be provided with a subsidy of
1.5 million yuan per station. The local financial department will provide supporting
subsidies following the 1:1 ratio of provincial subsidy amount, with a total subsidy
of no more than 5 million yuan at each financial level. If a hydrogen refueling station
receiving the provincial financial subsidy stops the hydrogen refueling service within
5 years after the first subsidy i s in place, it shall refund the subsidy issued.
The Hebei Urban Agglomeration fully leverages the advantages of “green
hydrogen” and takes the Winter Olympics as an opportunity to actively explore
multiple application scenarios for demonstration.
The Hebei FCEV Demonstration Urban Agglomeration (hereinafter referred to
as “Hebei Urban Agglomeration”), led by Zhangjiakou, is composed of 13 cities,
including Tangshan, Baoding, Handan, Qinhuangdao, Dingzhou, Xinji and Xiong’an
New Area in Hebei, Wuhai in Inner Mongolia, Fengxian District in Shanghai,
Zhengzhou in Henan, Zibo and Liaocheng in Shandong and Xiamen in Fujian. Hebei
Urban Agglomeration plans to promote 7710 FCEVs of various types during the
four-year demonstration period. Among them, Zhangjiakou, the leading city, will
promote 1130 FCEVs of various types. Hebei Urban Agglomeration will give full
play to hydrogen production from renewable energy to achieve the goal of producing
“green hydrogen” with “green electricity” and achieve zero emission in the whole
process of hydrogen energy utilization. During the 2022 Winter Olympic Games,
all Winter Olympic support vehicles in the core area of Zhangjiakou were FVEV
buses. In addition, Hebei Urban Agglomeration will actively enrich the promotion
and application scenarios of FVEVs in cities within Hebei.
The Henan Urban Agglomeration drives the development of the fuel
cell industry with advantageous enterprises to help the transformation and
upgrading of local automobile and energy industries.
The Henan FCEV Demonstration Urban Agglomeration (hereinafter referred to
as “Henan Urban Agglomeration”) takes Zhengzhou as the leading city and Yutong
as the advantageous enterprise, unites with the most powerful integration enterprises
of fuel cell system and cities in China, including five cities in Henan, namely Xinx-
iang, Luoyang, Kaifeng, Anyang, Jiaozuo, and three districts of Shanghai (Jiading,
7.1 Development Status of FCEV Industry 267
Lin-gang, Fengxian), and other 11 advantageous cities or districts in the industrial
chain like Zhangjiakou, Weifang and Foshan. Regarding the working mechanism of
demonstration operation, Henan Urban Agglomeration will establish and improve
the overall coordination mechanism of demonstration and application, promote the
leading cities to continuously improve the level of demonstration and application, and
accelerate the formation of advanced experience that can be replicated and promoted
in the development of FCEVs. It is expected that during the 4-year demonstration
period, the total investment of various types of funds from provincial and municipal
government departments, enterprises, and society in Henan will be approximately
28.5 billion yuan.
7.1.2 Significant Demonstration and Promotion Effects
The recommended catalog of FCEVs is mainly in the field of commercial
vehicles, and the application scenarios are gradually expanded to multiple fields.
Hydrogen fuel cell technology is important for commercial vehicles to achieve
carbon peaking. In recent years, China has actively promoted the application, demon-
stration, and supporting infrastructure construction of new technologies and new
models in FCEV commercial vehicles. Local governments also actively introduced
policies to follow up and fully support the promotion and application of FCEV
commercial vehicles. From the 1st batch to the 12th batch of Recommended Models
Catalogue for New Energy Vehicle Applications (Fig. 7.1) published by the Ministry
of Industry and Information Technology of China in 2021, 47 FCEV enterprises and
239 product models were involved, including 1 passenger car, 25 buses, and 214
special vehicles. From the number of recommended models throughout the year,
the recommended models of special vehicles are significantly higher than those of
buses. With the gradual increase in the scale of demonstration and promotion of
FCEVs, FCEVs are gradually expanding from the field of buses to multiple applica-
tion scenarios of buses and special vehicles. Each demonstration urban agglomeration
relies on diversified application scenarios to gradually explore effective commercial
operation models.
The demonstration and promotion of FCEVs have gradually increased, and
the cumulative sales volume has exceeded 8900 by 2021.
Since 2016, the sales of FCEVs in China have shown a rapid growth trend. In 2019,
the sales of FCEVs exceeded 2737 vehicles, with a YoY increase of 79.2%. Since
2020, the sales of FCEVs affected by COVID-19 has declined compared with 2019.
Driven by the top-level goal of “carbon peaking and carbon neutrality” and the effect
of demonstration urban agglomerations, the development of the FCEV industry in
various regions has significantly accelerated. By 2021, the cumulative sales volume
has exceeded 8900 vehicles (Fig. 7.2). It is expected that by the end of the 14th Five-
Year Plan period, with the promotion of fuel cell multi-scenario application models
268 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
1
3
6
2
8
4
8 5 6
9 9 8 6
2
5 12
5
8
5
12
27 21 21
11
10
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Batch 1 Batch 2 Batch 3 Batch 4 Batch 5 Batch 6 Batch 7 Batch 8 Batch 9 Batch 10 Batch 11 Batch 12
Number of Cars (Types)
Recommended Catalog Batch
Passenger Car Bus Special Vehicles
Fig. 7.1 Number of FCEV models in the 1st to 12th batch recommended models catalog in 2021.
Source Batches 1–12 of recommended models catalogue for new energy vehicle applications in
2021
10
629
1275 1527
2737
1177 1587
639
1914
3441
6178
7355
8942
102.7%
19.8%
79.2%
-56.7%
34.8%
-80%
-60%
-40%
-20%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Sales Volume (units)
Annual Sales Cumulative Sales
Year-on-Year Sales
Fig. 7.2 Sales growth of FCEVs in China over the years. Source China Association of Automobile
Manufacturers
and the gradual improvement of policy and regulatory environments, the scale of
demonstration and promotion of FCEVs is expected to gradually achieve industrial
development.
As of the end of 2021, more than 255 hydrogen refueling infrastructures have
been built in China.
7.2 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in China 269
255
180
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Completed In Operation
Construction State
Fig. 7.3 Construction and operation of hydrogen refueling stations in China. Source China Society
of Automotive Engineers (China SAE). International Hydrogen Fuel Cell Association (Preparatory),
China Hydrogen Industry Technology Innovation and Application Alliance
The large-scale demonstration and promotion of FCEVs have led to remarkable
achievements in constructing hydrogen refueling infrastructure. By December 31,
2021, 255 hydrogen refueling stations have been built, and 180 hydrogen refueling
stations have been put into operation in China (Fig. 7.3). Regarding the construc-
tion of new hydrogen refueling stations, the new hydrogen refueling stations in
2021 mainly were energy service stations integrating hydrogen, fuel, electricity,
and gas; Regarding the construction layout of domestic hydrogen refueling stations,
the construction layout of China’s hydrogen refueling stations is regional, mainly
distributed in Beijing-Hebei region, Shandong Peninsula region, Yangtze River Delta
region, Pearl River Delta region, and other economic development regions.
7.2 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in China
The National Monitoring and Management Platform can monitor the access and
operation of FCEVs in real-time across the country. This section summarizes and
analyzes the operation characteristics of FCEVs across the country by selecting data
on the access, online rate, travel characteristics, and hydrogen refueling characteris-
tics of FCEVs from the National Monitoring and Management Platform in 2021 to
provide experience for the commercialized promotion of FCEVs.
270 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
7.2.1 Access Characteristics
1. Overall access
The cumulative access volume of FCEVs has exceeded 7737 vehicles, which are
mainly operating vehicles.
By December 31, 2021, a total 7737 FCEVs have been accessed to the National
Monitoring and Management Platform, including 4071 buses, accounting for 52.63%
of the total access; special vehicles include logistics special vehicles, engineering
special vehicles, and environmental sanitation special vehicles, with 3663 vehicles
accessed, accounting for 47.34% of the total access; 3 passenger cars accessed,
accounting for 0.04% of the total access, as shown in Fig. 7.4.
2. Concentration of vehicle access in various provinces
The regional distribution of FCEVs concentrated at the demonstration urban
agglomerations, and the promotion proportion of the TOP3 provinces reached
62.5%.
As of December 31, 2021, the TOP10 provinces had cumulative access volume of
7289 FCEVs, accounting for 94.2% of the total access in China (Fig. 7.5). According
to the promotion of FCEVs in various provinces, the promotion areas of FCEVs are
mainly concentrated in Guangdong Urban Agglomeration, Shanghai Urban Agglom-
eration, and Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration. Guangdong, Shanghai,
and Beijing have a cumulative access volume of 4832 FCEVs, accounting for 62.5%
of the total access in China. Among them, Guangdong ranks first, with 2536 FCEVs
accessed, accounting for 32.8% of total access in China.
Public Transit Bus,
3339, 43.16%
Highway Bus, 464, 6.00%
Commuter Bus, 266, 3.44%
Tourist Bus, 2, 0.03%
Logistics Special
Vehicle, 3217, 41.58%
Construction Special
Vehicle, 441, 5.70% Sanitation Special
Vehicle, 5, 0.06%
Rental Car, 3, 0.04%
Fig. 7.4 Cumulative access and proportion of FCEVs in China
7.2 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in China 271
2536
1470
829
611 479 385 318 270 214 177
32.8
19.0
10.7 7.9 6.2 5.0 4.1 3.5 2.8 2.3 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
Proportion (%)
Access Volume (Cars)
Access Volume Proportion
Fig. 7.5 Access and proportion of FCEVs in the TOP10 provinces in 2021
The regional concentration of the promotion and application of FCEVs generally
shows a downward trend. According to the change of regional concentration of
FCEV promotion and application in provinces over the years (Fig. 7.6), in 2021, the
promotion of FCEVs in the TOP3 provinces accounted for 62.5% in China, with a
decrease of 6.8% compared with 2020; the promotion proportion of FCEVs in the
TOP5 provinces and TOP10 provinces decreased by 3.8% and 1.5% respectively
on a YoY basis. With the heating up of the domestic hydrogen energy and fuel cell
industry and the continuous maturity of fuel cell technology, multiple provinces in
China have released development plans for the hydrogen energy and fuel cell industry
to accelerate the promotion and application of vehicles and drive the accelerated
development of the hydrogen energy industry chain.
69.3
80.4
95.7
62.5
76.5
94.21
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
TOP 3 Provinces TOP 5 Provinces TOP 10 Provinces
Proportion (%)
2020 2021
Fig. 7.6 Changes in the regional concentration of FCEVs over the years
272 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
1049
659
444
406 371
318
170
125 117 106
25.8
16.2
10.9 10.0 9.1 7.8
4.2 3.1 2.9 2.6
0
10
20
30
40
50
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Proportion (%)
Access Volume (cars)
Access Volume Proportion
Fig. 7.7 Cumulative access and proportion of FCEV buses in the TOP10 provinces and cities
A total of 4071 FCEV buses have been accessed nationwide, and the
promotion proportion in the TOP10 provinces reaches 95.0%.
In the field of FCEV buses, as of December 31, 2021, 4071 FCEV buses have
been accessed, accounting for 52.6% of the access volume of FCEVs on the National
Monitoring and Management Platform (Fig. 7.7). The TOP10 provinces have a cumu-
lative access volume of 3765 FCEV buses, accounting for 92.5% of the total access
volume of FCEV buses in China. Guangdong has the maximum access volume of
FCEV buses from the distribution by province. As of December 31, 2021, the access
volume of FCEV buses in Guangdong was 1049, accounting for 25.8% of the access
volume of FCEV buses in China, followed by Beijing, Hebei, Shandong, Shanghai,
and Henan, all with access characteristic of more than 300 FCEV buses.
A total of 3663 FCEV special vehicles have been accessed nationwide, and
the promotion proportion in the TOP10 provinces reaches 98.9%.
In the field of FCEV special vehicles, as of December 31, 2021, 3663 FCEV
special vehicles have been accessed, accounting for 47.3% of the access volume
of FCEVs on the National Monitoring and Management Platform (Fig. 7.8). The
TOP10 provinces have a cumulative access volume of 3624 FCEV special vehicles,
accounting for 98.9% of the total access volume of FCEV special vehicles in China.
Among them, the TOP2 provinces are Guangdong Province and Shanghai City, with
7.2 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in China 273
1487
1096
260
205 170
110 100 90 71 35
40.6
29.9
7.1 5.6 4.6 3.0 2.7 2.5 1.9 1.0 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
400
800
1200
1600
Proportion (%)
Access Volume (Cars)
Access Volume Proportion
Fig. 7.8 Cumulative access and proportion of FCEV special vehicles in the TOP10 provinces
an access volume of 1487 and 1096 FCEV special vehicles, accounting for 40.6%
and 29.9% of the access volume of FCEV special vehicles in China, showing a
remarkable promotion effect.
3. Concentration of vehicle access in various cities
Totally 6158 FCEVs have been accessed in the TOP10 cities in China, and the
proportion of national promotion has reached 79.64%.
The promotion of FCEVs in cities is shown in Fig. 7.9. As of December 31, 2021,
6158 FCEVs have been accessed in the TOP10 cities, accounting for 79.6% of the
national promotion. Among them, the promotion scale of FCEVs in Shanghai and
Foshan ranked the top two in China, with cumulative access volumes of 1484 and
1470 FCEVs, accounting for 19.2% and 19.0%, respectively, in China.
According to the annual vehicle promotion structure of the TOP10 cities
(Fig. 7.10), in Foshan, Beijing, Zhangjiakou, and Zhengzhou, FCEV buses are the
main type of vehicles promoted; in Shanghai, Shenzhen, Suzhou, Qingdao, and
Wuhan, FCEV special vehicles are the main type of vehicles promoted.
274 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
1484 1470
829
777
424
277 270 242 223
165
19.2 19.0
10.7 10.0
5.5
3.6 3.5 3.1 2.9 2.1
0
10
20
30
0
400
800
1200
1600
Foshan Shanghai Beijing Shenzhen Zhangjiakou Suzhou Chengdu Qingdao Zhengzhou Wuhan
Proportion (%)
Access Volume (Cars)
Access Volume Proportion
Fig. 7.9 Cumulative access and proportion of FCEVs in the TOP10 cities
0
20
40
60
80
100
Foshan Shanghai Beijing Shenzhen Zhangjiakou Suzhou Chengdu Qingdao Zhengzhou Wuhan
Access Volume (Cars)
Bus Special Vehicle
Fig. 7.10 Cumulative access structure of FCEVs in the TOP10 cities
7.2 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in China 275
4. Market Concentration of FCEVs
The FCEVs have a high market concentration. Top10 enterprises have an access
volume of 6501 FCEVs in total, accounting for 84.0%.
At present, the industry has a large number of enterprises participating in the
promotion of FCEVs. By 2021, FCEVs from 42 enterprises have been accessed to
the National Monitoring and Management Platform. Regarding the industry market
concentration, FECV production is dominated by traditional bus enterprises. As of
December 31, 2021, 6501 FECVs have been accessed in the TOP10 FECV enter-
prises nationwide, accounting for 84.0% of the access volume of FECVs nation-
wide (Fig. 7.11). Among them, Zhongtong Bus had a cumulative access volume of
1620 FCEVs, accounting for 20.9% nationwide; Shanghai Shenlong, Foshan Feichi,
BAIC Foton, and Dongfeng Motor had a cumulative access volume of more than 500
FCEVs, that is 933, 906, 693 and 620 FCEVs, accounting for 12.1%, 11.7%, 9.0%,
and 8.0% respectively. Benefiting from the 2022 Winter Olympics, the access volume
of BAIC Foton FCEVs in 2021 nearly tripled on a YoY basis, reaching 190.0%.
According to the promotion and application scenarios of FCEVs of the TOP10
enterprises (Fig. 7.12), Foshan Feichi, BAIC Foton, Zhengzhou Yutong Bus, Xiamen
Golden Dragon, and Yunnan Wulong mainly promote and apply FCEVs in the field of
buses; Zhongtong Bus, Sunlong Bus, and Dongfeng Motor mainly promote and apply
FCEVs in the field of special vehicles. Besides, in 2021, Foshan Feichi and Nanjing
Golden Dragon accelerated the product layout in the field of FCEV engineering
special vehicles. They successively launched announcements on FCEV trucks, truck
1620
933 906
693
620
407 388 385 349
200
20.9
12.1 11.7
9.0
8.0
5.3 5.0 5.0 4.5
2.6
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
Zhongtong
Bus
Sunlong Bus Foshan
Feichi
Foton Motor Dongfeng
Motor
MAXUS Yutong Bus Nanjing
Golden
Dragon
Xiamen
Golden
Dragon
Yunnan
Wulong
Proportion (%)
Access Volume (Cars)
Access Volume (Cars) Proportion (%)
Fig. 7.11 Cumulative access and proportion of FCEVs in the TOP10 enterprises
276 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
200
337
110
326
33
598
643
33
277
30
300
2
60
12
32
107
30
31
275
89
587
65
172
809
1343
0 200 4 00 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Yunnan
Wulong
Xiamen
Golden
Dragon
Nanjing
Golden
Dragon
Yutong Bus
MAXUS
Dongfeng
Motor
Foton Motor
Foshan
Feichi
Sunlong Bus
Zhongtong
Bus
Acess Volume (Cars)
Public Transit Bus Highway Coach Commuter Bus
Construction Special Vehicle Logistics Special Ve hicle
Fig. 7.12 Cumulative access volume of FCEVs of the TOP10 enterprises in different application
scenarios
chassis, and other models, with the focus on promoting the demonstration and appli-
cation in the field of medium-and-long distance and medium-and-heavy commercial
vehicles.
Top10 enterprises have a cumulative access volume of 3322 FCEV buses in
total, accounting for 81.6% of promotion.
In the field of FCEV buses, the TOP10 enterprises have a cumulative access
volume of 3322 vehicles, accounting for 81.6% of the FCEV buses on the National
Monitoring and Management Platform (Fig. 7.13). Among them, Foshan Feichi has
a cumulative access volume of 645 FCEV buses, accounting for 15.8% of the access
volume of FCEV buses. BAIC Foton, Maxus, Yutong Bus, Xiamen Golden Dragon,
and Zhongtong Bus have a cumulative access volume of more than 200 FCEV buses.
Top10 enterprises have a cumulative access volume of 3605 FCEV special
vehicles in total, accounting for 98.4% of promotion.
In the field of FCEV special vehicles, the TOP5 enterprises have a cumulative
access volume of 3605 vehicles, accounting for 98.4% of the access volume of FCEV
7.2 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in China 277
645 628
407 388
349
277
200 194
124 110
15.8 15.4
10.0 9.5 8.6
6.8
4.9 4.8
3.0 2.7
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Proportion (%)
Access Volume (Cars)
Access Volume (Cars) Proportion (%)
Fig. 7.13 Cumulative access and proportion of FCEV buses in the TOP10 enterprises
special vehicles (Fig. 7.14). Among them, Zhongtong Bus has an access volume of
1343 FCEV special vehicles, accounting for 36.7%. The enterprises of FCEV special
vehicles have a relatively high promotion concentration.
7.2.2 Online Rate Characteristics
The average monthly online rate of FCEVs over the years has gradually stabi-
lized, and the average monthly online rate in the past two years has been more
than 70%.
As shown in Fig. 7.15, since 2018, the annual average monthly online rate of
FCEVs has shown a trend of first rising and then stabilizing. In 2020, the average
monthly online rate of FCEVs grew faster than that in 2018 and 2019, and the utiliza-
tion rate of vehicles was significantly improved. In 2021, the average monthly online
rate of FCEVs was 71.3%, mainly accompanied by the acceleration of the FCEV
demonstration and promotion process and the further expansion of the vehicle promo-
tion scale in China. The annual average monthly online rate of FCEVs gradually
stabilizes.
278 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
1343
809
587
275 261
91 77 65 57 40
36.7
22.1
16.0
7.5 7.1
2.5 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.1 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
Proportion (%)
Access Volume (Cars)
Access Volume (Cars ) Proportion (%)
Fig. 7.14 Cumulative access and proportion of FCEV special vehicles in the TOP10 enterprises
59.0
64.0
75.0
71.3
0
20
40
60
80
2018 2019 2020 2021
Average Monthly Online Rate (%)
Fig. 7.15 Average monthly online rate of FCEVs over the years
7.2 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in China 279
56.0 53.3
78.7
82.9 82.5
86.4
80.8 78.7 78.5
71.0
75.1
79.3
76.7
70.5 70.8
67.8
73.1
67.7
73.6
67.9 68.6
72.8 74.9
71.5
0
20
40
60
80
100
Online Rate (%)
2020 2021
Fig. 7.16 Monthly online rate of FCEVs over the years
According to the curve of the monthly online rate of FCEVs (Fig. 7.16), the
monthly online rate of FCEVs in 2021 showed a relatively stable trend, and the
online rate in each month fluctuated around 70%.
In 2021, the monthly average daily online vehicles generally maintained an
upward trend, and the number of online vehicles increased rapidly in the fourth
quarter. Regarding the monthly average daily online FCEVs nationwide in 2021
(Fig. 7.17), except that the number of online vehicles in February 2021 was 1967,
the number of online vehicles in other months remained above 2000. The number of
online vehicles in the fourth quarter of 2021 steadily increased, reaching the highest
average daily number of online vehicles in each month of the year in December, with
2790 vehicles.
The online rate of FCEV buses is higher than that of FCEV special vehicles.
Regarding application scenarios, the FCEV buses have a good operation effect.
According to the monthly average online rate by vehicle type over the years
(Fig. 7.18), the online rate of FCEV buses has remained above 80% in the past
three years, with a high online rate and good operation effect; the average monthly
online rate of FCEV special vehicles reached 69% in 2020, and that declined in
2021. The fuel cell industry needs to further summarize experience through pilot
demonstration in core equipment and key parts development and hydrogen refueling
infrastructure construction to promote the rapid development of hydrogen and fuel
cell industries.
280 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
2134
1967
2308 2354 2358 2355
2484
2206
2305
2660 2739 2790
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Number of Vehicles (units)
Fig. 7.17 Number of monthly average daily online FCEVs in 2021
84.0
57.0
87.0
69.0
85.4
57.6
0
20
40
60
80
100
FVEV Buses FVEV Special Vehicles
Vehicle Proportion (%)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 7.18 Average monthly online rate of FCEV buses and special vehicles over the years
7.2 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in China 281
7.2.3 Operation Characteristics
1. Cumulative mileage and travel duration
As of December 31, 2021, the cumulative mileage of FCEVs in China was nearly
200 million km, and the travel duration exceeded 7.42 million h.
As of December 31, 2021, the cumulative mileage of FCEVs was
194.417 million km (Fig. 7.19), and the cumulative travel duration was up to
7.42 million h (Fig. 7.20). In 2021, FCEVs traveled 110,096,000 km and 4,482,000 h,
accounting for 56.6% and 60.4% of the cumulative mileage and travel duration of
fuel cell electric vehicles, respectively.
11954.3, 61.5%
389.2, 2.0%
0.1, 0.0%
747.0, 3.8%
129.6, 0.7%
6221.2, 32.0%
0.2, 0.0%
Public Transit Bus
Highway Bus
Tourist Bus
Commuter Bus
Construction Special
Vehicle
Logistics Special
Vehicle
Fig. 7.19 Distribution of cumulative mileage of FCEVs in different application scenarios
(10,000 km, %)
518.8, 69.9%
12.4, 1.7%
0.01, 0.0%
28.4, 3.8%
8.3, 1.1%
174.2, 23.5%
0.01, 0.0%
Public Transit
Bus
Highway Bus
Tourist Bus
Commuter Bus
Fig. 7.20 Distribution of cumulative travel duration of FCEVs in different application scenarios
282 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
Regarding application scenarios, FCEV buses and logistics special vehicles
dominate. FCEV buses have traveled 119.543 million km cumulatively, with a
travel duration of 5.188 million h; FCEV logistics special vehicles have traveled
62.212 million km cumulatively, with a travel duration of 1.742 million h.
The promotion scale of fuel cell electric vehicles in Guangdong ranks first in
China, with good vehicle operation effect.
According to the ranking of cumulative mileage and cumulative travel duration of
fuel cell electric vehicles in all provinces of China (Fig. 7.21), by the end of 2021, the
cumulative mileage of FCEVs in the TOP10 provinces was 187.219 million km, and
the cumulative travel duration was 7.169 million h, accounting for 96.3% and 96.6%
of the total cumulative mileage and cumulative travel duration of FCEVs in China,
respectively. Among them, the operation effect of Guangdong ranks first. By the end
of 2021, the cumulative mileage of FCEVs in Guangdong was 76.069 million km, and
the cumulative travel duration was 2.584 million h, followed by Shanghai, Henan,
Hebei, Shandong, and Beijing. The demonstration operation of FCEVs has achieved
good results.
2. Characteristics of Daily Mileage and Travel Duration of a Single Vehicle
In 2021, the daily mileage of a single vehicle for FCEVs was concentrated at 120
~ 240 km, and the “migration” trend of vehicles to high mileage was significant.
As the distribution shows, in 2019 and 2020, the daily mileage of a single vehicle
for FCEVs was mainly 0 ~ 40 km (Fig. 7.22). In 2021, the proportion of FCEVs with
a daily mileage of a single vehicle in the high mileage section increased significantly.
The proportion of FCEVs with a single-vehicle mileage of 120 ~ 240 km was 56.2%,
significantly higher than that in the last two years. With the continuous strengthening
of policy support for the hydrogen and fuel cell industries, the technical performance
of onboard devices and the layout of hydrogen refueling infrastructure are gradually
optimized, and the operational effectiveness of vehicles is significantly improved.
The mileage of FCEV buses is concentrated within 120–240 km; the distri-
bution of special vehicles in each mileage segment is relatively balanced, with a
high proportion of vehicles in high mileage segments.
Regarding application scenarios, in 2021, the daily mileage of a single vehicle for
FCEV buses was mainly less than 120 ~ 240 km, with vehicles accounting for 62.6%
(Fig. 7.23). The distribution of daily mileage of a single vehicle for FCEV special
vehicles is relatively uniform. Compared with FCEV buses, the share of FCEV
special vehicles in high mileage segments above 200 km is significantly higher,
accounting for 44.2%. Among them, the proportion of vehicles with a daily mileage
of over 480 km is 9.9%, indicating that the role of FCEV special vehicles in trans-city
transportation is gradually emerging.
The distribution of daily travel duration of a single vehicle for FCEVs grad-
ually transits to long duration segments, with their use intensity gradually
increased.
The daily travel durations of a single vehicle for FCEVs are distributed dispersedly
in all duration segments. Compared to 2019 and 2020, the distribution proportion
7.2 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in China 283
7606.9
2178.7
1789.3
1594.2
1402.8
1091.2 1063.6 919.8
599.5 475.9
258.4
74.4 94.4 70.6
58.1
35.6
47.1
30.2 23.6 24.5
0.0
50.0
100.0
150.0
200.0
250.0
300.0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
Driving Duration/10,000 hours
Mileage Driven/10,000 km
Mileage Driven/10,000 km
Driving Duration/10,000 hours
Fig. 7.21 Cumulative mileage and travel duration of FCEVs in the TOP10 provinces
of FCEVs in long travel duration segments gradually increased in 2021 (Fig. 7.24).
The proportion of FCEVs with a daily travel duration of more than 6 h accounted
for 61.34%, and the proportion of vehicles with a daily travel duration of more than
10 h accounted for 18.5%, indicating that the use intensity of vehicles gradually
increased.
The proportion of FCEV buses in long travel duration segments is generally
higher than that of FCEV special vehicles.
Generally, the proportion of FCEV buses in long travel duration segments is higher
than that of FCEV special vehicles (Fig. 7.25). Regarding the application scenarios,
the daily travel duration of a single vehicle for FCEV buses is mainly more than
5 h, and the proportion of vehicles reaches 72.6% (higher than 62.1% of special
vehicles), mainly for urban transport; the daily travel duration of a single vehicle for
FCEV special vehicles has been differentiated to a certain extent. On the one hand,
FCEV special vehicles with a travel duration of less than 2 h account for a large
proportion, mainly for short-distance logistics distribution in the city; some FCEV
special vehicles with a travel duration of more than 10 h account for 19.0%, and they
transport across cities.
284 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
0
12
24
36
48
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Average Daily Mileage per Vehicle/km
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 7.22 Distribution of daily mileage of a single vehicle for FCEVs
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Average Daily Mileage per Vehicle/km
FVEV Bus FVEV Special V ehicle
Fig. 7.23 Distribution of daily mileage of a single vehicle for FCEV buses and special vehicles in
2021
7.2 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in China 285
0
4
8
12
16
20
0~1.0 1.0~2.0 2.0~3.0 3.0~4.0 4.0~5.0 5.0~6.0 6.0~7.0 7.0~8.0 8.0~9.0 9.0~10.0 >10.0
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Average Daily Mileage per Vehicle/km
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 7.24 Distribution of daily travel duration of a single vehicle for FCEVs in 2018–2021
0.0
4.0
8.0
12.0
16.0
20.0
0~1.0 1.0~2.0 2.0~3.0 3.0~4.0 4.0~5.0 5.0~6.0 6.0~7.0 7.0~8.0 8.0~9.0 9.0~10.0 >10.0
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Average Daily Mileage per Vehicle/km
FVEV Bus FVEV Special Vehicle
Fig. 7.25 Distribution of daily travel duration of a single vehicle for FCEV buses and special
vehicles in 2021
286 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
3. Characteristics of Mileage and Travel Duration for Vehicle Enterprises
In the field of buses, there is a positive correlation between the average daily
mileage and the average daily travel duration of vehicles.
Compared with the average daily mileage and travel duration of all bus enterprises,
there is a significant positive correlation between the mileage and travel duration of
different bus enterprises (Fig. 7.26). Among them, Ankai Automobile has the highest
average daily mileage, reaching 233.0 km, and an average daily travel duration of
6.9 h. In addition, the average daily mileage of Asiastar Bus and FAW Bus (Dalian)
is 201.7 km and 197.0 km, respectively, and the average daily travel duration is 6.4 h
and 5.2 h, respectively, with good operation effect.
There are significantoperation differences in the field of special vehicles, with
typical enterprises achieving outstanding operation results.
The average daily mileage and daily travel duration of typical FCEV enterprises
are longer. According to the travel characteristics of vehicles of typical enterprises
(Fig. 7.27), Foshan Feichi has the longest average daily mileage of 290.6 km and an
average daily travel duration of 8.5 h. In addition, the daily mileage of Foshan Feichi
and Zhongtong Bus is longer, 266.9 km and 254.1 km, respectively, with the daily
travel duration of 6.0 h and 7.5 h.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0
50
100
150
200
250
Average Daily Driving Duration/h
Average Daily Mileage/km
Average Daily Mileage Average Daily Driving Duration
Fig. 7.26 Distribution of average daily mileage and travel duration of FCEVs of typical bus
enterprises in 2021
7.3 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in Demonstration Urban … 287
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Foshan
Feichi
Zhongtong
Bus
Guangdong
Foday
Company 4 Company 5 Company 6 Company 7 Company 8 Company 9 Company
10
Average Daily Driving Duration/h
Average Daily Mileage/km
Average Daily Driving Duration Average Daily Mileage
Fig. 7.27 Distribution of average daily mileage and travel duration of FCEVs of typical special
vehicle enterprises in 2021
7.3 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in Demonstration
Urban Agglomerations
China is accelerating the launch of FCEV application and promotion project driven by
the “demonstration urban agglomerations.” The FCEV demonstration urban agglom-
erations, led by typical cities, will give full play to the characteristics of the indus-
tries and application scenarios of each demonstration urban agglomeration to drive
the rapid iterative development of hydrogen energy and product technologies of
fuel cell industry chain, promote the commercialization of products, and accelerate
the formation of industrial competitiveness. This section selects Beijing-Tianjin-
Hebei Urban Agglomeration, Shanghai Urban Agglomeration, Guangdong Urban
Agglomeration, Hebei Urban Agglomeration, and Henan Urban Agglomeration as
the research objects. It compares and evaluates the promotion, application, operation
characteristics and hydrogen refueling characteristics of FCEVs in five demonstration
urban agglomerations.
288 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
7.3.1 Promotion and Application Characteristics
The data in this study adopts the real-time operation data of FCEVs on the National
Monitoring and Management Platform. The specific statistical scope of FCEVs in
each demonstration urban agglomeration is as follows: for the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
Urban Agglomeration, the demonstration and application of FCEVs in Beijing were
mainly counted; for Shanghai Urban Agglomeration, the demonstration, and applica-
tion of FCEVs represented by Shanghai were mainly counted; for Guangdong Urban
Agglomeration, the demonstration, and application of FCEVs represented by Guang-
dong were mainly counted; for Hebei Urban Agglomeration, the demonstration, and
application of FCEVs represented by Hebei were mainly counted; for Henan Urban
Agglomeration, the demonstration, and application of FCEVs represented by Henan
were mainly counted.
From the comparison of the cumulative access characteristics of each demonstra-
tion urban agglomeration (Fig. 7.28), as of December 31, 2021, the five demonstration
urban agglomerations had a cumulative access volume of 5629 FCEVs, accounting
for 72.8% of the cumulative access volume of FCEVs in China. Among them, the
cumulative access volume of FCEVs in Guangdong Urban Agglomeration was the
highest, reaching 2536 vehicles, including 1049 buses and 1487 special vehicles,
followed by Shanghai Urban Agglomeration, with a cumulative access volume of
1470 FCEVs, including 371 buses and 1096 special vehicles, and 3 passenger cars;
the cumulative access volume of FCEVs in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomer-
ation reached 829 vehicles, including 659 buses and 170 special vehicles; the cumu-
lative access volume of FCEVs in Hebei Urban Agglomeration and Henan Urban
Agglomeration was 479 and 318 vehicles respectively, mainly buses.
659
371
1049
444 318
170
1096
1487
35
3
829
1470
2536
479
318
0
1000
2000
3000
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
Urban Agglomeration
Shanghai Urban
Agglomeration
Guangdong Urban
Agglomeration
Hebei Urban
Agglomeration
Henan Urban
Agglomeration
Cumulative Access Volume (Cars)
Bus Special Vehicle
Fig. 7.28 Cumulative access volume of FCEVs in each demonstration urban agglomeration-by
type
7.3 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in Demonstration Urban … 289
Regarding the cumulative access characteristics of different types of vehicles in
various demonstration urban agglomerations, the cumulative access volume of FCEV
special vehicles in the Guangdong and Shanghai Urban Agglomerations is higher
than that of buses; the cumulative access volume of FCEV buses in Beijing-Tianjin-
Hebei, Hebei, and Henan Urban Agglomerations is significantly higher than that of
special vehicles.
Regarding vehicle promotion and application in different fields, the cumulative
access characteristics of FCEV buses in the demonstration urban agglomerations
(TOP5) are shown in Table 7.4. As of December 31, 2021, the TOP5 enterprises
in the FCEV bus demonstration application scale in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban
Agglomeration include BAIC Foton, Sunlong Bus, SFTM, Zhongzhi New Energy
Vehicle (Chun’an) and Yutong Bus, with a cumulative access volume of 659 FCEV
buses. A total of 4 enterprises, Maxus, Wanxiang Auto, SUNWIN Bus, and Sunlong
Bus, have vehicles accessed and operated in the demonstration and application of
FCEV buses in Shanghai Urban Agglomeration. Among them, Maxus has 347 buses
accessed in total, ranking first, accounting for 93.5% of the promotion of FCEV buses
in Shanghai Urban Agglomeration. Many enterprises are promoting and applying
FCEV buses in Guangdong Urban Agglomeration, and the cumulative access volume
of the TOP5 enterprises has reached 1036 vehicles, accounting for 98.8% of the
cumulative FCEVs in Guangdong Urban Agglomeration. The number of FCEV
buses promoted and applied by Foshan Feichi is the highest, i.e., 589, accounting
for 56.1% of the promotion of FCEV buses in Guangdong Urban Agglomeration.
Thanks to the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympic Games, the promotion scale of vehicles
in Hebei Urban Agglomeration has proliferated, including 209 vehicles of BAIC
Foton, accounting for 47.1% of the promotion scale of Hebei Urban Agglomeration.
The main promotion enterprises in Henan Urban Agglomeration are Zhengzhou
Yutong Bus and Jinhua Youngman, with an access volume of 224 and 94 vehicles,
respectively.
In special vehicles, the cumulative access characteristics of vehicle enterprises
in the demonstration urban agglomerations (TOP5) are shown in Table 7.5.As
of December 31, 2021, a total of three enterprises in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban
Agglomeration, namely Sunlong Bus, BAIC Foton, and Foshan Feichi, have vehi-
cles accessed and operated in the demonstration and application of FCEV special
vehicles, with a total access volume of 170 FCEV special vehicles, accounting for
100% of the access volume of FCEV special vehicles in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban
Agglomeration. A total of 4 enterprises in Shanghai Urban Agglomeration, namely
Sunlong Bus, Dongfeng Motor, King Long United Automotive Industry (Suzhou),
and JMC Heavy Duty Vehicle, have vehicles accessed and operated in the demon-
stration and application of FCEV special vehicles. Among them, Sunlong Bus has
509 buses accessed in total, ranking first, accounting for 46.4% of the promotion
of FCEV special vehicles in Shanghai Urban Agglomeration. Many enterprises are
promoting and applying FCEV special vehicles in Guangdong Urban Agglomeration,
290 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
Table 7.4 Cumulative access volume of FCEVs in the TOP5 enterprises in each demonstration
urban agglomeration-bus field
Name of urban
agglomeration
Ranking of cumulative access and proportion of each enterprise (vehicle,
%)
TOP1 TOP2 TOP3 TOP4 TOP5
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
urban agglomeration
BAIC
Foton
Sunlong
Bus
Sichuan
FAW
Toyota
Zhongzhi
New
Energy
Vehicle
(Chun’an)
Zhengzhou
Yutong
Bus
Subtotal
416 90 72 50 31 659
63.2% 13.7% 10.9% 7.6% 4.7% 100%
Shanghai urban
agglomeration
MAXUS Wanxiang
Auto
SUNWIN
Bus
Sunlong
Bus
– Subtotal
347 16 6 2 – 371
93.5% 4.3% 1.6% 0.6% –100%
Guangdong urban
agglomeration
Foshan
Feichi
Yunnan
Wulong
Xiamen
Golden
Dragon
Nanjing
Golden
Dragon
Zhongtong
Bus
Subtotal
589 200 186 41 20 1036
56.1% 19.1% 17.7% 3.9% 1.9% 98.8%
Hebei urban
agglomeration
BAIC
Foton
Zhengzhou
Yutong
Bus
Geely
Sichuan
Commercial
Vehicle
Zhongtong
Bus
Shanghai
Shenlong
Subtotal
209 85 80 40 30 444
47.1% 19.1% 18.0% 9.0% 6.8% 100%
Henan urban
agglomeration
Zhengzhou
Yutong
Bus
Jinhua
Youngman
– – –
224 94 – – – 318
70.4% 29.6% – – – 100%
and the cumulative access volume of the TOP5 enterprises has reached 1459 vehi-
cles, accounting for 98.1% of the cumulative access volume of FCEVs in Guangdong
Urban Agglomeration. The special vehicle enterprises in Hebei Urban Agglomera-
tion are mainly Foshan Feichi and Nanjing Golden Dragon, with an access volume
of 20 and 15 vehicles, respectively.
7.3 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in Demonstration Urban … 291
Table 7.5 Cumulative access characteristics of FCEVs in the TOP5 enterprises in each demon-
stration urban agglomeration-special vehicle field
Name of urban
agglomeration
Ranking of cumulative access and proportion of each enterprise
(vehicle, %)
TOP1 TOP2 TOP3 TOP4 TOP5
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
urban agglomeration
Sunlong
Bus
BAIC
Foton
Foshan
Feichi
– – Subtotal
100 65 5 – – 170
58.8% 38.2% 3.0% – – 100%
Shanghai urban
agglomeration
Sunlong
Bus
Dongfeng
Motor
King Long
United
Automotive
Industry
(Suzhou)
JMC
Heavy
Duty
Vehi c le
–Subtotal
509 500 77 10 –1069
46.4% 45.6% 7.0% 0.9% –100%
Guangdong urban
agglomeration
Zhongtong
Bus
Foshan
Feichi
Dongfeng
Motor
Nanjing
Golden
Dragon
Guangzhou
Guangri
Subtotal
1110 171 75 63 40 1416
74.6% 11.5% 5.0% 4.2% 2.7% 95.2%
Hebei urban
agglomeration
Foshan
Feichi
Nanjing
Golden
Dragon
– – – Subtotal
20 15 – – – 35
57.1% 42.9% – – – 100%
7.3.2 Operation Characteristics
1. FCEV Online Rate
The average monthly online rate of FCEV buses in each demonstration urban agglom-
eration (Table 7.6) shows that the monthly online rates of FCEV buses in Henan
Urban Agglomeration and Guangdong Urban Agglomeration were 93.9% and 91.9%,
respectively, with an average exceeding 90%; The average monthly online rate of
FCEV buses in Shanghai Urban Agglomeration was low, i.e., 61.4%.
The change in the monthly online rate of FCEV buses (Fig. 7.29) shows that
the average monthly online rates of FCEV buses in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban
Agglomeration, Guangdong Urban Agglomeration, Hebei Urban Agglomeration,
and Henan Urban Agglomeration were distributed steadily, and the number of online
vehicles in Shanghai Urban Agglomeration in September and October was relatively
low, which has reduced the overall online rate throughout the year.
The average monthly online rate of FCEV special vehicles in each demonstra-
tion urban agglomeration (Table 7.7) shows that the overall average online rate
292 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
Table 7.6 Average monthly online rate of FCEV buses in each demonstration urban agglomeration
in 2021
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
urban agglomeration
Shanghai
urban
agglomeration
Guangdong
urban
agglomeration
Hebei urban
agglomeration
Henan urban
agglomeration
Average
monthly
online
rate (%)
74.8 61.4 91.9 79.4 93.9
0
25
50
75
100
125
Online Rate (%)
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration Shanghai Urban Agglomeration
Guangdong Urban Agglomeration Hebei Urban Agglomeration
Henan Urban Agglomeration
Fig. 7.29 Monthly online rate of FCEV buses in each demonstration urban agglomeration in 2021
of specialized vehicles was slightly lower than that of buses. From the perspec-
tive of specific demonstration urban agglomerations, since new FCEVs were intro-
duced in Hebei in 2021, the vehicle operation effect was good, and the average
monthly online rate of FCEVs was 93.7%. The average monthly online rates of
the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration, Shanghai Urban Agglomeration,
and Guangdong Urban Agglomeration were 67.6%, 60.0%, and 59.1%, respectively
(Fig. 7.30).
7.3 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in Demonstration Urban … 293
Table 7.7 Average monthly online rate of FCEV special vehicles in each demonstration urban
agglomeration in 2021
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
urban agglomeration
Shanghai urban
agglomeration
Guangdong urban
agglomeration
Hebei urban
agglomeration
Average
monthly
online rate
(%)
67.6 60.0 59.1 93.7
0
25
50
75
100
125
Online Rate (%)
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration Shanghai Urban Agglomeration
Guangdong Urban Agglomeration Hebei Urban Agglomeration
Fig. 7.30 Monthly online rate of FCEV special vehicles in each demonstration urban agglomeration
in 2021
2. Cumulative mileage and cumulative travel duration
As of December 31, 2021, the cumulative mileage of FCEVs in each demon-
stration urban agglomeration totaled 142.602 million km, of which the cumula-
tive mileage of FCEVs in Guangdong Urban Agglomeration was the maximum,
i.e., 76.069 million km; The cumulative mileage of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban
Agglomeration and Shanghai Urban Agglomeration was 10.912 million km and
21.785 million km respectively (Fig. 7.31).
From the cumulative mileage of classified vehicles in different demonstration
urban agglomerations, it can be seen that due to differences in vehicle promo-
tion structures and online rates, there were significant differences in the cumula-
tive mileage of classified vehicles in different demonstration urban agglomerations,
among which, the cumulative mileage of FCEV buses in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
294 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
718.5 254.5
4279.9
1524.7 1789.3
372.7
1924.1
3327.1
69.5
1091.2
2178.5
7606.9
1594.2 1789.3
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
Urban Agglomeration
Shanghai Urban
Agglomeration
Guangdong Urban
Agglomeration
Hebei Urban
Agglomeration
Henan Urban
Agglomeration
Mileage Driven/10,000 km
Bus Special Vehicles
Fig. 7.31 Cumulative mileage of FCEVs in each demonstration urban agglomeration
Urban Agglomeration, Guangdong Urban Agglomeration, Hebei Urban Agglom-
eration, and Henan Urban Agglomeration was higher than that of special vehicles.
In comparison, the cumulative mileage of specialized vehicles in Shanghai Urban
Agglomeration was higher than that of buses.
As of December 31, 2021, the cumulative travel duration of FCEVs in each demon-
stration urban agglomeration totaled 5.333 million h, of which the cumulative travel
duration of FCEVs in Guangdong Urban Agglomeration was the maximum, i.e.,
2.584 million h, and the cumulative travel durations of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban
Agglomeration and Shanghai Urban Agglomeration were 356,000 h and 744,000 h
respectively (Fig. 7.32).
From the cumulative travel duration of classified vehicles in different demon-
stration urban agglomerations, the cumulative travel duration of FCEV buses in
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration, Guangdong Urban Agglomeration,
Hebei Urban Agglomeration, and Henan Urban Agglomeration was higher than
that of special vehicles. In comparison, the cumulative travel duration of FCEV
specialized vehicles in Shanghai Urban Agglomeration was higher than that of buses.
3. Daily mileage and travel duration
• Daily mileage and travel duration
The average daily single-trip mileage and average daily single-trip travel duration of
FCEV buses in different urban agglomerations in 2021 are shown in Table 7.8.The
7.3 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in Demonstration Urban … 295
25.7 7.2
178.7
66.0
94.4
9.9 67.2
79.7
4.7
35.6
74.4
258.4
70.6
94.4
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
Urban Agglomeration
Shanghai Urban
Agglomeration
Guangdong Urban
Agglomeration
Hebei Urban
Agglomeration
Henan Urban
Agglomeration
Driving Duration/10,000 hours
Bus Special Vehicles
Fig. 7.32 Cumulative travel duration of FCEVs in each demonstration urban agglomeration
operating efficiency of FCEV buses in Shanghai demonstration urban agglomeration
was the maximum, and the average daily mileage of FCEV buses in Guangdong
Urban Agglomeration was the maximum, i.e., 184.2 km; The FCEV special vehicles
(Table 7.9) in Guangdong demonstration urban agglomeration have the maximum
operating efficiency and the maximum average daily mileage of 277.8 km.
The average daily single-trip mileage of FCEV special vehicles in each demon-
stration urban agglomeration was higher than that of EV special vehicles, and FCEV
special vehicles have obvious advantages of long mileage.
• Daily mileage distribution
The distribution of daily single-trip mileage of vehicles in each demonstration urban
agglomeration in 2021 is shown in Fig. 7.33. The daily mileage of FCEV buses
in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration and Shanghai Urban Agglomeration
was within 120 km; The average daily mileage of Guangdong Urban Agglomeration,
Hebei Urban Agglomeration, and Henan Urban Agglomeration was high, of which
the daily mileage of FCEV buses in Guangdong Urban Agglomeration was 160 ~
280 km, while that in Hebei Urban Agglomeration was 120 ~ 200 km.
The distribution of the daily mileage of FCEV special vehicles in each demon-
stration urban agglomeration in 2021 is shown in Fig. 7.34. The daily mileage of
FCEV special vehicles in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration was short;
The daily mileage of FCEV special vehicles in Hebei Urban Agglomeration was
80 ~ 200 km, accounting for 66.6%. Compared with Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban
Agglomeration, the daily mileage of vehicles in Hebei Urban Agglomeration shows
296 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
Table 7.8 Comparison of the daily operation of FCEV buses and EV buses in demonstration cities
Vehicle type Specific parameter Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
urban agglomeration
Shanghai urban
agglomeration
Guangdong urban
agglomeration
Henan urban
agglomeration
Hebei urban
agglomeration
FCEV bus Average daily
single-trip mileage/
km
112.1 113.4 184.2 139.8 155.0
Average daily
single-trip travel
duration/h
4.2 2.5 7.4 7.3 9.2
EV bus Average daily
single-trip mileage/
km
135.2 159.8 176.3 150.6 156.3
Average daily
single-trip travel
duration/h
7.0 9.3 9.6 7.6 8.8
7.3 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in Demonstration Urban … 297
Table 7.9 Comparison of the daily operation of FCEV special vehicles and EV special vehicles in
demonstration cities
Vehi c le
type
Specific
parameter
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
urban agglomeration
Shanghai
urban
agglomeration
Guangdong
urban
agglomeration
Henan urban
agglomeration
FCEV
special
vehicle
Average
daily
single-trip
mileage/
km
185.5 175.2 277.8 146.5
Average
daily
single-trip
travel
duration/h
5.2 6.9 6.1 9.8
EV
special
vehicle
Average
daily
single-trip
mileage/
km
97.0 113.1 121.5 85.2
Average
daily
single-trip
travel
duration/h
6.3 7.0 7.2 5.5
a trend of high mileage; The distribution of vehicles with a mileage range of over
400 km in Guangdong Urban Agglomeration was relatively high, accounting for
28.8%.
• Daily travel duration distribution
The distribution of daily single-trip travel duration of FCEV buses in each demon-
stration urban agglomeration is shown in Fig. 7.35. The distribution of daily travel
duration of FCEV buses in Shanghai Urban Agglomeration was 0–2 h, accounting
for 56.9%; The operation effect of FCEV buses in Henan Urban Agglomeration was
good, but the travel duration was more than 10 h, accounting for 42.6%.
The distribution of daily single-trip travel duration of FCEV special vehicles in
each demonstration urban agglomeration is shown in Fig. 7.36. The distribution of
daily single-trip travel duration of FCEV special vehicles in Hebei Urban Agglom-
eration was concentrated in the high travel duration segment, accounting for 46.9%;
The distribution of vehicles with different daily single-trip travel durations in other
demonstration urban agglomerations was relatively uniform.
3. Average mileage between two hydrogen refueling cycles
The average mileage between two energy supplement cycles of FCEV buses and
special vehicles in the demonstration urban agglomerations in 2021 is shown in
298 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
0
10
20
30
40
50
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Average Daily Mileage per Vehicle/km
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration Shanghai Urban Agglomeration
Guangdong Urban Agglomeration Hebei Urban Agglomeration
Henan Urban Agglomeration
Fig. 7.33 Distribution of daily mileage of FCEV buses in each demonstration urban agglomeration
in 2021
Figs. 7.37 and 7.38. The mileage between two hydrogen refueling cycles of FCEVs
in each demonstration urban agglomeration was significantly higher than that of
EVs. The mileage between two hydrogen refueling cycles of FCEV buses in Henan
Urban Agglomeration was the maximum, i.e., 423.1 km, while the mileage between
two hydrogen refueling cycles of FCEV buses in other demonstration urban agglom-
erations exceeded 220 km. The mileage between two hydrogen refueling cycles of
FCEV special vehicles in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration and Guang-
dong Urban Agglomeration exceeded 260 km. The mileages between two hydrogen
refueling cycles of FCEV special vehicles in Shanghai Urban Agglomeration and
Hebei Urban Agglomeration were 194.6 and 171.3 km, significantly higher than the
mileage between two hydrogen refueling cycles of EVs in the same demonstration
urban agglomeration.
7.3 Operation Characteristics of FCEVs in Demonstration Urban … 299
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Average Daily Mileage per Vehicle/km
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration Shanghai Urban Agglomeration
Guangdong Urban Agglomeration Hebei Urban Agglomeration
Fig. 7.34 Distribution of daily mileage of FCEV special vehicles in each demonstration urban
agglomeration in 2021
7.3.3 Hydrogen Refueling Characteristics
1. Daily single-trip hydrogen refueling frequency distribution
In 2021, the FCEV buses in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration, Guang-
dong Urban Agglomeration, Hebei Urban Agglomeration, and Henan Urban
Agglomeration with their daily hydrogen refueling times ≤ 1 accounted for more
than 50%, of which those with their daily hydrogen refueling times ≤ 1 accounted
for 85.6%; The proportion of FCEV buses in Shanghai Urban Agglomeration and
Guangdong Urban Agglomeration with their daily hydrogen refueling times > 1 was
significantly higher than that of FCEV buses in other demonstration urban agglom-
erations due to the following factors. On the one hand, due to the high cost of the
on-board hydrogen storage system, or the poor hydrogen storage density and heavy-
weight hydrogen cylinder, the single-trip hydrogen capacity is limited; On the other
hand, the number of hydrogen charging stations under construction and operation
is relatively small, and some vehicles, such as those in Guangdong Urban Agglom-
eration, have a long daily mileage. In order to alleviate mileage anxiety, hydrogen
should be charged for vehicles (Fig. 7.39).
Figure 7.40 shows that the proportion of FCEV special vehicles in Guangdong
Urban Agglomeration with daily hydrogen refueling times more than 1 was relatively
300 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
0
10
20
30
40
50
0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 >10
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Average Daily Driving Duration per Vehicle (hours)
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration Shanghai Urban Agglomeration
Guangdong Urban Agglomeration Hebei Urban Agglomeration
Henan Urban Agglomeration
Fig. 7.35 Distribution of daily travel duration of FCEV buses in each demonstration urban
agglomeration in 2021
high, up to 71.9%, and FCEV special vehicles in Guangdong Urban Agglomeration
had relatively high daily mileage and hydrogen was charged for such vehicles inter-
mittently; the proportion of FCEV special vehicles in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban
Agglomeration with their daily hydrogen refueling times ≤ 1 was relatively high, up
to 51.6%.
2. Average hydrogen charging duration
The average hydrogen charging duration of all types of FCEVs in each demonstration
urban agglomeration in 2021 is shown in Fig. 7.41. The average hydrogen charging
duration of FCEV buses in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration is 8.2 min
which is lower than that of special vehicles; The average hydrogen charging duration
of FCEV special vehicles in Shanghai Urban Agglomeration, Guangdong Urban
Agglomeration, and Hebei Urban Agglomeration is lower than that of FCEV buses.
7.4 Summary 301
0
10
20
30
40
50
0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 >10
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Average Daily Driving Duration per Vehicle (hours)
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration Shanghai Urban Agglomeration
Guangdong Urban Agglomeration Hebei Urban Agglomeration
Fig. 7.36 Distribution of daily travel duration of FCEV special vehicles in each demonstration
urban agglomeration in 2021
7.4 Summary
An ideal choice for large-scale and deep decarbonization in the transportation field
is FCEVs because they are expected to drive upstream and downstream industrial
resources and an important strategic industry to realize regional interconnected devel-
opment. As the national and local governments continuously increase support and
guidance for the hydrogen energy and fuel cell industry, the demonstration, promo-
tion, and application of the hydrogen fuel cell industry in various regions have
achieved remarkable results. In combination with the access and operation char-
acteristics of FCEVs on the national regulatory platform, the following conclusions
were drawn in this paper.
The FCEV industry has achieved remarkable promotion results throughout
the country, and thevehicle promotion scale andapplication scenarios reached a
new level in 2021. From the perspective of the promotion scale of FCEVs nationwide,
the cumulative number of FCEVs promoted exceeded 8900, with a sales growth
of 34.8% compared with 2020; Regarding FCEV promotion application scenarios,
FCEVs are gradually expanding from a single scenario to a diversified application
scenario. As of December 31, 2020, the access volume of FCEVs to the National
Monitoring and Management Platform has exceeded 7737, of which, special vehicles
have been accessed from a single scenario of logistics vehicles in 2020 to multiple
302 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
253.1
227.1 256.3 245.7
423.1
73.7
148.7 125.9
86.1 98.9
0
100
200
300
400
500
Mileage Driven/km
FVEV Bus Pure Electric Bus
Fig. 7.37 Mileage between two energy supplement cycles of FCEV buses in demonstration urban
agglomerations in 2021
application scenarios such as special logistics vehicles, special engineering vehicles,
and special environmental sanitation vehicles, with diversified application scenarios.
From the perspective of vehicle operation characteristics, FCEVs have
obvious advantages in mileage andenergysupply efficiency,and complementary
development with EVs in more application scenarios should be further explored.
The mileage between two hydrogen refueling cycles of FCEVs is significantly higher
than that of EVs between two battery charging cycles in the five demonstration urban
agglomerations. FCEVs have significant advantages in long-term mileage and energy
supply efficiency. Regarding vehicle hydrogen charging characteristics, the average
hydrogen charging duration of FCEVs in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomera-
tion, Shanghai Urban Agglomeration, and Guangdong Urban Agglomeration is about
10 min, and the energy supply duration is equivalent to that of fuel vehicles. In the
future, FCEVs are expected to be promoted and applied in long-distance operating
vehicles such as heavy-duty trucks and buses.
Since the hydrogen charging frequency of some FCEVs is still high, the pace
of construction of hydrogen charging stations will be expedited, and the key
technologies of the hydrogen storage system will be strengthened to improve the
driving range of FCEVs. Regarding the hydrogen charging behavior characteristics
7.4 Summary 303
268.8
194.6
260.4
171.3
106.3
133.1 125.2
98.3 105.5
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Mileage Driven/km
FVEV Bus Pure Electric Bus
Fig. 7.38 Mileage between two energy supplement cycles of FCEV special vehicles in demonstra-
tion urban agglomerations in 2021
23.3
46.2 42.0 33.4
14.4
26.1
17.0
37.3
30.6
23.6
15.8
8.5
8.7
12.6
14.9
10.4 4.8
3.3
6.8
9.0
24.4 23.6
8.7 16.7
38.1
0
20
40
60
80
100
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
Urban Agglomeration
Shanghai Urban
Agglomeration
Guangdong Urban
Agglomeration
Hebei Urban
Agglomeration
Henan Urban
Agglomeration
Vehicle Proportion (%)
More than once
every 3 days
Once every 3 days
Once every 2 days
Once a day
More than once a
day
Fig. 7.39 Single-trip hydrogen refueling frequency distribution of FCEV buses in each demonstra-
tion urban a gglomeration in 2021
304 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
48.4
57.4
71.9
63.2
18.4
25.2
14.7
22.3
9.3
6.5 3.8 5.6
5.4
3.0 2.1 2.2
18.5
7.9 7.6 6.7
0
20
40
60
80
100
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
Urban Agglomeration
Shanghai Urban
Agglomeration
Guangdong Urban
Agglomeration
Hebei Urban
Agglomeration
Vehicle Proportion (%)
More than once
every 3 days
Once every 3 days
Once every 2 days
Once a day
More than once a
day
Fig. 7.40 Single-trip hydrogen refueling frequency distribution of FCEV special vehicles in each
demonstration urban agglomeration in 2021
of FCEVs, some FCEVs’ daily hydrogen charging frequency is still high. On the
one hand, the number of hydrogen charging stations under construction is relatively
small. In order to alleviate mileage anxiety, hydrogen should be charged for FCEVs;
On the other hand, the pressure of current mainstream on-board hydrogen storage
systems in China is 35 MPa, and the onboard hydrogen cylinder has high cost and low
hydrogen storage density. In the future, on the one hand, it is necessary to strengthen
the progress of hydrogen charging infrastructure construction; On the other hand, we
will accelerate the research on hydrogen storage systems, accelerate the development
towards III and IV cylinders with light weight, large volume, higher safety, and lower-
cost, and promote the use of alternative composite materials to achieve lightweight
hydrogen storage systems and improve hydrogen storage density.
Combining local industries and advantages, the promotion effects of the fuel
cell industry in each demonstration urban agglomeration have their character-
istics. With thegradual improvement of the hydrogen energy industry chain, the
demonstration urban agglomeration is expected to take the lead in achieving
large-scale pilot applications during the 14th Five-Year Plan period, and the
industry will experience rapid growth. Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglom-
eration and Hebei Urban Agglomeration, taking advantage of the opportunity of
2022 Beijing Winter Olympics and the policy guidance of the Blue Sky Protection
Campaign, and relying on the local industrial base and scientific research resources,
7.4 Summary 305
8.2
13.1
10.1
17.6 17.4
10.4
9.0 8.5
13.4
0
5
10
15
20
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
Urban Agglomeration
Shanghai Urban
Agglomeration
Guangdong Urban
Agglomeration
Hebei Urban Agglomeration Henan Urban Agglomeration
Hydrogen Charging Duration/min
Bus Special Vehicle
Fig. 7.41 Average hydrogen charging duration of FCEVs in each demonstration urban agglomer-
ation in 2021
fully realize the close cooperation among industry, university, and research, promote
the acceleration of industrialization process, and achieve remarkable promotion
effects of FCEV buses; Taking Shanghai as the leading city, Shanghai Urban Agglom-
eration radiates Suzhou, Nantong and other surrounding developed cities, giving full
play to the initiative of upstream and downstream enterprises in the industrial chain,
and is expected to become a rapidly maturing region of the national hydrogen fuel
cell industry chain; The number of promoted FCEVs in Guangdong Urban Agglom-
eration is significantly better than that in other demonstration urban agglomerations.
Based on the data from the National Monitoring and Management Platform, by
the end of 2021, there had been 2536 FCEVs in Guangdong Urban Agglomeration,
accounting for 32.8% of the total FCEVs in China. Guangdong Urban Agglomeration
has abundant enterprise resources, including Foshan Feichi Automobile, Changjiang
Automobile, and Dongfeng Commercial Vehicle, and core component manufacturers
include Sinosynergy, Ballard Power Systems, and Broad Ocean Motor. By taking
Foshan as the core and fully leveraging its industrial resource advantages, Guangdong
Urban Agglomeration radiates Yunfu, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Zhongshan, and other
places, achieving cross-regional industrial coordinated development and gradually
306 7 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
forming a development demonstration area with multiple application scenario for
FCEV buses and logistics vehicles in the Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater
Bay Area; Henan Urban Agglomeration has obvious advantages in the fuel cell
industry. Yutong Group provides a better carrier for developing the Hydrogen fuel
cell industry in Henan Urban Agglomeration.
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Chapter 8
Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
As one of the most effective low-carbon solutions in the automotive industry, parallel
hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) play an important role in promoting energy conser-
vation and carbon reduction in the automotive industry in the short to medium term
during its transformation and development. PHEVs can meet consumers’ diverse
application scenarios and usage needs, and the market demand has shown a rapid
growth trend since 2021. With PHEVs as a research perspective, by comparing the
industry policies and market overview of PHEVs at the national and local levels and
deeply exploring the operation conditions of PHEVs and typical urban vehicle oper-
ation characteristics, this chapter summarizes vehicle operation rules and user usage
habits to promote the technological progress and healthy development of PHEV
products.
8.1 Development Status of PHEV Industry
8.1.1 Industrial Support Policy Tightening at the National
Level
Compared to traditional fuel vehicles, PHEV products achieve a dual balance
between power and economic performance and can meet the diverse usage needs
of consumers. From a market perspective, PHEV products have a certain degree of
market competitiveness, and the industrial support policies for promoting PHEVs at
the national level are gradually tightening.
1. Ease the intensity and pace of subsidy reduction, and continue the fiscal
subsidy policy until the end of 2022
In order to ease the intensity and pace of subsidy reduction, the subsidy policy, orig-
inally scheduled to expire at the end of 2020, has been reasonably extended until the
© China Machine Press Co., Ltd. 2024
Z. Wang, Annual Report on the Big Data of New Energy Vehicle in China (2022),
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6411-6_8
307
308 8 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
end of 2022. On April 23, 2021, the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Industry and
Information Technology, the Ministry of Science and Technology, and the National
Development and Reform Commission of PRC jointly issued the NoticeonImproving
the Financial Subsidy Policy for the Promotion and Application of NEVs (CJ [2020]
No. 86), intending to maintain support f or the NEV industry, implementing precise
policies, and promoting high-quality development of the industry. From 2020 to
2022, the subsidy funds were reduced by 10, 20, and 30% from the previous year
(Table 8.1). In order to speed up the electrification of vehicles in public transport
and other fields, the subsidy funds for conforming vehicles for urban public trans-
port, road passenger transport, taxi service (including E-taxi service), environmental
sanitation, urban logistics distribution, postal express, civil aviation airports and
the official business of party and government agencies didn’t decline in 2020. The
subsidy funds were reduced by 10% and 20% respectively from the previous year. In
principle, up to 2 million vehicles will be subsidized annually; In addition, we should
underpin outstanding enterprises, optimize technical thresholds appropriately, and
promote advantageous enterprises to become bigger and stronger.
On December 31, 2020, and December 31, 2021, the four ministries and commis-
sions jointly issued the Notice on Further Improving the Financial Subsidy Policy
for the Promotion and Application of NEVs (CJ [2020] No. 593) and the Notice on
the Subsidy Policy for the Promotion and Application of NEVs in 2022 (CJ [2021]
No. 466), both of which stipulate that under the condition that R ≥ 50 (NEDC condi-
tion)/R ≥ 43 (WLTC condition), the subsidy amount for PHEV passenger cars will
continue to decline.
2. Encourage the purchase of NEVs and exempt them from vehicle purchase
taxes for consecutive years
In order to support the development of the NEV industry and promote consump-
tion in the NEV market, relevant national ministries and commissions successively
issued policy documents on exempting NEV purchase taxes. Such documents include
the Announcement on Exemption of New Energy Vehicle Purchase Tax (Announce-
ment No. 53, 2014 of the Ministry of Finance, the State Taxation Administration,
the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology) issued by the Ministry of
Finance, the State Taxation Administration, and the Ministry of Industry and Infor-
mation Technology on August 1, 2014, with its valid period from September 1, 2014
to December 31, 2017, and the Announcement on Exemption of New Energy Vehicle
Purchase Tax (2017 No. 172) jointly issued by the Ministry of Finance, the State
Table 8.1 Subsidy program for PHEV passenger cars in 2021 and 2022
Year Non-public field Public field
Reduction
percentage (%)
Subsidy amount
(10,000 yuan)
Reduction
percentage (%)
Subsidy amount
(10,000 yuan)
2021 20 0.68 10 0.9
2022 30 0.48 20 0.72
8.1 Development Status of PHEV Industry 309
Taxation Administration, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology and
the Ministry of Science and Technology on December 26, 2017. New energy vehi-
cles purchased were exempt from vehicle purchase taxes from January 1, 2018, to
December 31, 2020.
On April 16, 2020, the Ministry of Finance, the State Taxation Administration,
and the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology of China jointly issued the
Announcement on the Relevant Policies for the Exemption of New Energy Vehicle
Purchase Tax (Announcement 2020 No. 21) (referred to as the “Announcement”).
The Announcement stipulates that from January 1, 2021, to December 31, 2022,
new energy vehicles purchased will be exempt from vehicle purchase taxes. NEVs
exempt from vehicle purchase taxes refer to EVs, PHEVs (including EREVs), and
FCEVs. New energy vehicles exempt from vehicle purchase taxes shall be managed
by releasing the Catalogue of New Energy Vehicle Models Exempted from Vehicle
Purchase Taxes by the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology and the
State Taxation Administration.
3. Increased investment threshold for the PHEV industry
Before January 10, 2019, investment projects in the PHEV industry fell into the
category of new energy vehicles.
On January 6, 2017, according to the Decree of the Ministry of Industry and Infor-
mation Technology of the People’s Republic of China (No. 39), the Regulations on
New Energy Vehicle Manufacturing Enterprises and Product Access Management
were reviewed and approved on the 26th Ministerial Meeting of the Ministry of
Industry and Information Technology on October 20, 2016. They will be imple-
mented as of July 1, 2017. EVs and PHEVs are new energy vehicles, and the
Ministry of Industry and Information Technology is responsible for implementing
the supervision and management of new energy vehicle manufacturers and product
access.
The Provisions for the Administration of Investment in the Automotive
Industry of NDRC incorporate PHEV industry investment projects into the
investment scope of fuel vehicles.
On December 18, 2018, the National Development and Reform Commission
issued the Provisions for the Administration of Investment in the Automotive Industry
(referred to as the “Provisions”), which was officially implemented on January 10,
2019. These Provisions explicitly state that the investment projects for automobiles
are divided into two types based on the powertrain: fuel vehicles and electric vehicles,
which means that all future automobile investment projects must be classified into
these two types (Fig. 8.1). FCEVs, EVs, and EREVs are included in electric vehicle
investment projects, while traditional fuel vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and
PHEVs are included in the investment scope of fuel vehicles. This provision means
that only enterprises with fuel vehicle production qualifications can produce PHEVs,
while enterprises with electric vehicle production qualifications (such as new vehicle
manufacturers) can only produce electric vehicles rather than PHEVs.
310 8 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Investment
projects EV investment projects
Fuel vehicle investment
projects
Component investment
projects
Traditional fuel vehicles
General HEVs
PHEVs
EVs
EREVs
FCEVs
Automobile engine system
Body assembly
Fuel cells
Special vehicles and trailers managed
by parts
Fig. 8.1 Classification of investment projects in the Provisions for the Administration of Investment
in the Automotive Industry (2018)
The Provisions issued on December 18, 2018, regulate the direction of production
capacity investment and do not conflict with the current national support policies for
new energy vehicles.
8.1.2 Differentiation of Support Policies at the Local
Government Level
The policies for promoting PHEVs in key cities nationwide have significant differ-
ences. Beijing and Shanghai are gradually tightening their regulations on PHEVs,
while Guangzhou and Shenzhen have relatively loose policies on PHEVs, occupying
the quota of new energy vehicles.
1. Beijing: PHEVs do not enjoy policies such as exemption from traffic
restrictions
In Beijing, PHEVs occupy fuel licenses and do not enjoy the “no restrictions”
preferential policy.
According to the Implementation Rules of the Interim Regulations on the Control
of the Quantity of Small Passenger Cars in Beijing (revised in 2017), new energy
small buses refer to small electric buses. The quotas of small new energy buses are
8.1 Development Status of PHEV Industry 311
allocated through waiting mode. After selling or scrapping small new energy buses,
entities or individuals can apply for updating the quotas of small new energy buses.
According to the regulations on vehicle management in Beijing, there is a difference
between JAD and JAF in the green license plates for new energy vehicles. Users can
apply for green license plates starting from JAF for PHEVs (including EREVs) but
do not enjoy the right-of-way privilege.
2. Shanghai: from 2023, PHEVs will withdraw from the free license plate offer
In February 2021, the Shanghai Municipal Government issued the Regulations on
Encouraging the Purchase and Use of New Energy Vehicles in Shanghai (referred
to as the “Regulations”). The NEVs referred to in the Regulations refer to electric
vehicles, PHEVs (including EREVs), and FCEVs that have been included in the
national Catalog of Recommended Models for Promotion and Application of New
Energy Vehicles or other relevant model catalogs, sold and used in the city, and
comply with the management regulations of this city. From January 1, 2023, dedi-
cated license plates will no longer be issued for consumers who purchase PHEVs
(including EREVs). Consumers who purchase NEVs for non-business purposes
and have not registered using the city’s dedicated license quota under their user-
name will be granted free dedicated licenses under the principle of controlling the
total number of non-business buses in this city. Consumers who purchase PHEVs
(including EREVs) should apply for a dedicated license plate and also meet the
following requirements: a charging facility that meets the requirements of intelligent
technology and safety standards has been provided in this city; There is no proof of
nonbusiness bus quota under the personal username, and there are no motor vehicles
(excluding motorcycles) registered with non-business bus quota.
From the perspective of policy trends, the Shanghai government encourages
consumers who do not own cars to purchase any type of new energy vehicle and
can enjoy the free green license plate policy. From 2023, PHEVs (including EREVs)
and small electric buses will withdraw from the list of free license plates.
3. Guangzhou: enjoy the green license plate policy for PHEVs
In July 2018, the Guangzhou Municipal Government issued the Regulations on the
Control of the Total Quantity of Small and Medium-sized Buses in Guangzhou. NEVs
refer to small and medium-sized Buses (including EVs, PHEVs, and FCEVs) listed in
the Catalog of Recommended Models for Promotion and Application of New Energy
Vehicles issued by the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, as well as
imported new energy small and medium-sized buses marked by relevant national
departments. Units and individuals who need to register new energy vehicles can
directly apply for their quotas based on vehicle information.
4. Shenzhen: enjoy the green license plate policy for PHEVs
In July 2019, the Shenzhen Municipal Government issued the Rules for the Control
and Management of Increased Cars in Shenzhen. New energy vehicles refer to electric
cars, PHEVs (including EREV), and fuel cell cars that comply with the automotive
312 8 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
product announcement catalog of the Ministry of Industry and Information Tech-
nology of the People’s Republic of China and original imported electric cars licensed
by relevant national regulations. The incremental quotas are allocated through lottery,
bidding, or directly applying according to regulations. There is no limit on the
incremental quotas for hybrid and electric cars, which are directly allocated after
application and qualification review.
On December 14, 2021, the Transport Bureau of Shenzhen Municipality proposed
matters related to adjusting the incremental quotas of new energy cars. According to
the Notice of the General Office of the People’s Government of Guangdong Province
on Printing and Distributing Several Policies and Measures to Promote Urban
Consumption (YFB [2021] No. 36), non-Shenzhen registered residence persons with
valid Shenzhen residence permits and overseas Chinese and residents of Hong Kong,
Macao, and Taiwan with valid identity certificates who have gone through temporary
accommodation registration for foreigners following the provisions of the municipal
public security organ, as well as foreigners applying for visas or residence permits
in this city, are not required to make payments (excluding supplementary payments)
of basic medical insurance in this city for more than 24 consecutive months for the
incremental quotas of new energy cars (including PHEVs and BEVs).
8.2 Promotion of PHEVs
8.2.1 Current Situation of the PHEV Market
PHEVs are gradually shifting from a supply side drive to a dual supply and
demand drive, and the domestic market maintained a high growth demand
trend in 2021.
PHEVs have shown a fluctuating growth trend in the past five years. After selling
267,000 PHEVs in 2018, the overall decline in the new energy vehicle market in 2019
resulted in a significant decrease in market sales compared with 2018. Since 2021,
new models supplied by vehicle manufacturers have been diversified and abundant,
such as BYD Qin, BYD Song PLUS, Li ONE, BYD Tang/Han, and BMW 5 Series.
On the demand-side level, due to consumer demand for upgrades in fuel consumption,
mileage, and other aspects, the sales of PHEVs in the domestic market increased from
79,000 to 603,000 from 2015 to 2021, the demand has increased by 7.6 times, and
the market demand shows a rapid growth trend (Fig. 8.2).
Since 2021, with the successive launch of the new generation of domestic PHEV
benchmarking products, some domestic proprietary brand PHEV products have been
successively launched on the market, and some product functions have reached or
exceeded the level of joint venture products, providing a variety of product speci-
fications for the domestic consumer market, which is more in line with the actual
needs of consumers in the domestic market. The TOP5 PHEV models in China in
2021, including the Qin PLUS DM-i, Li ONE, Song Pro DM, Tang PHEV, and Han
8.2 Promotion of PHEVs 313
7.9 9.5
12.3
26.7
23.0 24.9
60.3
19.9%
29.0%
117.3%
-13.9%
8.4%
142.2%
-40.0%
0.0%
40.0%
80.0%
120.0%
160.0%
0
15
30
45
60
75
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Year-on-Year Growth Rate)
Sales Volume (10,000 Cars)
Sales Volume (10,000 cars) Growth Rate
Fig. 8.2 Sales and growth of PHEVs over the years. Source China Association of Automobile
Manufacturers
Table 8.2 TOP5 models of PHEV sales in 2021
Model Sales volume
(vehicles)
Vehi c le
level
NEDC (km) Maximum
battery capacity
(kWh)
Guide price
Qin Plus
DM-i
113,656 Class A
car
120 18.30 132,800–148,800
Li ONE 90,491 Class C
SUV
188 40.50 338,000
Song Pro
DM
79,508 Class A
SUV
81 15.70 169,800–219,800
Tan g
PHEV
48,152 Class B
SUV
100 23.98 236,800–286,800
Han DM 30,476 Class C
sedan
81 15.30 219,800–239,800
DM, are all domestic proprietary brands. Such models have set benchmarks in the
domestic market Regarding mileage, price, and battery power and have received
positive feedback from the market (Table 8.2).
314 8 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
8.2.2 Access of PHEVs
1. Cumulative PHEV access characteristics
The access quantity of PHEVs is rapidly increasing, and a total of over 1.1 million
PHEVs have accessed the National Monitoring and Management Platform.
As of December 31, 2020, 1.1065 million PHEVs have been accessed to
the National Monitoring and Management Platform, including 1,068,300 PHEVs
passenger cars, accounting for 96.55% of PHEVs (Fig. 8.3). 875,800 private
passenger cars have been accessed, accounting for nearly 80% of PHEV passenger
cars.
The concentration of PHEVs in provinces is relatively high, with Shanghai
and Guangdong provinces taking the lead.
From the cumulative access situation of PHEVs in various provinces (Fig. 8.4), the
cumulative PHEVs in Shanghai and Guangdong are 245,900 and 240,000, ranking in
the top two and accounting for 22.22 and 21.69% nationwide, both of which exceed
1/5, indicating a high concentration. Regarding the proportion of PHEV passenger
cars in various provinces, the PHEV passenger cars in the TOP15 provinces account
for more than 85% of local PHEVs, of which the PHEV passenger cars in Shanghai,
Guangdong, and Tianjin account for more than 99%.
The passenger car promotion effect in Shanghai and Guangdong is signif-
icant; the cumulative registered PHEV buses in Zhejiang Province, Jiangsu
Province, and Shandong Province account for over 10% of the total PHEVs in
China.
From the perspective of the promotion concentration of PHEV passenger cars in
various provinces (Fig. 8.5), Shanghai and Guangdong are far ahead in the cumulative
access volume of PHEV passenger cars nationwide. As of December 31, 2021, the
cumulative access volume of PHEV passenger cars in Shanghai and Guangdong has
reached 245,200 and 238,600, accounting for 22.95 and 22.33% of the total in China;
The cumulative access volume of PHEV passenger cars in Zhejiang Province has
Bus, 3.67, 3.31%
Special Vehicle, 0.15,
0.14%
Taxi car,2.10
Official Car,12.57
Private Passenger
Car,87.58
Rental Car,4.58
Fig. 8.3 Cumulative access and proportion of PHEVs—by type
8.2 Promotion of PHEVs 315
Shanghai
Guangd ong
Zhejiang
Tianjin
Jiangsu
Shandong
Henan
Sichuan
Hebei
Shaanxi
Hunan
Chongqing
Hubei
Hainan
Anhui
84
88
92
96
100
104
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
PHEV Passenger Car Proportion (%)
PHEV Nationwide Proportion (%)
Fig. 8.4 Cumulative access and proportion of PHEVs in the TOP15 provinces. Note The bubble
size indicates the cumulative access volume of PHEVs in each city by the end of 2021
exceeded 100,000, reaching 105,900, accounting for 9.91% of the total in China; The
promotion quantity of PHEV passenger cars in other provinces is less than 100,000.
The cumulative access volume of PHEV buses in Zhejiang Province, Jiangsu
Province, and Shandong Province ranked in the top three, with cumulative access
volumes of 5000, 4300, and 3800, accounting for 13.60, 11.82, and 10.42% in China
(Fig. 8.6).
Regarding the concentration of passenger cars in various cities, Shanghai and
Shenzhen are leading other cities in China, with cumulative access accounting
for over 10% of the total access in China.
From promoting PHEV passenger cars in various cities (Fig. 8.7), Shanghai,
Shenzhen, and Hangzhou ranked among the top three Regarding cumulative access.
As of December 31, 2021, the cumulative access volume of PHEV passenger
cars in Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Hangzhou reached 245,200, 140,900, and 79,000,
accounting for 22.95, 13.19, and 7.40% of the total in China. The access volume
of PHEVs in the TOP3 cities was 465,100, accounting for 43.54% of the total in
China. The access volume of PHEVs in the TOP10 cities was 681,800, accounting
for 63.82% of the total in China.
Autonomous brands accelerate the layout of hybrid products and promote
the reshaping of the PHEV market pattern.
316 8 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
24.52 23.86
10.59
4.68 4.37 4.25 4.25 3.76 3.33 2.95
22.95% 22.33%
9.91%
4.38% 4.09% 3.98% 3.98% 3.52% 3.11% 2.77%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
0
5
10
15
20
25
Shanghai Guangdong Zhejiang Tianjin Henan Jiangsu Shandong Sichuan Hebei Shaanxi
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Cumulative Access Volume (10,000 cars)
Cumulative Access Volume Vehicle Proportion (%)
Fig. 8.5 Cumulative access and proportion of PHEV passenger cars in the TOP10 provinces
0.50
0.43
0.38
0.27
0.23 0.21 0.20
0.16 0.16
0.12
13.60%
11.82%
10.42%
7.26%
6.27% 5.70% 5.42%
4.36% 4.28%
3.37%
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Cumulative Access Volume (10,000 cars)
Cumulative Access Volume Vehicle Proportion
Fig. 8.6 Cumulative access and proportion of PHEV buses in the TOP10 provinces
From the perspective of the promotion concentration of all PHEV passenger car
manufacturers (Fig. 8.8), as of December 31, 2021, the access volume of BYD Auto
Automobile, SAIC Motor, and BYD Automobile Industry ranked first three, and
the access volume of PHEV passenger cars reached more than 100,000. With the
active deployment of hybrid technology by domestic brands, including the release
of BYD DM-i, Great Wall Lemon DHT, Geely GHS2.0, Chery Kunpeng DHT, and
Chang’an Blue Whale iDD platforms, the layout of domestic brand hybrid products
has promoted the reshaping of the hybrid market pattern. The popular DM-i series
8.2 Promotion of PHEVs 317
24.52
14.09
7.90 7.07
4.68
2.54 2.51 1.97 1.60 1.28
22.95%
13.19%
7.40%
6.62%
4.38% 2.38% 2.35% 1.85% 1.50% 1.20%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
0
5
10
15
20
25
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Cumulative Access Volume (10,000 cars)
Cumulative Access Volume Nationwide Proportion
Fig. 8.7 Cumulative access and proportion of PHEV passenger cars in the TOP10 cities
42.20
17.07
9.93
6.60 6.06
3.33 2.66 2.24 1.95 1.84
39.50%
15.98%
9.30% 6.18% 5.67% 3.12% 2.49% 2.10% 1.82% 1.72%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
0
15
30
45
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Cumulative Access Volume (10,000 cars)
Cumulative Access Volume Vehicle Proportion
Fig. 8.8 Cumulative access characteristics of PHEV passenger cars from TOP10 manufacturers
has driven BYD’s further breakthrough in the PHEV segment market. By the end of
2021, the cumulative access volume of BYD’s PHEVs reached 422,000, accounting
for 39.5% of the national market.
From the perspective of the promotion concentration of all PHEV bus manufac-
turers (Fig. 8.9), as of December 31, 2021, the access volume of Zhengzhou Yutong,
Foton, and Golden Dragon ranked first three reached more than 9200, 5600, and
318 8 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
0.92
0.56
0.48
0.29
0.22 0.21
0.18 0.17
0.08 0.08
25.00%
15.29%
13.05%
7.99%
6.02% 5.82%
4.84% 4.63%
2.18% 2.14%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Cumulative Access Volume (10,000 cars)
Cumulative Access Volume Vehicle Proportion
Fig. 8.9 Cumulative access characteristics of PHEV buses from TOP10 manufacturers
4800. Among them, the access volume of Zhengzhou Yutong’s PHEV buses ranked
first, accounting for 25.00% nationwide.
2. Vehicle access characteristics over the years
From the perspective of the access volume of PHEVs over the years (Table 8.3), the
access volume of PHEVs was maximum in 2021, reaching 480,800, with a year-on-
year increase of 2.2 times. From the perspective of monthly access over the years, the
monthly access volume of PHEVs in 2021 was generally high. In the fourth quarter
of 2021, the access volume of PHEVs showed a significant carryover effect, totaling
188,000 (Fig. 8.10).
The market demand for PHEVs is gradually shifting to cities not subject to
purchase restriction.
8.2 Promotion of PHEVs 319
Table 8.3 Access volume of PHEVs over the year
Year 2019 2020 2021
Access volume of PHEVs over the years (10,000 vehicles) 23.35 14.99 48.08
5.08
1.22
1.98 1.84
0.58
1.13
2.74
2.01 1.80 2.17
1.00
1.81
1.46
1.38
0.93 0.95
1.27
0.99 0.97
1.28 1.09 0.97
1.28
2.44
2.65 4.06
3.06
1.39
2.24 3.78
1.92
5.79
4.41
3.86
5.52
9.39
0
2
4
6
8
10
Access Volume (10,000 cars)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 8.10 Monthly access volume of PHEVs over the years
From the perspective of the access characteristics of PHEVs over the years, the
market demand for PHEVs is gradually shifting to cities not subject to purchase
restriction Fig. 8.11 shows that in the past three years, the market share of PHEVs
in cities not subject to purchase restriction has proliferated, and the market share
has significantly increased. In 2019, the market share of PHEVs in cities not subject
to purchase r estriction was 37.8%. By 2021, the market share of PHEVs reached
53.6%, with an increase of 15.8 percentage points compared with 2019. The market
share of PHEVs in cities not subject to purchase restriction is rapidly expanding.
The share of PHEVs in first-tier cities has decreased, and market demand is
gradually releasing to lower-tier cities.
Based on the access characteristics of PHEVs in cities of different tiers over
the years (Fig. 8.12), the proportion of access volume of PHEVs in first-tier cities
has shown a decreasing trend yearly. In 2019, the proportion of PHEVs in first-
tier cities was 64%, and by 2021, the annual proportion of PHEVs was 50.3%,
with a decrease of 13.7%; The market share of PHEVs in cities of other tiers has
increased, and the market demand is gradually releasing to lower-tier cities. With
the continuous expansion of domestic brands in the PHEV market, and the trend
of gradually narrowing the “green channel” of PHEVs in China, domestic brands
have seized the window period of favorable policies on the one hand, and on the
320 8 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
62.2
52.8 46.4
37.8
47.2 53.6
0
20
40
60
80
100
2019 2020 2021
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Cities subject to purchase restriction
Cities not subject to purchase restriction
Fig. 8.11 Changes in the proportion of access volume of PHEVs in cities subject to and not subject
to purchase restriction over the years
other hand, dispersing sales area distribution and getting rid of policy restrictions are
conducive to sustained and stable growth in the medium to long term.
East China and South China are the main promotion regions. In 2021, the
market share of PHEVs in Northeast, East, Central, and Northwest China
increased.
Based on the access characteristics of PHEVs by region over the years (Fig. 8.13),
East China and South China are the main promotion regions for PHEVs due to the
great demand for PHEVs in Shanghai and Guangdong. From the change in PHEV
access in the past three years, the proportion of PHEVs in Northeast China, East
China, Central China, and Northwest China has shown an upward trend.
Individuals are the absolute main purchasing force, with a significant increase
in private share.
Based on the access characteristics of PHEVs by type over the years (Fig. 8.14),
individuals are the absolute main purchasing group, and the private share of PHEVs
is gradually expanding rapidly. The proportion of PHEV private cars has shown a
rapid growth trend, increasing from 85.1% in 2019 to 93.2% in 2021, an increase of
8.1%. The degree of marketization of PHEVs has significantly improved.
8.2 Promotion of PHEVs 321
64.0
55.5
50.3
15.7
20.0
21.3
12.0
13.2 15.8
6.0 8.2 9.4
2.2 3.2 3.2
0
20
40
60
80
100
2019 2020 2021
Vehicle Proportion (%)
First-tier Cities Second-tier Cities Third-tier Cities Fourth-tier Cities Fifth-tier Cities
Fig. 8.12 Changes in the proportion of access volume of PHEVs in cities over the years—by city
tier
1.6 2.1 2.3
41.2 41.2 42.6
6.9 9.7 11.7
10.0
11.8
11.2
30.4 21.4 19.0
3.83
4.30 4.57
6.00 9.44 8.62
0
20
40
60
80
100
2019 2020 2021
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Northeast China East China Central China North China
South China Northwest China Southwest China
Fig. 8.13 Changes in the proportion of access volume of PHEVs in different regions over the years
322 8 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
85.1 85.3
93.2
2.0 3.2
1.6
3.2
4.2
1.5
7.1
3.7
2.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
2.4 3.4
1.0
70
80
90
100
2019 2020 2021
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Private Cars E-taxis Taxi Cars for sharing Logistics Vehicles Buses
Fig. 8.14 Changes in the proportion of access volume of PHEVs in different application scenarios
over the years
8.3 Operation Characteristics of PHEVs
8.3.1 Online Rate of PHEVs
The online rate of PHEVs remains at a high level, and the usage rate of PHEVs
is relatively high.
From the perspective of the online rate of PHEVs in various regions (Fig. 8.15),
in 2021, the average online rate of PHEVs in all regions of China was over 90%,
indicating a high usage rate of PHEVs. From the historical changes in the online rate
of PHEVs in various regions, the overall online rate in East China, Central China,
North China, and Southwest China has shown an upward trend in recent three years.
From the perspective of the online rate of PHEVs in cities of different tiers
(Fig. 8.16), the online rate of PHEVs in cities of different tiers remains above 90%.
There are slight differences in vehicle online rates in cities of different tiers. The
online rate in first-tier cities is the highest, and the online rate has been relatively
stable in the past three years; The online rate in second and third-tier cities shows an
upward trend.
8.3 Operation Characteristics of PHEVs 323
93.6
92.6
89.3
91.3
94.3
93.6
89.5
91.6
93.4
90.8
93.6 93.9
94.6
91.5
90.2
93.6
91.7
93.4
92.3
93.5
93.4
70
80
90
100
Northeast Chian East China Central China North China South China Northwest China Sou thwest China
Online Rate (%)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 8.15 Monthly average online rate of PHEVs in various regions of China
93.4
90.7 90.4
92.6 93.5
94.0
92.2
90.9
92.3
93.4
93.8 92.4
90.8 91.2 92.1
70
80
90
100
First-tier Cities Second-tier Cities Third-tier Cities Fourth-tier Cities Fifth-tier Cities
Online Rate (%)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 8.16 Monthly average online rate of PHEVs in cities of different tier
From the perspective of the online rate of PHEVs by type (Fig. 8.17), the online
rate of private cars, e-taxis, and taxis is generally at a high level, and the online rate
of logistics vehicles is lower than that of other types of vehicles.
324 8 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
94.0 97.4 90.1
83.8
91.5
75.5
94.9 97.9
87.2
84.2
88.8
57.7
94.1
98.1
90.5 86.1
82.1
58.1
20
40
60
80
100
Private Car E-taxi Taxi Car for Sharing Bus Logistics Vehicle
Online Rate (%)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 8.17 Calendar year average monthly uptime rates by segment for PHEVs nationally
8.3.2 Vehicle Operation Characteristics
The operating modes of PHEVs are divided into electric driving mode, hybrid driving
mode, and fuel-powered driving mode. From the proportion of mileage of PHEV
passenger cars in different driving modes by type (Fig. 8.18), the electric mileage of
private cars and e-taxis is relatively high, and the average daily mileage of private
cars and e-taxis in the electric driving mode accounts for 45.0% and 45.6% of the
total average daily mileage respectively; Taxis take second place, with an average
daily mileage in the electric driving mode accounting for 40.6%; The average daily
mileage of cars for sharing in the electric driving mode accounts for 37.6%, and
the utilization rate of the electric driving mode is relatively low. Regardless of the
type, the proportion of fuel-powered driving mode is less than 10%, indicating that
in actual use, PHEV passenger cars are low-carbon and environmentally friendly
among vehicles of the same class.
From the proportion distribution of different types of vehicles with different
mileages in the electric driving mode (Fig. 8.19), it can be seen that the propor-
tion distribution of private cars with different mileages in the electric driving mode
is relatively uniform; e-taxis, taxis, and cars for sharing with the mileages in the elec-
tric driving mode accounting for 40–60% of the total mileage in the electric driving
mode are dominated.
From the distribution of PHEV passenger cars with different average single-trip
travel duration in the electric driving mode in cities of different tiers (Fig. 8.20), it can
be seen that vehicles with average single-trip travel duration in the electric driving
mode ranging from 0.5 to 1 h in first-tier cities account for a large proportion, i.e.,
8.3 Operation Characteristics of PHEVs 325
45.0 45.6 40.6
37.6
7.0 8.0
2.1 3.5
48.0 46.4
57.3 58.9
0
20
40
60
80
100
Private Car E-taxi Taxi Car for Sharing
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Average daily mileage in electric driving mode
Average daily mileage in fuel-powered driving mode
Average daily mileage in hybrid driving mode
Fig. 8.18 Proportion of average daily mileage of PHEV passenger cars in different driving modes
in 2021
0
10
20
30
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Proportion of mileage in electric driving mode
Private Car E-taxi Taxi Car for Sharing
Fig. 8.19 Distribution of PHEV passenger cars with different mileages in the electric driving mode
in different scenarios in 2021
326 8 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 0.5 0.5 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 Above 2
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Average single-trip travel duration in electric driving mode
First-tier Cities Second-tier Cities Third-tier Cities Fourth-tier Cities Fifth-tier Cities
Fig. 8.20 Distribution of PHEV passenger cars with average single-trip travel duration in cities of
different tiers in 2021
51.92%, which is affected by urban area and traffic conditions; The average single-
trip travel duration in the electric driving mode in other tiers of cities is 0.5 h, and
the PHEVs with such average single- trip travel duration in the electric driving mode
account for over 50%.
8.4 PHEV Charging Characteristics
In the field of passenger cars, in the Chapter—Vehicle Charging, a detailed compar-
ative analysis of the charging characteristics of PHEV private cars and EV private
cars has been made. This Chapter will compare the charging characteristics of private
cars, e-taxis, taxis, and cars for sharing based on different application scenarios of
passenger cars.
8.4.1 Average Single-Time Charging Characteristics
The average single-time charging duration of PHEV passenger cars has been
about 3.0 h over the years.
The average single-time charging duration of PHEV passenger cars has remained
stable over the years, and in the past three years, the average single-time charging
8.4 PHEV Charging Characteristics 327
3.4
3.2
3.7
3.3
3.1
2.8
3.3
3.1
3.1
2.7
3.2
2.9
0
1
2
3
4
Private Car E-taxi Taxi Car for Sharing
Average Charging Duration/h
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 8.21 Average single-time charging duration of classified PHEV passenger cars over the years
time has been about 3.0 h. As seen from the average single-time charging duration of
different types of PHEVs over the years (Fig. 8.21), the average single-time charging
duration of each type of vehicle has shown an overall downward trend in the past
two years. From the average single-time charging duration of all types of PHEVs in
2021, the average charging duration of private cars is mostly 3.1 h, the same as that
of the previous year. The average single-time charging durations of e-taxis and cars
for sharing are relatively short, 2.7 h and 2.9 h, respectively.
From the perspective of vehicle charging methods (Fig. 8.22), the fast charging
duration of each type of PHEV is mostly less than 0.5 h, and the slow charging
duration is about 3.0 h; From the perspective of the fast charging duration of all
types of PHEVs, the fast charging duration of cars for sharing is slightly lower than
that of other types of vehicles, and the slow charging duration of e-taxis is relatively
low.
As seen from the proportion of PHEVs with different average charging durations
(Fig. 8.23), compared with other types of PHEVs, e-taxis with an average single-
time driving duration of 2–3 h have the highest proportion, reaching 36.79%, and the
average single-time charging duration of PHEVs shows obvious aggregation; The
proportion of cars for sharing with different average single-time charging durations
is relatively flat.
In 2021, the average single-time initial SOC of PHEV passenger cars was 29.8%
at the beginning of charging, and the average initial SOC was 85.5% at the end.
Compared to other types of vehicles, the average initial SOC at the beginning and
end of charging private cars was higher than that of other vehicles (Fig. 8.24).
From the distribution of initial SOC of charging in different segments (Fig. 8.25),
e-taxis, taxis, and cars for sharing account for 10–20% and 20–30% of the PHEVs in
charging initial SOC segments, all of which exceed 30%; The proportion of private
328 8 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
0.4 0.5 0.4 0.2
3.1
2.8
3.2 3.2
0
1
2
3
4
Private Car E-taxi Taxi Car for Sharing
Average Charging Duration/h
Fast Charging Slow Charging
Fig. 8.22 Average single-time charging duration of PHEV passenger cars in different charging
modes in 2021
0
10
20
30
40
0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 Above 8
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Average Charging Duration/h
Private Car E-taxi Taxi Car for Sharing
Fig. 8.23 Proportion of PHEV passenger cars with different average single-time charging durations
in 2021—by type
cars in the PHEVs in two average single-time charging initial SOC segments is signif-
icantly lower than that of other types of vehicles, while the proportion of PHEVs in
the charging initial SOC segments of 30–40%, 40–50%, and 50–60% was signifi-
cantly higher than that of other types of vehicles. The phenomenon of private cars
charging on demand is more obvious.
8.4 PHEV Charging Characteristics 329
30.1
22.1 24.4 23.5
86.1 82.9 83.5
79.5
0
20
40
60
80
100
Private Car E-taxi Taxi Car for Sharing
SOC %
Average initial SOC of charging Average end SOC of charging
Fig. 8.24 Distribution of PHEV passenger cars with average single-time charging SOC in 2021—
by type
0
10
20
30
40
0 10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 60 70 70 80 80 90 90 100
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Average single-time initial SOC of charging (%)
Private Car E-taxi Taxi Car for Sharing
Fig. 8.25 Distribution of PHEV passenger cars with average single-time initial SOC of charging
in 2021—by type
The distribution of PHEVs in different charging end SOC segments (Fig. 8.26)
shows that the distribution of private cars in the 90–100% charging end SOC segment
was significantly higher than that of other types of vehicles, accounting for 63.4%.
330 8 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 60 70 70 80 80 90 90 100
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Average single-time end SOC of charging (%)
Private Car E-taxi Taxi Car for Sharing
Fig. 8.26 Distribution of PHEV passenger cars with average single-time end SOC of charging in
2021—by type
8.4.2 Monthly Average Charging Characteristics
The average monthly charging frequency of PHEV passenger cars in 2021 was
slightly higher than that in 2020.
The average monthly charging frequency of PHEV passenger cars in 2021 was
7.5, with an increase of 4.9% compared with 2020. Due to the gradual regularity
of vehicle operation after the normalization of epidemic prevention and control, the
charging frequency shows an upward trend (Table 8.4).
Figure 8.27 shows that the average monthly charging frequency of e-taxis is
significantly higher than that of other types of vehicles. In 2021, the average monthly
charging frequency of e-taxis reached 15.1; the average monthly charging frequency
of private cars was relatively low, mostly about 6.
The slow charging method is often suitable for PHEV passenger cars.
In 2021, PHEV passenger cars’ average monthly fast and slow charging frequen-
cies were 1.6 and 6.0, respectively. More PHEV passenger cars are slowly charged.
Judging from the charging methods of different types of PHEV passenger cars
(Fig. 8.28), the charging frequency of e-taxis was higher, and the average monthly fast
and slow charging frequencies were 4.7 and 10.4 respectively. e-taxis has a slightly
Table 8.4 Monthly average charging frequency of PHEV passenger cars
Year 2019 2020 2021
Monthly average charging frequency of PHEV passenger cars (times) 6.2 7.2 7.5
8.4 PHEV Charging Characteristics 331
5.5
11.4
6.0 5.1
6.3
14.9
7.1
5.8
6.4
15.1
7.8
6.1
0
5
10
15
20
Private Car E-taxi Taxi Car for Sharing
Monthly Average Charging Frequency (times)
2019 2020 2021
Fig. 8.27 Monthly average charging frequency of PHEV passenger cars over the years—by type
1.0
4.7
1.9 1.6
5.5
10.4
6.0
4.5
0
4
8
12
Private Car E-taxi Taxi Car for Sharing
Monthly Average Charging Frequency (times)
Fast Charging Slow Charging
Fig. 8.28 Average monthly charging frequency of PHEV passenger cars in different charging
modes in 2021
higher average monthly charging frequency than other types of vehicles due to the
temporary power supply demand.
As seen from the distribution of vehicles in different monthly average charging
frequency segments (Fig. 8.29), the average monthly charging frequency of private
332 8 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
0
20
40
60
80
0 5 5 10 10 15 15 20
Vehicle Proportion (%)
Monthly Average Charging Frequency (times)
Private Car E-taxi Taxi Car for Sharing
Fig. 8.29 Proportion of PHEV passenger cars with different average monthly charging frequencies
in 2021—by type
cars was less than 5 times, and private cars, taxis, and cars for sharing with an
average monthly charging frequency of less than 5 times accounted for over 60%;
The average monthly charging frequency of e-taxis was maximum, and the vehicles
with an average monthly charging frequency of more than 20 times accounted for
36.4%, significantly higher than other types of vehicles.
As seen from the distribution of monthly charging frequencies of PHEV passenger
cars in different cities (Fig. 8.30), the charging frequencies in December, January,
and February in Beijing were significantly lower than those in other months because
the temperature in winter is low, the battery performance is reduced, and the mileage
in the electric driving mode is reduced. To alleviate mileage anxiety, users use the
electric drive mode less often. Since the temperature difference in Guangzhou is
relatively small throughout the year, the battery performance is less affected by
temperature, and the monthly average driving power consumption is relatively stable,
the charging frequency is relatively stable.
From the distribution of monthly charging frequencies of PHEV SUVs in different
cities (Fig. 8.31), PHEV SUVs’ average monthly charging frequency in Beijing was
10.6, while the average monthly charging frequency in Guangzhou was 10.0. There is
no significant difference in the average monthly charging frequency between Beijing
and Guangzhou because the main promotion model in Beijing is the Li ONE with
high battery capacity.
8.4 PHEV Charging Characteristics 333
5.5
6.9
8.9 8.6
10.9
9.2
8.7
8.3
10.9
8.6
9.9
6.9
5.9
5.2
6.3
7.7
6.8
5.7 5.8 5.7
6.2 6.2
7.1
7.9
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
January February March April May June July August September October November December
Monthly Average Charging Frequency (times)
Beijing Guangzhou
Fig. 8.30 Average monthly charging frequencies of PHEV passenger cars in 2021—cars
10.4
9.2
11.1
10.5 10.6 10.8
10.3
9.2
11.3
10.7
11.2
11.8
9.8
8.4
10.9 10.6 10.4
9.6 9.8
8.6
10.5
9.9
10.9 11.0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Monthly Average Charging Frequency (times)
Beijing Guangzhou
Fig. 8.31 Average monthly charging frequencies of PHEV passenger cars in 2021—SUVs
334 8 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
8.5 Summary
At present, new energy vehicles have become an important strategic path to accel-
erate China’s automobile industry towards carbon peaking and carbon neutrality,
and PHEVs play an important role in achieving rapid replacement of fuel models in
the automotive industry in the short to medium term, and promoting energy conser-
vation and carbon reduction in the automotive industry as soon as possible. Based
on the access characteristics, vehicle operation characteristics, and vehicle charging
characteristics of PHEVs on the National Monitoring and Management Platform, the
market characteristics, vehicle operation laws, and charging laws of China’s rapidly
growing demand for PHEVs were summarized in this report. The main research
results are described as follows:
PHEVs in China are gradually shifting from a supply-side drive to a supply-
and-demand drive, and the domestic market maintained a high growth demand
trend in 2021. PHEVs can meet the diverse application scenarios of consumers and
have a certain market demand space. The supply of domestic brand models has
diversified with the breakthrough of various technologies in the field of PHEVs by
vehicle manufacturers. In 2021, the sales of PHEVs s howed a rapid growth trend,
reaching 603,000 throughout the year, with a year-on-year increase of 7.6 times, and
the market demand has rapidly released.
The degree of marketization of PHEVs has significantly improved, with
private purchases being the leading consumer force and demand gradually
releasing in lower-tier cities. From the perspective of the access characteristics
of PHEVs to the National Monitoring and Management Platform over the years,
personal purchases have become the absolute mainstay. The proportion of PHEV
private cars in the national PHEVs has increased from 85.1% in 2019 to 93.2% in
2021, with an increase of 8.1%, and the market share of private cars has rapidly
increased; From the perspective of cities subject to purchase restriction/cities not
subject to purchase restriction, the market demand for PHEVs is gradually shifting
to cities not subject to purchase restriction. In 2021, the market share of PHEVs
in cities not subject to purchase restriction was 53.6%, with an increase of 15.8%
compared with 2019; From the perspective of cities of different tiers, the market share
of PHEVs in the first-tier cities is gradually decreasing, and the market demand is
gradually releasing to lower-tier cities.
The usage rate of PHEVs is relatively high, and the vehicle online rate remains
high. The online rate of PHEVs remains at a high level, and the usage rate of PHEVs
is relatively high over the years. From the perspective of the mileage in the electric
driving mode, private cars and e-taxis have a relatively high proportion of average
daily mileage in the electric driving mode in the total average daily mileage, and the
utilization rate of the electric driving mode is high.
The charging duration of PHEVs is mostly stable, and their batteries are
often slowly charged. The average charging duration of PHEV passenger cars has
remained stable at around 3.0 h over the years, the slow charging method is often
used, and the fast charging duration remains at around 0.5 h; With the normalization
8.5 Summary 335
of epidemic prevention and control, vehicle operation is gradually becoming more
regular, and the charging frequency is showing an apparent upward trend; From the
perspective of average monthly charging frequencies of all types of vehicles, the
running mileage of e-taxis is longer, and the average monthly charging frequencies
of e-taxis are significantly higher than those of other types of vehicles.
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