Access to this full-text is provided by Springer Nature.
Content available from Smart Learning Environments
This content is subject to copyright. Terms and conditions apply.
Open Access
© The Author(s) 2024. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits
use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original
author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third
party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the mate-
rial. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or
exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
RESEARCH
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-024-00293-x
Smart Learning Environments
Navigating thedigital world: development
ofanevidence-based digital literacy program
andassessment tool foryouth
M. Claire Buchan1†, Jasmin Bhawra2† and Tarun Reddy Katapally3,4,5*
Abstract
The rapid expansion of digital connectivity has provided youth with wide-ranging
access to digital platforms for communication, entertainment, and education. In light
of this profound shift, there have been growing concerns about online safety, data pri-
vacy, and cybersecurity. A critical factor influencing the ability of youth to responsibly
navigate digital platforms is digital literacy. While digital literacy programs have been
implemented in various regions worldwide, significant disparities remain not only in
overall digital literacy levels, but also the assessment of digital literacy initiatives. To
address these challenges, an environmental scan and literature review were conducted
to identify existing digital literacy programs in Canada developed specifically for youth,
as well as digital literacy assessment tools, respectively. The search encompassed peer-
reviewed articles, organizational curricula, and assessment measures indexed in various
databases and organization websites. The environmental scan identified 15 programs
targeting key components of digital literacy such as data safety, cyberbullying, and dig-
ital media. The literature review identified 12 digital literacy assessment tools. Based
on the findings, data were synthesized from shortlisted programs and assessment tools
to inform the development of both a new digital literacy program and assessment
tool to complement the youth-focused program. The new program focuses on four
key components: (1) digital fluency, (2) digital privacy and safety, (3) ethics and empa-
thy, and (4) consumer awareness. A 15-item assessment tool was also developed
consisting of 4–5 questions specific to each program component. Given the growing
importance of digital competencies, a youth-focused program and assessment tool are
crucial for understanding and addressing digital literacy among this vulnerable cohort.
This program’s adaptability allows for customization across sociodemographic target
groups, including culturally diverse and geographically remote communities—an
aspect that has the potential to enhance digital literacy across settings. Implement-
ing digital literacy programs can better prepare youth for an increasingly digital world,
while minimizing potential risks associated with technology use.
Keywords: Digital literacy, Youth, Digital literacy assessment, Digital literacy program,
Data privacy, Data safety
†M. Claire Buchan and Jasmin
Bhawra contributed equally
to this work and share first
authorship.
*Correspondence:
tarun.katapally@uwo.ca
1 School of Public Health
Sciences, University of Waterloo,
Waterloo, ON, Canada
2 School of Occupational
and Public Health, Toronto
Metropolitan University, Toronto,
ON, Canada
3 DEPtH Lab, Faculty of Health
Sciences, Western University,
1151 Richmond St, London, ON
N6A 5B9, Canada
4 Department of Epidemiology
and Biostatistics, Schulich School
of Medicine and Dentistry,
Western University, London, ON,
Canada
5 Lawson Health Research
Institute, London, ON, Canada
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 2 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
Introduction
Digital connectivity has rapidly evolved in the past decade (Burr et al., 2020; Korte,
2020), and contributed to fundamental shifts in how people engage with each other,
find information, and access services (Bach etal., 2018). Of all the demographic groups,
youth have increasingly turned to technology and the internet as preferred tools for
communication, socialization, entertainment, and more recently, education (Bach etal.,
2018; Pandya & Lodha, 2021). From the use of social media applications to online gam-
ing and educational resources, digital technology has become an integral part of the
daily routines of many youth globally (Pérez-Escoda etal., 2020; e Lancet Child and
Adolescent Health, 2018).
Nevertheless, there are variations in digital platform use, and more importantly, digital
literacy levels among youth within and across countries (Bandura & Leal, 2022; Human
Rights Council, 2023). In Canada, these disparities are particularly pronounced, with
a national ‘digital divide’ resulting from stark cross-country differences in both digital
access and digital literacy levels (Aydin, 2021; Hadziristic, 2017). While it is true that
80–96% of Canadian youth aged 13–24years own or have access to smartphones (Ride-
out etal., 2022; Secretariat & Secretariat, n.d.; Vernon etal., 2018), certain factors such
as gender, education, and geographic location have a significant influence on the digital
skills of Canadian youth (Hadziristic, 2017), with some subgroups still demonstrating
significantly lower digital literacy skills than their peers, including Indigenous youth,
newcomers to Canada, youth living in poverty or in northern, rural, and remote com-
munities (Government of Canada, 2023).
Despite these disparities in connectivity, digital technology use by youth is grow-
ing globally (Graafland, 2018; Haddock etal., 2022; e Lancet Child and Adolescent
Health, 2018). In addition to recreational use (Joshi et al., 2019), online learning has
become increasingly common in countries such as Canada, particularly due to the Cor-
onavirus disease pandemic which led to widespread school closures and adoption of
remote learning among all levels of schooling in both urban (Quintana etal., 2020) and
rural jurisdictions (Kannan etal., 2022). Many jurisdictions have opted to continue offer-
ing some level of online learning in the post-pandemic era (LaBonte etal., 2021). e
National Center for Education Statistics reports that in the 2021–2022 school year, 33%
of schools continued to offer remote learning, and 10% offered hybrid models of instruc-
tion (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2022) that combined in-person and
online learning (LaBonte etal., 2021). While increased digital access improved quality of
life for many, it has also magnified concerns about online safety, data privacy, and cyber-
security (Government of Canada, 2016). Misinformation, identity theft, and cyberbully-
ing are among the numerous digital concerns which are particularly important among
vulnerable groups such as youth (Human Rights Council, 2023).
Research has shown that despite being early adopters of evolving technology (Had-
dock etal., 2022), youth often demonstrate limited critical thinking skills and low media
literacy, which can lead them to share information impulsively (Machete & Turpin, 2020;
Pérez-Escoda etal., 2020) and therefore make them vulnerable to online misinformation
(Nan etal., 2022). Privacy is another growing concern (Lupton, 2021), as personal infor-
mation can be collected, stored, and shared online often without their consent or knowl-
edge (Donelle etal., 2021), rendering youth vulnerable to identity theft, online fraud, and
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 3 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
other forms of online exploitation (Quayyum etal., 2021). Studies suggest that youth are
often unaware of who has access to their posted content and the permanence of their
digital footprint. Such oversight can not only impact their quality of life, but also lead to
the exploitation of their personal information (Donelle etal., 2021; van der Velden & El
Emam, 2013).
e ability to navigate the benefits and risks of digital connectivity largely hinges on
one key factor—digital literacy. Digital literacy is “the ability to access, manage, under-
stand, integrate, communicate, evaluate, and create information safely and appropriately
through digital technologies” (Law etal., 2018) and includes individuals’ ability to use
various digital devices and software (British Columbia Ministry of Education and Child
Care, 2022). Digital literacy has become a crucial skill for young people to navigate and
succeed in the increasingly technology-driven world, with these skills becoming increas-
ingly relevant in all environments, including school, recreation, home, and work (Gov-
ernment of Canada, 2023). Research shows a concerning trend of low digital literacy
among youth, particularly in areas with limited digital connectivity (i.e., remote areas)
(Bhawra etal., 2022; Schreurs etal., 2017). is warrants the need for dedicated digi-
tal literacy programs, both to aid learning and decision-making, as well as to mitigate
some of the prominent concerns associated with increased technology usage (Pérez-
Escoda etal., 2020). Several jurisdictions in Canada, particularly in urban centres or pri-
vate school boards, have begun implementing specific digital literacy curricula (British
Columbia Ministry of Education and Child Care, 2022; Government of Ontario, 2022;
Nova Scotia Ministry of Education and Early Childhood Development, 2022); however,
adoption of digital literacy programs is not mandatory across all school boards.
Given the importance of digital literacy, the United Nations Educational, Scientific,
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) led the development of a Digital Literacy Global
Framework which emphasized the role of digital literacy in achieving Sustainable Devel-
opment Goal (SDG) 4—Quality Education—which includes a specific indicator (4.4.2)
to measure the percentage of youth and adults who have achieved at least a minimum
level of proficiency in digital literacy skills (Law etal., 2018). UNESCO’s framework is
informed by global evidence on the core components of digital literacy and associated
evaluation criteria, which can serve as a foundation for the development of digital lit-
eracy curricula across jurisdictions (Law et al., 2018). e UNESCO framework and
persistent digital divide in countries such as Canada underscores the pressing need for
comprehensive digital literacy programs to address these disparities and empower youth
in the digital age.
us, this study aimed to develop a tailored digital literacy program for youth in Can-
ada, as well as a robust digital literacy assessment tool designed to evaluate the impact
of the newly developed program by measuring digital literacy before and after program
implementation. To inform the development of the program and assessment tool, an
environmental scan and literature review were conducted to explore the current land-
scape of digital literacy programs and assessment tools for youth in Canada. is work
was guided by the following research questions: (1) Based on an environmental scan of
peer-reviewed and grey literature, what digital literacy programs or frameworks have
been developed for youth in Canada? Specifically, (i) What are the core topic areas (e.g.,
data safety, cyberbullying) of digital literacy programs/frameworks? and (ii) Who is the
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 4 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
target audience for existing digital literacy programs/frameworks?; (2) Based on a litera-
ture review of peer-reviewed articles, what assessment tools and/or questionnaires have
been used to evaluate digital literacy levels? Specifically, (i) What digital literacy assess-
ment tools have been tailored for youth?
Methods
Environmental scan
An environmental scan was conducted to explore the current landscape of digital lit-
eracy programs for youth in Canada. is method allowed for the exploration of digi-
tal literacy programs in peer-reviewed publications as well as grey literature (Charlton
etal., 2019; Shahid & Turin, 2018). e environmental scan aimed to identify both peer-
reviewed journal articles of existing programs, as well as organizational reports or school
curricula describing programs or frameworks in Canada which aimed to improve digi-
tal literacy among youth. e environmental scan was conducted by searching for pro-
grams and frameworks in relevant databases (Aromataris & Riitano, 2014) including the
Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) database which focuses on education
research, as well as Google and Google Scholar to capture programs or curricula that
may not be published in peer-reviewed literature (i.e., from organizational websites).
Moreover, in order to hone in on previously developed curricula (Shahid & Turin, 2018),
specific organizational and school board websites within Canada were also searched.
Search terms used in the environmental scan included a combination of “Digital Liter-
acy”, “Program”, “Framework”, “Program development”, “Youth,” and “Canada.” e key
inclusion criteria for this scan included identification of programs which: discussed an
educational program or curriculum related to digital literacy; were developed for chil-
dren, youth, or adolescents; were developed or published in the last 6years (2018–2023);
were designed for implementation either in person or online; and were available in Eng-
lish. Exclusion criteria were documents: not published in English, not targeting youth
or adolescent populations, or not clearly describing digital literacy as a focus area for a
given program or curriculum.
Database search forpeer‑reviewed literature
A peer-reviewed literature review for existing digital literacy assessment tools was con-
ducted to determine how awareness and knowledge uptake from digital literacy pro-
grams were being assessed (Ahmed etal., 2016). e literature search aimed to identify
digital literacy assessment measures that could be used to assess digital literacy status
among youth (i.e., a reference point to identify changes in digital literacy pre/post pro-
gram or intervention participation). Peer-reviewed articles indexed in ERIC, MEDLINE,
and Google Scholar were explored (Aromataris & Riitano, 2014), as these databases
encompass articles across the domains of education research, life sciences, and other
academic literature, respectively. is search strategy enabled a comprehensive review
of digital literacy assessments tools that may have been developed or used across dis-
ciplines. Search terms used included a combination of “Digital Literacy”, “Digital quo-
tient”, “Digital citizenship”, “Measurement”, “Assessment”, and “Youth”. Relevant literature
cited within articles were also reviewed and shortlisted if they discussed an assessment
tool related to digital literacy and met general inclusion criteria (i.e., were developed or
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 5 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
modified for children, youth, or adolescents; were designed for implementation online;
and available in English).
Data extraction andsynthesis
Following best practices for data extraction and synthesis of literature (Cooper &
Hedges, 2009; Paré & Kitsiou, 2017), titles and abstracts of articles identified through the
environmental scan (describing digital literacy programs) and peer-reviewed literature
search (for digital literacy assessment tools) were screened for relevance based on the
core inclusion and exclusion criteria. For articles identified within ERIC and MEDLINE
databases, potentially relevant articles were downloaded to the referencing software,
Mendeley, where duplicate records were removed. Similarly, titles and abstracts were
screened in Google and Google Scholar, however given the large number of hits gener-
ated by the search engines, only potentially relevant articles, reports, and curricula doc-
uments were downloaded to Mendeley for review based on screening of titles, abstracts,
and/or executive summaries against our inclusion criteria. One author screened the
identified records (MCB) and removed irrelevant literature according to the inclusion
and exclusion criteria. A second reviewer (JB) validated included records for content,
scope, and relevance (Waffenschmidt etal., 2019). A data abstraction form was designed
in Excel, and two researchers (MCB, JB) extracted the data of included records (Cooper
& Hedges, 2009; Paré & Kitsiou, 2017; Waffenschmidt etal., 2019). Discrepancies were
resolved through discussion among the researchers.
Eligible data from all identified digital literacy programs and assessment tools meeting
the inclusion criteria were synthesized (Cooper & Hedges, 2009; Paré & Kitsiou, 2017)
and are presented in Table1. Data on the general characteristics of the included stud-
ies included program name, a brief description of the organization and/or program, key
program components, and program location. Data from all identified assessment tools
for digital literacy are summarized in Table2. Summary data of the assessment tools
included year of publication, location where the tool was developed, age of target pop-
ulation, the goal of the assessment, key indicators assessed, whether the assessment is
skills based or questionnaire based, and length of the assessment (Paré & Kitsiou, 2017;
Petticrew & Roberts, 2006).
Digital literacy program andassessment tool development
Findings from the environmental scan were synthesized and analyzed (by MCB, JB, TRK)
to create a new digital literacy program tailored for youth (Petticrew & Roberts, 2006).
Key themes and topic areas identified through the environmental scan were shortlisted
to inform the development of a new program. Topic areas that were considered core dig-
ital literacy components in peer-reviewed literature, theoretical frameworks such as the
UNESCO Digital Literacy Global Framework (Law etal., 2018), or those described in the
majority of shortlisted programs were included in the newly developed program. Topic
areas were grouped by theme and consolidated to create the final list of program com-
ponents. Specific learning objectives were developed for each component, taking into
consideration our target population (i.e., youth) (Chatterjee & Corral, 2017). e newly
developed digital literacy program is evidence-based with topic areas and components
selected from seminal work in digital literacy and digital literacy education (British
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 6 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
Columbia Ministry of Education and Child Care, 2022; Law etal., 2018). e program
was designed to capture a breadth of information across each of the seven competen-
cies described in the Digital Literacy Global Framework (i.e., fundamentals of hardware
and software; information and data literacy; communication and collaboration; digital
content creation; safety; problem solving; and career-related competences) (Law etal.,
2018). As the primary audience for this curriculum is youth in Canada, content was
sourced from Canadian sources (e.g., Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada)
where possible (Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada, 2018).
Given that the purpose of the digital literacy assessment tool was to evaluate the pre/
post change in digital literacy following implementation of the newly developed pro-
gram, a new tool was developed (by MCB, JB, TRK) to assess various components of dig-
ital literacy identified in the program (Kishore etal., 2021). In our research process, we
sought to ensure the accuracy and relevance of our digital literacy assessment by con-
sulting previously validated measures of digital literacy (Lazonder etal., 2020; Perdana
etal., 2019; Saxena etal., 2018). ese established measures served as valuable guides in
the formulation of questions tailored to address the key topics covered in our digital lit-
eracy program (Kishore etal., 2021). To accurately gauge the impact of our program on
participants’ digital literacy levels, we adopted a comprehensive approach, developing at
least one question within our assessment tool for each subtopic and skill area included in
our program (Kishore etal., 2021). is assessment tool will therefore enable evaluation
of the effectiveness of our program and enable specific areas of program improvement.
Results
Summary ofdigital literacy programs
A total of 13 relevant digital literacy frameworks, programs, and organizations were
identified through the environmental scan (Table1). We classified the identified frame-
works, programs, and organizations into 6 broad categories: (A) school-based digital lit-
eracy and coding courses (n = 3), which included formal coding, engineering design, and
applied design and technologies courses and/or curricula that are integrated into the
mathematics and science curricula; (B) school-based digital literacy workshops (n = 5),
where programming for students is provided in the school setting by third party organ-
izations; (C) teacher education/training models (n = 4), where teachers receive formal
training and subsequently serve as facilitators or digital literacy lessons are co-taught
with digitally-savvy teachers; (D) structured lesson plans and educational resources
(n = 8), where parents and teachers are provided lesson plans or outlines, differentiation
strategies, and implementation tips that can be used to educate youth about digital liter-
acy concepts; (E) full-time bootcamp programs (n = 3), where individuals of any age can
participate in intensive and accelerated learning programs at varying skill levels; and (F)
part-time extracurricular programs (n = 4), where individuals of any age can participate
in before/after school and weekend programs, camps during school breaks, or drop-in
programming. Programs may fall under more than one category depending on the types
of programming offered by each organization. Among the 13 identified programs, 8
were Canada-wide, 2 were developed and delivered in Ontario, and 1 in each Manitoba,
British Columbia, and Nova Scotia.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 7 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
Table 1 Youth-focused digital literacy programs and frameworks
Program and/or organization name Type of program Description Key components Location
Formal education system
BC Ministry of Education and Child
Care: Digital Literacy Framework (British
Columbia Ministry of Education and Child
Care, 2022)
School-based digital literacy and coding
courses
Structured lesson plans and educational
resources
A digital literacy framework to help educators
integrate technology and digital literacy-related
activities into their classroom practice
The framework provides some basis for the
development of assessment tools for the digital
literacy competencies
Research and information literacy
Critical thinking, problem solving, and
decision making
Creativity and innovation
Digital citizenship
Communication and collaboration
Technology operations and concepts
British Columbia,
Canada
Nova Scotia Ministry of Education and
Early Childhood Development: Technol-
ogy Education (Nova Scotia Ministry of
Education and Early Childhood Develop-
ment, 2022)
School-based digital literacy and coding
courses The Nova Scotia government has developed
a Technology education course to provide
students hands-on design problem-solving skills
The course is designed to teach students to use
a range of technological tools, processes, and
applications; integrate technology education
with other academic disciplines; design and cre-
ate devices and objects that solve technological
problems; and explain the consequences of
technology and how it affects society
Exploring technology
Communications technology
Design
Production technology
Communications technology
Computer programming
Nova Scotia,
Canada
Government of Ontario: STEM Skills and
Connections (Government of Ontario,
2022)
School-based digital literacy and coding
courses The Ontario government introduced a new
science and technology curriculum and de-
streaming the Grade 9 science course
The new STEM programming includes
mandatory learning on coding, data literacy,
mathematical modeling, and an emphasis on
financial literacy
Coding
Engineering design process
Algorithms
Data input, storage, processing, and
output
Project management and program
design
Controlling large systems in action
Robotics
Ontario, Canada
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 8 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
Table 1 (continued)
Program and/or organization name Type of program Description Key components Location
Informal education system
Toronto Public Library (Toronto Public
Library, 2022)Part-time extracurricular programs The Toronto Public Library provides free pro-
grams and classes as well as access to comput-
ers and equipment for all age groups
Programming includes technology talks, hands-
on coding workshops and other classes for a
wide range of interests
3d printing
3d design
Audio recording and editing
Coding
Image editing (e.g., adobe photoshop)
Robotics
Sewing (at fabrication studio)
Video recording and editing
Ontario, Canada
CoderDojo program (Kelly et al., 2023) Part-time extracurricular programs Coding clubs for children and youth to stimu-
late digital capacity and adoption among rural
young people administered by three branches
of the Western Manitoba Regional Library
The CoderDojo program incorporates a ‘belt’
system corresponding to beginner, intermedi-
ate, and advanced ‘Scratch’ skills
Scratch
Raspberry Pi Pico
Python
Unity
Web (HTML, CSS, animations)
Manitoba, Canada
Let’s Talk Science (Let’s Talk Science, 2022) School-based digital literacy workshops
Teacher education/training models
Structured lesson plans and educational
resources
Programs and resources for educators to
improve youth education and engagement in
STEM
Programming is available at no cost to schools,
early education centres, community organiza-
tions, and parents/caregivers
Programming includes Career profiles in STEM,
hands-on activities exploring STEM concepts,
lesson plans for educators, interactive resources
(activities, eBooks, videos), national STEM pro-
jects using real-world data
Cybersecurity
Coding
Artificial intelligence
Robotics
Data privacy
Canada
Kids Code Jeunesse (Kids Code Jeunesse,
2022)School-based digital literacy workshops
Teacher education/training models
Structured lesson plans and educational
resources
Programs that provide access to digital skills
education, with a focus on girls and under-
served communities
Programming includes online training for
educators, code in the classroom workshops for
educators and students, code clubs for youth,
online resources for parents and youth
Artificial intelligence
JavaScript
Scratch
Micro:bit
Python
Canada
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 9 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
Table 1 (continued)
Program and/or organization name Type of program Description Key components Location
Canada Learning Code (CLC) (Canada
Learning Code, 2022)School-based digital literacy workshops
Teacher education/training models
Structured lesson plans and educational
resources
Programs that provide digital literacy education
and working to equip people living in Canada
with technical skills
1-day and multi-day workshops for students
7-week program for adults
March Break and Summer Camps
Code Mobile, a traveling computer lab on
wheels
Basic digital skills
Coding
Robotics
HTML/CSS
JavaScript
Ruby on rails
Python
Graphic design
Introductions to artificial intelligence
Introductions to blockchain
Canada
Pinnguaq (Pinnguaq, 2019) School-based digital literacy workshops
Teacher education/training models
Structured lesson plans and educational
resources
Full-time bootcamp programs
Programs designed to support the develop-
ment of STEAM skills through innovative
technology, art, and play
Programming includes Free in-person and
remote digital skills workshops, camps, and
online programs for learners of all ages
App development
Art and design
Computational thinking
Computer fundamentals
Digital storytelling
Engineering
Game design
Online safety
Root and stem
Sound design
Video production
Canada
Boys and Girls Clubs of Canada: Kid Tech
Nation (Boys and Girls Club, 2022)Full-time bootcamp programs
Part-time extracurricular programs Program teaching youth digital skills in a fun,
beginner-friendly, and collaborative environ-
ment
The program focuses on engaging young
people that are typically underrepresented in
STEM fields (i.e., girls, racialized and Indigenous
children, and children from newcomer families)
Programming includes youth mentorship, digi-
tal literacy skill development, and coding
Digital skills
Coding concepts
Internet safety
Computational thinking
Canada
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 10 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
Table 1 (continued)
Program and/or organization name Type of program Description Key components Location
Actua: STEM programming (Actua, 2022) Structured lesson plans and educational
resources
Full-time bootcamp programs
Part-time extracurricular programs
A network of 35 university and college
members that deliver coding and digital skills
programming
Programming includes school workshops, sum-
mer camps, after-school programs, year-round
clubs, and community outreach initiatives for
youth in Grades K–12 in every Canadian prov-
ince and territory
App creation
Robotics
Artificial intelligence
Big data
Canada
Media Smarts: A Day in the Life of the Jos
(Maqsood & Chiasson, 2021)Structured lesson plans and educational
resources A classroom-based cybersecurity, privacy, and
digital literacy game for elementary school
students
Cyberbullying
Data privacy
Online reputation
Privacy and ethics
Verifying the veracity of information
online
Canada
Online learning
Media Smarts: Use, Understand, Create
(Media Smarts, 2022)School-based digital literacy workshops
Structured lesson plans and educational
resources
A framework developed for teaching digital
media literacy in Canadian schools
Provides teachers with supporting lessons and
interactive resources that are linked to curricu-
lum outcomes for every province and territory
Ethics and empathy
Privacy and security
Community engagement
Digital health
Consumer awareness
Finding and verifying
Making and remixing
Canada
This table summarizes youth-focused digital literacy programs and frameworks across Canada. Programs noted under ‘formal education system’ refers to those oered in school settings, ‘informal education system’ refers
to other organizational setting such as community centers or non-prot organizations, and online learning refers to programs administered and accessed electronically (i.e., via digital devices such as computers and
smartphones)
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 11 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
A summary of key program components is presented in Table1. Substantial overlap
was found in the topics addressed across identified programs. Topics included: introduc-
tion to computers, ethics and empathy, cybersecurity, data privacy, data literacy, com-
munity engagement, digital health, consumer awareness, digital media and arts, and
Table 2 Digital literacy program overview
Component Learning objectives Subcomponents
Digital fluency Ability to search in a systematic way for informa-
tion specified in a web search query
Ability to recognize and authenticate sources and
information online
Understand what apps are and how they can be
used to achieve/complete goals and tasks
Understand the difference between hardware and
software and how they work together
Understand what is considered data and where to
appropriately store data
Searching and processing
Authenticating information
Apps
Computing
Data
Data backups
Data storage
Digital security and privacy Understands the concept of privacy in their every-
day lives, and as it relates to using the Internet
Awareness that many websites ask for information
that is private and has the ability to responsibly
handle such requests
Knowledge how to identify secure sites by looking
for privacy policies
Knowledge of how and where to appropriately
back up information
Understands the reasons why people use pass-
words, the benefits of using passwords, and knows
strategies for creating and keeping strong, secure
passwords
Understands data collection techniques
Knowledge of digital worms/viruses and strategies
to avoid them
Knows strategies for guarding against identity
theft and scams that try to access his/her private
information online
Data sovereignty
Data sharing
Cookies
Privacy and security
Passwords
Digital viruses
Identity theft
Data collection
Ethics and empathy Understands the concepts of ethical behaviour and
online ethics
Understands their responsibility to protect the
privacy of themselves and others when sharing
information online, and how it relates to data
sovereignty
Understands that the information they put online
leaves a digital footprint
Understands what cyberbullying means and what
they can do when they encounter it
Understands the concept of having ownership
over creative work and respecting the creative
work of others
Understands the importance of citing all sources
when they do research
Understands the concept of plagiarism, and when
and how it is okay to use the work of others
Digital identity
Digital awareness
Copyright and plagiarism
Harassment and cyberbullying
Consumer awareness Knowledge of online spam, the forms it can take,
and how to identify strategies for dealing with it
Reading and understanding the implications of
website Terms of Service and privacy policies
Understands that the purpose of product websites
is to encourage buying the product and is aware of
methods used to promote products on these sites
Understands the ways websites and companies
collect data online and utilize it to personalize con-
tent for their users, as well as consider companies’
motives in doing so
Phishing
Terms of service
Digital advertising
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 12 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
artificial intelligence (AI). Our team thoroughly reviewed key components of previously
developed programs and determined which elements were relevant for the development
of the current digital literacy program for youth.
Development ofatailored digital literacy program
Key program components were identified through the environmental scan. Four key
topic areas were selected given the number of times they were mentioned in other
programs and their importance to overall digital literacy for youth. e four key pro-
gram components include: (1) digital fluency, (2) digital privacy and safety, (3) ethics
and empathy, and (4) consumer awareness. Each component addresses several relevant
subcomponents. e learning objectives for this program were adapted from the Digi-
tal Literacy Framework for Grades 10–12 developed by the Ministry of Education and
Child Care of British Columbia (British Columbia Ministry of Education and Child Care,
2022). An overview of each program component’s learning objectives and subcompo-
nents is presented in Table2.
e digital fluency component aims to provide youth with the skills needed to search
and authenticate information online, understand and operate applications, and the
basics of computers, data, and data storage. e digital privacy and safety component
of this program educates youth about the concept of privacy in their everyday lives and
how it relates to using the Internet, the importance of passwords, digital viruses, and
Fig. 1 Example of modifiable in-class activities included in the program
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 13 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
identity theft. e ethics and empathy component of the program educates youth about
digital citizenship, including their digital identity, digital awareness, and cyberbullying.
e ethics and empathy topic also addresses copyright and plagiarism on the internet.
e consumer awareness component aims to ensure that youth understand their rights
as consumers and how their information is being tracked and shared.
e program has been developed for both paper-based as well as online delivery. e
program has also been developed to adapt to various target audiences and geographic
locations across Canada (e.g., urban youth, remote Indigenous communities, etc.). e
adaptability of the program is primarily through the use of modifiable in-class activities
(Fig.1). Areas throughout the program where real-world examples would be useful to
contextualize the information for learners are highlighted(Animikii, 2019). Preliminary
examples are provided in the program; however, educators and program coordinators
are encouraged to adapt the examples to fit their context and target audience. e full
curriculum can be found in the Additional file1.
Digital literacy assessment tools
A total of 103 articles in MEDLINE and ERIC were identified after removing dupli-
cates, as well as 10,000+ hits in Google Scholar which were reviewed against the
inclusion/exclusion criteria as described in the “Methods” section. A total of 18
results across all databases/search engines met the inclusion criteria. Four of the
identified digital literacy assessment tools utilized complex software to assess digital
literacy and computer skills. e remaining 15 assessment tools measured digital lit-
eracy through the use of self-reported questionnaires. A summary of the relevant dig-
ital literacy assessment tools is presented in Table3. While publication years ranged
from 2006 to 2023, most articles reviewed were published between 2018 and 2020.
While each tool evaluated its own distinct set of indicators, several indicators were
commonly found across assessment tools. ese indicators included: searching and
processing, evaluating digital information, communication using technology, knowl-
edge and understanding of computers and technology, digital safety, and attitudes
towards digital literacy.
Development ofadigital literacy assessment tool
Findings from the environmental scan were used to develop a digital literacy assess-
ment tool to assess change in digital literacy following completion of this program
(pre vs. post program implementation. Indicators identified among previously vali-
dated measures of digital literacy were used to guide the development of questions
specific to the key digital literacy topics covered in the program. A 15-item assess-
ment tool consisting 4–5 questions specific to each module in the program was
developed. Topics assessed from each module included: (1) Digital fluency: search-
ing and processing, authenticating information, computing, and the cloud; (2) Digi-
tal security and privacy: data sharing, passwords, data collection, digital viruses, and
identity theft; (3) Ethics and empathy: digital identity, harassment and cyberbul-
lying, copyright, and plagiarizing; (4) Consumer awareness: phishing, terms of ser-
vice, and digital advertising. In addition to module-specific questions, a brief baseline
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 14 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
Table 3 Digital literacy assessment measures
Measure Year Country Population Purpose Indicators Type of test Length(items, time)
iSkills Assessment (Katz, 2007) 2007 United
States
Young adults To measure students’ ability to
navigate, critically evaluate and
make sense of the wealth of infor-
mation available through digital
technology
Define
Access
Evaluate
Manage
Integrate
Create
Communicate
Skill-based test 15 tasks, 75 min
ACTS21 Assessment (Griffin et al.,
2012)
2012 Australia
Finland
Singapore
USA
Costa Rica
Netherlands
Adolescents To evaluate the skills of students
in the twenty-first century and
to introduce the learning in the
curricula
Knowledge
Skills
Attitudes
Values
Ethics
Skill-based test NR, NR
TEL Assessment (US Department
of Education, 2018)
2018 United
States
Adolescents To assess technological literacy
knowledge and skills that identi-
fies the understandings and appli-
cations of technology principles
that are important for all students
Technology and society
Design and systems
Information and communication
technology
Skill-based test NR, 60 min
International Computer and
Information Literacy Study (ICILS)
Assessment (Fraillon et al., 2019)
2019 United
States
Adolescents To investigate, in a range of coun-
tries, the ways in which young
people are developing computer
and information literacy to sup-
port their capacity to participate in
the digital age
Understanding computer use
Gathering information
Producing information
Digital communication
Attitudes towards information and com-
munication technologies
Skill-based
test + Question-
naire
NR, 80 min
Nicholas and Ng (2019) 2019 Australia Adolescents To investigate Australian students’
perceptions of their ability to use
mobile technology for learning
and everyday activities
Social emotional
Cognitive: Understanding multimodality
Cognitive: Assess and apply
Technical skills
Questionnaire 26 items, NR
Lazonder et al. (2020) 2020 Netherlands Children To assess how children’s skills to
collect, create, transform, and
safely use digital information
progressed
Operating browsers and search engines
Using keywords and queries
Evaluating information
Safe and secure use of online informa-
tion
Questionnaire 16 items, NR
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 15 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
Table 3 (continued)
Measure Year Country Population Purpose Indicators Type of test Length(items, time)
Saxena et al. (2018) 2018 India Young adults To assess the digital literacy and
smartphone usage amongst den-
tal students including their perspi-
cacity about smartphone/internet
usage for learning purposes
Smartphone/internet usage
Assessment of digital literacy
Students’ attitudes towards implemen-
tation of e-technology in the dental
curriculum
Questionnaire NR, NR
Hatlevik et al. (2017) 2017 Norway Adults (teachers) To examine the relationship
between teacher’s self-efficacy,
strategic use of information,
digital competence, and use of
information and communication
technologies
Self-efficacy in basic information and
communication technologies
Self-efficacy in online collaboration
Strategies to evaluate information
Use of information and communication
technologies
Digital competence
Questionnaire 26 items, NR
Information and communication
technologies (ICT) literacy scale
(Hatlevik, 2017)
2017 Norway Adolescents To assess the overall measure-
ment invariance and potential
differential item functioning of an
information and communication
technologies literacy measure
across gender
Searching and processing
Producing
Communicating
Evaluating digital information
Questionnaire 14 items, NR
Nguyen and Habók (2020) 2020 Vietnam Young adults To assess students’ digital knowl-
edge and their perceived skills,
their attitudes toward the use
of digital technologies, and the
frequency of use of technology
applications in English learning
Searching and evaluating information
Creating
Communicating
Collaborating
E-safety
Questionnaire 5 sections, NR
Perdana et al. (2019) 2019 Indonesia Adolescents To measure students’ digital
literacy skills and prove whether
there were differences in student
skills based on education levels
Knowledge
Assembly
Content evaluation
Internet searching
Hyper textual navigation
Questionnaire 10 items, 60 min
Jin et al. (2020) 2020 China Children and adolescents The development of an assess-
ment suitable for measuring DL
at primary and secondary school
levels
Information and data literacy
Communication and collaboration
Digital content creation
Digital safety
Problem solving
Questionnaire 80 items, 50 min
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 16 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
Table 3 (continued)
Measure Year Country Population Purpose Indicators Type of test Length(items, time)
Screenshots program evaluation
(Bickham et al., 2021)
2021 United
States
Children To evaluate the Screenshots
program in increasing participants’
knowledge about key concepts of
digital citizenship and in shifting
beliefs and intended behaviors
to align with prosocial and safe
online interactions
Curriculum knowledge
Online bullying
Online citizenship beliefs
Online citizenship behaviour
Conflict resolution
Responsiveness and relevance
Questionnaire 43 items, 20 min
Youth Digital Citizenship Scale
(Kim & Choi, 2018)
2018 Korea Adults (teachers) To evaluate digital citizenship
among adolescents from their
teachers perspective
Self-identity
Activity in online
Fluency for digital environment
Ethics for digital environment
Questionnaire 18 items, NR
Security, privacy, and digital liter-
acy knowledge measure (SPDLK)
(Maqsood & Chiasson, 2021)
2021 Canada Children To assess cybersecurity, privacy,
and digital literacy knowledge
pre- and post-participation in the
"A Day in the life of Jos" digital
literacy program
Cybersecurity
Privacy
Digital literacy
Questionnaire 15 items, 15 min
Digital Citizenship Scale (DCS)
(Choi et al., 2017)
2017 United
States
Adults To measure abilities, perceptions,
and levels of participation of
young adults in Internet based
community
Internet political activism
Technical skills
Local/global awareness
Critical perspective
Networking agency
Questionnaire 26 items, NR
Be Internet Awesome Evaluation
(Jones et al., 2023)
2023 United
States
Children To assess the impact of the Be
Internet Awesome program for
youth (grades 4–6) on knowledge,
attitudes, and behaviors related to
improved safety online
Technology use
Knowledge of online safety concepts
Self-efficacy to handle online problems
Online privacy behaviors and attitudes
Online harassment
Help-seeking from adults for online
problems
Online civility behaviors
Questionnaire 27 items, 30–40 min
Evaluation of Digital Competence
for Compulsory Education Stu-
dents (ECODIES) (Casillas-Martín
et al., 2020)
2020 Spain Adolescents To assess the level of digital
competence through knowledge,
abilities, and attitudes among
compulsory education
students
Information
Communication
Content creation
Safety
Problem solving
Questionnaire 108 items, NR
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 17 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
questionnaire was included to gather information regarding youth demographics as
well as their internet access and usage, communication, and social networking pat-
terns. e final measure adapted version can be found in the Additional file1.
Discussion
Digital literacy has become increasingly important to navigate the complexities of a digi-
tal world, particularly among youth, and can be considered an essential skill to func-
tion in the twenty-first century (Pérez-Escoda etal., 2020; Richardson etal., 2022). is
study aimed to create a digital literacy program tailored for youth in Canada, as well as
an assessment tool to enable evaluation of digital literacy levels pre- and post-program
implementation to identify existing competencies and disparities in digital literacy levels.
To date, there is no national program which has been adopted for diverse youth across
the country, which creates challenges for measurement and evaluation of digital literacy
levels over time. e focus on youth populations was deliberate, because although youth
are generally considered to possess a higher digital quotient (Keach, 2014), their depend-
ence on digital platforms for everyday tasks places them at potentially increased risk of
misinformation, identity theft, and cyberbullying (Silveira etal., 2022).
While general digital literacy skills programs are a necessary component of national
strategies (Medhurst etal., 2023), it is important to recognize that vulnerable subgroups
of youth may require targeted digital literacy programs that address key gaps or chal-
lenges in order to minimize inequities (Vassilakopoulou & Hustad, 2023). Similar suc-
cessful initiatives have been implemented in the United States (Drazich etal., 2021),
with a strong emphasis on the inclusion of low-income populations, as well as in Indo-
nesia, where digital literacy models have placed a specific focus on women who may be
at increased risk of gender bias, specifically in the workplace (Kusumawardani etal.,
2022). While access and use of the internet and digital tools by youth in the western
world is near universal (Donelle etal., 2021; Secretariat & Secretariat, n.d.; Żerebecki &
Opree, 2022), there are variations of digital literacy across jurisdictions and sociodemo-
graphic groups (Bandura & Leal, 2022; Hadziristic, 2017; Human Rights Council, 2023).
Acknowledging these variations, and taking a targeted approach to program design, we
focused on developing a digital literacy program to address current gaps in Canadian
digital literacy curricula.
Our study found a range of programs across Canada dedicated to improving digital
literacy among youth. e majority of these programs focused on equipping youth with
computer science and data science skills such as coding data analytics, and develop-
ment of AI in order to foster an understanding of the impact of technology on every-
day life. e practical, hands-on experience provided by many of these programs aims
to prepare students for careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
(STEM). While skills-based programs are critical for youth to navigate an increasingly
digital world, a key limitation of many of the existing programs appears to be the prior-
itization of technical skills over critical concepts related to acceptable online behavior,
such as ethics, data ownership, safety, and privacy. is is problematic, as many youth
may not understand the implications of the risks associated with digital connectivity,
while they might be able to develop STEM skills. As a result, youth may not appreciate
the broader context of the complexities of digital technology, particularly in navigating
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 18 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
online resources, which makes them susceptible to misinformation (Human Rights
Council, 2023; Nan etal., 2022). Teaching youth how to identify and evaluate trustwor-
thy sources of information, as well as how to differentiate between fact and opinion, can
help them navigate the world of digital media with greater confidence, accuracy, and
nuance (Hämäläinen etal., 2021; Magis-Weinberg etal., 2021).
Among the reviewed programs, the “Use, Understand, Create” initiative (Media
Smarts, 2022) took a more holistic lens as it addressed these broader concepts of digi-
tal literacy (e.g., ethics, privacy, community engagement, and media literacy) in addition
to digital skills. e Media Smarts team developed a comprehensive framework provid-
ing educators with guidance on how to incorporate these complex skills and topics into
the classroom. While this program covers key aspects of digital literacy, the program is
structured as classroom resources and lesson plans for educators, which requires spe-
cific training and skills to implement effectively—a potential implementation challenge.
Flexibility in program delivery is a crucial consideration for appropriate implementa-
tion as well as uptake by youth (Nascimbeni & Vosloo, 2019; Oostermeijer etal., 2022).
By ensuring that individuals with varying levels of training (i.e., educators with formal
training to parents with limited technological experience) can successfully implement
the program, our digital literacy program can be adopted in a range of settings due its
flexibility and accessibility.
Despite the breadth of digital literacy curricula identified by our environmental scan,
the majority of programs did not demonstrate flexibility in terms of mode of delivery and
administration. is ability to adapt is especially important for improving the uptake,
usability, and sustainability of digital literacy programs among youth, particularly as
technology and the associated risks are constantly evolving (Nascimbeni & Vosloo,
2019). Based on the strengths and limitations of existing curricula, we developed a user-
friendly program which could be delivered not only by educators in schools, but also by
parents or other adults who could aid youth in understanding and applying the mod-
ule content at home and/or other public settings (i.e., community centers). To ensure
ongoing relevance of the program content, each module uses specific examples, which
program administrators can tailor to their target audience to appeal to demographic
diversity, geographic location, cultural relevance, or recent incidents based on the lat-
est technological developments. For example, with recent advancements in AI (Bohr
& Memarzadeh, 2020; Collins etal., 2021; Vinuesa etal., 2020), it is critical for youth
to understand its applications in everyday life, potential benefits, as well as associated
risks by including topics such as AI-driven advertising on social media which may use
browser history data to push targeted ads (Bohr & Memarzadeh, 2020; Davenport etal.,
2020). Another aspect of this adaptability is the format of delivery, as the digital literacy
program can be delivered in-person, online, or via a smartphone-based app—further
increasing the usability and sustainability of the content.
In addition to tailored examples and interactive content, a distinguishing factor of
this digital literacy program is the emphasis on data sovereignty. Data sovereignty refers
to meaningful control or ownership of one’s data (Bhawra etal., 2021; Hudson etal.,
2023). Many smartphone-based apps and digital platforms unethically collect consumer
data, leaving consumers with little to no control of how their data is used, stored, or
repurposed (Anom, 2022; Hemker et al., 2021). is is especially problematic among
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 19 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
communities which have been historically colonized, including racialized and Indig-
enous Peoples (Hudson etal., 2023), whose personal information has often been mis-
used particularly in the medical field (Goodman etal., 2017; Smye etal., 2023; Wylie &
McConkey, 2019). Research indicates that users are more inclined to interact with and
share data on online platforms that prioritize user control over their own data and place
a strong emphasis on privacy (Prince, 2018). As a result, it is critical for consumers to
be aware of their rights to data privacy and ownership, thus this digital literacy program
emphasizes the control over data and connected concepts including consent and self-
determination. By connecting digital privacy and safety to data sovereignty, the program
empowers youth to understand their rights and make informed decisions about the data
they share.
e impact of this digital literacy program will depend on several factors, including
the implementation strategy, as well as broader contextual factors. Key considerations
for implementation include: (i) setting (i.e., in your community, is this program best
delivered in a school, community center, or other organization as part of extracurricular
programming?), (ii) mode of administration (i.e., is it most feasible to deliver this pro-
gram in-person or adapt for delivery online or via a mobile app?), and (iii) stakeholders
(i.e., who is best suited to deliver this program in your community – educators, parents,
etc.?). Other contextual factors that need to be considered include available resources
for administration and promotion of the program. While we found a range of resources
and programming for digital literacy, there was little evidence of program evaluation
(at least publicly available reports), which is an important factor in assessing the overall
impact, design, and delivery of these programs (Reddy etal., 2023). Hence, we developed
a digital literacy assessment tool to assess changes in literacy levels between pre- and
post-program implementation. is tool will enable quantifying changes in digital lit-
eracy levels within a population both prior to and following program implementation.
For example, individual-level change (i.e., specific improvements across module topic
areas) can be empirically determined using statistical tests such as paired T-tests, which
thereby allows program administrators and evaluators to determine the extent and type
of impact the digital literacy program is having within a population.
Strengths andlimitations
is study makes an important contribution to both the literature, as well as resources
to practically apply and evaluate digital literacy among youth. e cross-disciplinary
nature of this topic required flexibility in the search strategy, thus an environmental scan
and literature review were selected as the primary methods to enable review of relevant
organizational websites, grey literature, and reference lists as deemed relevant. However,
it is possible that some relevant digital literacy programs and/or assessment tools may
not have been captured by our search strategy, particularly given the geographic exclu-
sion criteria limiting our search to Canadian programs and English language articles.
Moreover, programs or curricula that did not explicitly frame the content as promoting
‘digital literacy’—but may have focused on related content such as data security—were
likely also not captured by our search. While the developed digital literacy program and
assessment toolkit is specific to address current gaps in Canada, both of these resources
can be applied and/or adapted by other jurisdictions.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 20 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
Conclusion
It is evident that digital literacy is a critical life skill for navigating today’s digital
world, and therefore requires dedicated educational strategies to ensure that youth
are equipped with the skills to maximize its benefits while mitigating potential risks.
Based on existing evidence and informed by foundational frameworks such as the
UNESCO Digital Literacy Global Framework, this study developed a comprehensive
digital literacy framework and assessment tool which could be used to evaluate the
effectiveness of program implementation in a variety of settings, ranging from com-
munity centres to schools.
Given the growing importance of digital competencies, a youth-focused pro-
gram and assessment tool are crucial for understanding and addressing digital lit-
eracy among this vulnerable cohort. While our study uncovered several promising
programs and tools, it was evident that many lacked the flexibility and adaptability
necessary to implement across varied settings. Our program’s adaptability allows
for customization to various sociodemographic target groups, including culturally
diverse and geographically remote communities. Each module uses specific examples
which can be tailored by program administrators for their target audience to appeal to
demographic diversity or recent concerns (i.e., web-based scams, specific data privacy
issue in a community), as well as the latest technological developments. Moreover,
the corresponding assessment tool is necessary for ongoing evaluation and to enable
ongoing improvements to digital literacy curricula for diverse populations of youth.
Future work in this area will include a formal evaluation of both the newly developed
digital literacy program and the assessment tool among Canadian populations. Addi-
tional research is required focusing on the development of a comprehensive global
digital literacy program, which can be further adapted to specific jurisdictions and
other vulnerable groups such as seniors. Overall, implementing digital literacy pro-
grams can better prepare youth for an increasingly digital world, while minimizing
potential risks associated with technology use.
Abbreviations
ERIC Education Resources Information Center
AI Artificial intelligence
STEM Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
NR Not reported
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at https:// doi. org/ 10. 1186/ s40561- 024- 00293-x.
Additional le1: 1. A tailored digital literacy program for youth. 2. A digital literacy assessment measure for youth.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Taniya Uruthirakumar for her help with data abstraction and creation of summary tables,
as well as Nadine Elsahli for her support in collating this manuscript. Thank you to the Canadian Internet Registration
Authority (CIRA) for supporting our digital health research programs and digital literacy initiatives.
Author contributions
JB and TRK conceptualized this manuscript, MCB conducted the environmental scan and literature review, and MCB,
JB and TRK conducted a review of all shortlisted programs and assessment tools, including creation of the final digital
literacy program and assessment tool categories. All authors contributed to writing the full draft, reviewing, and approv-
ing the final manuscript.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 21 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
Funding
This research was supported by the Canada Research Chairs Program (TRK).
Availability of data and materials
All referenced digital literacy programs and assessment tools used to develop the current manuscript have been cited
and summarized in the included data summary tables.
Declarations
Competing interests
The authors have no competing interests to declare.
Received: 10 August 2023 Accepted: 1 February 2024
References
Actüa. (2022). Actua academy. https:// actua. ca/ actua- acade my
Ahmed, S., Vaska, M., & Turin, T. C. (2016). Conducting a literature review in health research: Basics of the approach, typol-
ogy and methodology. Journal of National Heart Foundation of Bangladesh, 5(2), 44–51.
Animikii Inc. (2019). Decolonizing digital: Contextualizing indigenous data sovereignty. Animikii Indigenous Innovation.
https:// www. animi kii. com/ news/ decol onizi ng- digit al- conte xtual izing- indig enous- data- sover eignty
Anom, B. Y. (2022). The ethical dilemma of mobile phone data monitoring during COVID-19: The case for South Korea
and the United States. Journal of Public Health Research, 11(3), 22799036221102492. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1177/ 22799
03622 11024 91
Aromataris, E., & Riitano, D. (2014). Systematic reviews: Constructing a search strategy and searching for evidence. Ameri-
can Journal of Nursing, 114(5), 49–56. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1097/ 01. NAJ. 00004 46779. 99522. f6
Aydin, M. (2021). Does the digital divide matter? Factors and conditions that promote ICT literacy. Telematics and Infor-
matics, 58, 101536. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. tele. 2020. 101536
Bach, A. J., Wolfson, T., & Crowell, J. K. (2018). Poverty, literacy, and social transformation: An interdisciplinary exploration of
the digital divide. Journal of Media Literacy Education, 10(1), 22–41. https:// doi. org/ 10. 23860/ JMLE- 2018- 10-1-2
Bandura, R., & Leal, E. I. M. (2022). The digital literacy imperative. https:// www. csis. org/ analy sis/ digit al- liter acy- imper ative
Bhawra, J., Buchan, M. C., Green, B., Skinner, K., & Katapally, T. R. (2022). A guiding framework for needs assessment evalua-
tions to embed digital platforms in partnership with Indigenous communities. PLoS ONE, 17(12), e0279282. https://
doi. org/ 10. 1371/ journ al. pone. 02792 82
Bickham, D. S., Moukalled, S., Inyart, H. K., & Zlokower, R. (2021). Evaluating a middle-school digital citizenship curriculum
(screenshots): Quasi-experimental study. JMIR Mental Health, 8(9), e26197. https:// doi. org/ 10. 2196/ 26197
Bhawra, J., Skinner, K., Favel, D., Green, B., Coates, K., & Katapally, T. R. (2021). The food equity and environmental data sov-
ereignty (FEEDS) project: Protocol for a quasi-experimental study evaluating a digital platform for climate change
preparedness. JMIR Research Protocols, 10(9), e31389. https:// doi. org/ 10. 2196/ 31389
Bohr, A., & Memarzadeh, K. (2020). The rise of artificial intelligence in healthcare applications. Artificial Intelligence in
Healthcare. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/ B978-0- 12- 818438- 7. 00002-2
Boys and Girls Clubs of Canada. (2022). What we do. https:// www. bgccan. com/ en/ what- we- do/
British Columbia Ministry of Education and Child Care. (2022). Digital literacy—A digital literacy framework. Retrieved 3
August 2023, from https:// www2. gov. bc. ca/ gov/ conte nt/ educa tion- train ing/k- 12/ teach/ resou rces- for- teach ers/
digit al- liter acy
Burr, C., Taddeo, M., & Floridi, L. (2020). The ethics of digital well-being: A thematic review. Science and Engineering Ethics,
26(4), 2313–2343. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s11948- 020- 00175-8
Canada Learning Code. (2022). Learning with us. https:// www. canad alear ningc ode. ca/ learn ing- with- us/
Casillas-Martín, S., Cabezas-González, M., & García-Valcárcel Muñoz-Repiso, A. (2020). Análisis psicométrico de una prueba
para evaluar la competencia digital de estudiantes de Educación Obligatoria. RELIEVE - Revista Electrónica De Investi-
gación y Evaluación Educativa. https:// doi. org/ 10. 7203/ relie ve. 26.2. 17611
Charlton, P., Doucet, S., Azar, R., Nagel, D. A., Boulos, L., Luke, A., Mears, K., Kelly, K. J., & Montelpare, W. J. (2019). The use of
the environmental scan in health services delivery research: A scoping review protocol. British Medical Journal Open,
9, e029805. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1136/ bmjop en- 2019- 029805
Chatterjee, D., & Corral, J. (2017). How to write well-defined learning objectives. The Journal of Education in Perioperative
Medicine, 19(4), E610.
Choi, M., Glassman, M., & Cristol, D. (2017). What it means to be a citizen in the internet age: Development of a reliable
and valid digital citizenship scale. Computers and Education, 107, 100–112. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. compe du. 2017.
01. 002
Cooper, H., & Hedges, L. V. (2009). Research synthesis as a scientific process. In H. Cooper, L. V. Hedges, & J. C. Valentine
(Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis and meta-analysis (2nd ed., pp. 3–13). Russel Sage Foundation.
Collins, C., Dennehy, D., Conboy, K., & Mikalef, P. (2021). Artificial intelligence in information systems research: A systematic
literature review and research agenda. International Journal of Information Management, 60, 102383. https:// doi. org/
10. 1016/j. ijinf omgt. 2021. 102383
Davenport, T., Guha, A., Grewal, D., & Bressgott, T. (2020). How artificial intelligence will change the future of marketing.
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 48(1), 24–42. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s11747- 019- 00696-0
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 22 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
Donelle, L., Facca, D., Burke, S., Hiebert, B., Bender, E., & Ling, S. (2021). Exploring Canadian children’s social media use,
digital literacy, and quality of life: Pilot cross-sectional survey study. JMIR Formative Research, 5(5), e18771. https:// doi.
org/ 10. 2196/ 18771
Drazich, B. F., Nyikadzino, Y., & Gleason, K. T. (2021). A program to improve digital access and literacy among community
stakeholders: Cohort study. JMIR Formative Research, 5(11), e30605. https:// doi. org/ 10. 2196/ 30605
Fraillon, J., Ainley, J., Schulz, W., Duckworth, D., & Friedman, T. (2019). IEA international computer and information literacy
study 2018 assessment framework. Springer International Publishing. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ 978-3- 030- 19389-8
Goodman, A., Fleming, K., Markwick, N., Morrison, T., Lagimodiere, L., & Kerr, T. (2017). “ They treated me like crap and I
know it was because I was native”: The healthcare experiences of Aboriginal Peoples living in Vancouver’s inner city.
Social Science and Medicine, 1982(178), 87–94. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. socsc imed. 2017. 01. 053
Government of Canada. (2023). Digital literacy exchange program. https:// ised- isde. canada. ca/ site/ digit al- liter acy- excha
nge- progr am/ en/ digit al- liter acy- excha nge- progr am
Government of Canada. (2016). Security and prosperity in the digital age: Consulting on Canada’s approach to cyber security.
https:// www. publi csafe ty. gc. ca/ cnt/ rsrcs/ pblct ns/ 2016- scrty- prspr ty/ 2016- scrty- prspr ty- en. pdf
Government of Ontario. (2022). Strand a STEM skills and connections: Key changes—science and technology, grades 1–8.
Government of Ontario. https:// www. dcp. edu. gov. on. ca/ en/ sci- tech- key- chang es/ strand-a
Graafland, J. (2018). New technologies and 21st century children: Recent trends and outcomes. https:// one. oecd. org/ docum
ent/ EDU/ WKP(2018) 15/ en/ pdf
Griffin, P., McGaw, B., & Care, E. (Eds.). (2012). Assessment and teaching of 21st century skills. Springer. https:// doi. org/ 10.
1007/ 978- 94- 007- 2324-5
Haddock, A., Ward, N., Yu, R., & O’Dea, N. (2022). Positive effects of digital technology use by adolescents: A scoping
review of the literature. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(21), 14009. https:// doi.
org/ 10. 3390/ ijerp h1921 14009
Hadziristic, T. (2017). The state of digital literacy in Canada: A literature review. https:// brook field insti tute. ca/ wp- conte nt/
uploa ds/ Brook field Insti tute_ State- of- Digit al- Liter acy- in- Canada_ Liter ature_ Worki ngPap er. pdf
Hämäläinen, E. K., Kiili, C., Räikkönen, E., & Marttunen, M. (2021). Students’ abilities to evaluate the credibility of online
texts: The role of internet-specific epistemic justifications. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 37(5), 1409–1422.
https:// doi. org/ 10. 1111/ jcal. 12580
Hatlevik, O. E. (2017). Examining the relationship between teachers’ self-efficacy, their digital competence, strategies to
evaluate information, and use of ICT at school. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 61(5), 555–567. https://
doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 00313 831. 2016. 11725 01
Hatlevik, O. E., Scherer, R., & Christophersen, K.-A. (2017). Moving beyond the study of gender differences: An analysis of
measurement invariance and differential item functioning of an ICT literacy scale. Computers and Education, 113,
280–293. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. compe du. 2017. 06. 003
Hemker, S., Herrando, C., & Constantinides, E. (2021). The transformation of data marketing: How an ethical lens on
consumer data collection shapes the future of marketing. Sustainability, 13(20), 20. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ su132
011208
Hudson, M., Carroll, S. R., Anderson, J., Blackwater, D., Cordova-Marks, F. M., Cummins, J., David-Chavez, D., Fernandez, A.,
Garba, I., Hiraldo, D., Jäger, M. B., Jennings, L. L., Martinez, A., Sterling, R., Walker, J. D., & Rowe, R. K. (2023). Indigenous
peoples’ rights in data: A contribution toward indigenous research sovereignty. Frontiers in Research Metrics and
Analytics. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3389/ frma. 2023. 11738 05
Human Rights Council. (2023). Human Rights Council hears that digital, media and information literacy programmes should
be considered an integral part of education efforts given their importance for the exercise of rights in the digital age.
United Nations. https:// www. ohchr. org/ en/ news/ 2023/ 07/ human- rights- counc il- hears- digit al- media- and- infor
mation- liter acy- progr ammes- should- be
Jin, K.-Y., Reichert, F., Cagasan, L. P., de la Torre, J., & Law, N. (2020). Measuring digital literacy across three age cohorts:
Exploring test dimensionality and performance differences. Computers and Education, 157, 103968. https:// doi. org/
10. 1016/j. compe du. 2020. 103968
Jones, L. M., Mitchell, K. J., & Beseler, C. L. (2023). The impact of youth digital citizenship education: Insights from a cluster
randomized controlled trial outcome evaluation of the be internet awesome (BIA) curriculum. Contemporary School
Psychology. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s40688- 023- 00465-5
Joshi, S. V., Stubbe, D., Li, S.-T.T., & Hilty, D. M. (2019). the use of technology by youth: Implications for psychiatric educa-
tors. Academic Psychiatry, 43(1), 101–109. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s40596- 018- 1007-2
Kannan, P., Bhawra, J., Patel, P., & Katapally, T. R. (2022). Preserving rural school health during the COVID-19 pandemic:
Indigenous citizen scientist perspectives from a qualitative study. AIMS Public Health, 9(2), 216–236. https:// doi. org/
10. 3934/ publi cheal th. 20220 16
Katz, I. R. (2007). Testing information literacy in digital environments: ETS’s iSkills assessment. Information Technology and
Libraries, 26(3), 3. https:// doi. org/ 10. 6017/ ital. v26i3. 3271
Keach, S. (2014). Ofcom tests your tech-savviness with new DQ quiz | T3. https:// www. t3. com/ news/ ofcom- tests- your- tech-
savvi ness- with- new- dq- quiz
Kelly, W., McGrath, B., & Hubbard, D. (2023). Starting from ‘scratch’: Building young people’s digital skills through a coding
club collaboration with rural public libraries. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 55(2), 487–499. https://
doi. org/ 10. 1177/ 09610 00622 10909 53
Kids Code Jeunesse. (2022). Resources for educators. https:// kidsc odeje unesse. org/ resou rces- for- educa tors
Kim, M., & Choi, D. (2018). Development of youth digital citizenship scale and implication for educational setting. Journal
of Educational Technology and Society, 21(1), 155–171.
Kishore, K., Jaswal, V., Kulkarni, V., & De, D. (2021). Practical guidelines to develop and evaluate a questionnaire. Indian
Dermatology Online Journal, 12(2), 266–275. https:// doi. org/ 10. 4103/ idoj. IDOJ_ 674_ 20
Korte, M. (2020). The impact of the digital revolution on human brain and behavior: Where do we stand? Dialogues in
Clinical Neuroscience, 22(2), 101–111. https:// doi. org/ 10. 31887/ DCNS. 2020. 22.2/ mkorte
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 23 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
Kusumawardani, E., Tristanti, T., & Kusumawardani, E. (2022). Digital literacy model to empower women using commu-
nity-based education approach. World Journal on Educational Technology: Current Issues, 14(1), 175–188. https:// doi.
org/ 10. 18844/ wjet. v14i1. 6714
LaBonte, R., Nagle, J., & Barbour, M. K. (2021). Pandemic pedagogy in Canada: Lessons from the first 18 months. https://
canel earn. net/ wp- conte nt/ uploa ds/ 2021/ 11/ CANeL earn- Pande mic- Pedag ogy- in- Canada. pdf
Law, N., Woo, D., de la Torre, J., & Wong, G. (2018). A global framework of reference on digital literacy skills for indicator
4.4.2. UNESCO. https:// uis. unesco. org/ sites/ defau lt/ files/ docum ents/ ip51- global- frame work- refer ence- digit al-
liter acy- skills- 2018- en. pdf
Lazonder, A. W., Walraven, A., Gijlers, H., & Janssen, N. (2020). Longitudinal assessment of digital literacy in children:
Findings from a large Dutch single-school study. Computers and Education, 143, 103681. https:// doi. org/ 10.
1016/j. compe du. 2019. 103681
Let’s Talk Science. (2022). Educational resources. https:// letst alksc ience. ca/ educa tional- resou rces
Lupton, D. (2021). Young people’s use of digital health technologies in the global north: Narrative review. Journal of
Medical Internet Research, 23(1), e18286. https:// doi. org/ 10. 2196/ 18286
Machete, P., & Turpin, M. (2020). The use of critical thinking to identify fake news: A systematic literature review.
Responsible Design, Implementation and Use of Information and Communication Technology, 12067, 235–246.
https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ 978-3- 030- 45002-1_ 20
Magis-Weinberg, L., Ballonoff Suleiman, A., & Dahl, R. E. (2021). Context, development, and digital media: Implications
for very young adolescents in LMICs. Frontiers in Psychology. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3389/ fpsyg. 2021. 632713
Maqsood, S., & Chiasson, S. (2021). Design, development, and evaluation of a cybersecurity, privacy, and digital
literacy game for tweens. ACM Transactions on Privacy and Security, 24(4), 28:1-28:37. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1145/
34698 21
Medhurst, K., Altrows, L., & Foreman, A. (2023). Establishing a common framework for digital skills in Canada recom-
mendations report. https:// bowva lleyc ollege. ca/-/ media/ bvc/ school- of- conti nuing- learn ing/ towes/ recom
menda tions_ report. ashx? la= en& hash= E276A EDCBE 604E2 07C57 0CC5C 2550B 0AD77 F394F
Media Smarts. (2022). Use, understand and engage: A digital media literacy framework for Canadian Schools. https://
media smarts. ca/ teach er- resou rces/ use- under stand- engage- digit al- media- liter acy- frame work- canad ian- schoo ls
Nan, X., Wang, Y., & Thier, K. (2022). Why do people believe health misinformation and who is at risk? A systematic
review of individual differences in susceptibility to health misinformation. Social Science and Medicine, 314,
115398. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. socsc imed. 2022. 115398
Nascimbeni, F., & Vosloo, S. (2019). Digital literacy for children: Exploring definitions and frameworks. https:// www. unicef.
org/ globa linsi ght/ media/ 1271/ file/% 20UNI CEF- Global- Insig ht- digit al- liter acy- scopi ng- paper- 2020. pdf
National Center for Educational Statistics. (2022). More than 98 percent of public schools made concerted efforts to
promote pandemic-related learning recovery during the 2021–22 school year. https:// nces. ed. gov/ whats new/ press_
relea ses/ 08_ 04_ 2022. asp
Nguyen, L. A. T., & Habók, A. (2022). Digital literacy of EFL Students: An empirical study in Vietnamese universities.
Libri, 72(1), 53–66. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1515/ libri- 2020- 0165
Nicholas, H., & Ng, W. (2019). Mobile digital literacy of Australian adolescent students. International Journal of Digital
Literacy and Digital Competence, 10(3), 32–48. https:// doi. org/ 10. 4018/ IJDLDC. 20190 70103
Nova Scotia Ministry of Education and Early Childhood Development. (2022). High school technology education.
https:// curri culum. novas cotia. ca/ engli sh- progr ams/ techn ology- educa tion
Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada. (2018). For individuals. https:// www. priv. gc. ca/ en/ for- indiv iduals/
Oostermeijer, S., Williamson, M., Nicholas, A., Machlin, A., & Bassilios, B. (2022). Implementing and delivering youth
mental health services: Approaches taken by the Australian primary health network ‘lead sites.’ International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(17), 10494. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ ijerp h1917 10494
Pandya, A., & Lodha, P. (2021). Social connectedness, excessive screen time during COVID-19 and mental health: A
review of current evidence. Frontiers in Human Dynamics. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3389/ fhumd. 2021. 684137
Paré, G., & Kitsiou, S. (2017). Chapter 9: Methods for literature reviews. In F. Lau & C. Kuziemsky (Eds.), Handbook of
eHealth evaluation: An evidence-based approach (pp. 157–180). University of Victoria.
Perdana, R., Yani, R., Jumadi, J., & Rosana, D. (2019). Assessing students’ digital literacy skill in senior high school Yog-
yakarta. JPI ( jurnal Pendidikan Indonesia), 8(2), 2. https:// doi. org/ 10. 23887/ jpi- undik sha. v8i2. 17168
Pérez-Escoda, A., Jiménez-Narros, C., Perlado-Lamo-de-Espinosa, M., & Pedrero-Esteban, L. M. (2020). Social networks’
engagement during the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain: Health media vs. Healthcare Professionals. International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(14), 14. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ ijerp h1714 5261
Petticrew, M., & Roberts, H. (2006). Systematic reviews in the social sciences a practical guide. Blackwell Publishing Co.
https:// doi. org/ 10. 1002/ 97804 70754 887
Pinnguaq. (2019). Home. Pinnguaq. https:// pinng uaq. com/
Prince, C. (2018). Do consumers want to control their personal data? Empirical evidence. International Journal of
Human-Computer Studies, 110, 21–32. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. ijhcs. 2017. 10. 003
Quayyum, F., Cruzes, D. S., & Jaccheri, L. (2021). Cybersecurity awareness for children: A systematic literature review.
International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 30, 100343. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. ijcci. 2021. 100343
Quintana, M. G. B., Careaga-Butter, M., & Fuentes-Henríquez, C. (2020). Critical and prospective analysis of online edu-
cation in pandemic and post-pandemic contexts. Aloma: Revista De Psicologia, Ciències De L’educació i De L’esport,
38(2), 23–32. https:// doi. org/ 10. 51698/ aloma. 2020. 38.2. 23- 32
Reddy, P., Chaudhary, K., & Hussein, S. (2023). A digital literacy model to narrow the digital literacy skills gap. Heliyon,
9(4), e14878. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. heliy on. 2023. e14878
Richardson, S., Lawrence, K., Schoenthaler, A. M., & Mann, D. (2022). A framework for digital health equity. NPJ Digital
Medicine, 5(1), 1. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1038/ s41746- 022- 00663-0
Rideout, V., Peebles, A., Mann, S., & Robb, M. B. (2022). The common sense census: Media use by tweens and teens.
https:// www. commo nsens emedia. org/ sites/ defau lt/ files/ resea rch/ report/ 8- 18- census- integ rated- report- final-
web_0. pdf
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Page 24 of 24
Buchanetal. Smart Learning Environments (2024) 11:8
Saxena, P., Gupta, S. K., Mehrotra, D., Kamthan, S., Sabir, H., Katiyar, P., & Sai Prasad, S. V. (2018). Assessment of digital literacy
and use of smart phones among Central Indian dental students. Journal of Oral Biology and Craniofacial Research,
8(1), 40–43. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. jobcr. 2017. 10. 001
Schreurs, K., Quan-Haase, A., & Martin, K. (2017). Problematizing the digital literacy paradox in the context of older adults’
ICT use: Aging, media discourse, and self-determination. Canadian Journal of Communication, 42(2), 359–377.
https:// doi. org/ 10. 22230/ cjc. 2017v 42n2a 3130
Secretariat, T. B., & Secretariat, T. B. (n.d.). Smartphone use and smartphone habits by gender and age group, inactive—Open
Government Portal. Retrieved 25 July 2023, from https:// open. canada. ca/ data/ en/ datas et/ f62f8 b9e- 8057- 43de- a1cb-
5affd 0a5c6 e7
Shahid, M., & Turin, T. C. (2018). Conducting comprehensive environmental scan in health system and policy research: A
process for assessing the subject matter landscape. Journal of Biomedical Analytics, 1(2), 71–80. https:// doi. org/ 10.
30577/ jba. 2018. v1n2. 13
Silveira, P., Morais, R., & Petrella, S. (2022). A communication study of young adults and online dependency during the
COVID-19 pandemic. Societies, 12(4), 4. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ soc12 040109
Smye, V., Browne, A. J., Josewski, V., Keith, B., & Mussell, W. (2023). Social suffering: Indigenous peoples’ experiences of
accessing mental health and substance use services. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health, 20(4), 3288. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ ijerp h2004 3288
The Lancet Child and Adolescent Health. (2018). Growing up in a digital world: Benefits and risks. The Lancet Child and
Adolescent Health, 2(2), 79. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S2352- 4642(18) 30002-6
Toronto Public Library. (2022). Digital innovation hubs: Free access to technology, software and classes. https:// www. toron
topub licli brary. ca/ using- the- libra ry/ compu ter- servi ces/ innov ation- spaces/
US Department of Education. (2018). Technology and engineering literacy framework for the 2018 national assessment of
educational progress. https:// www. nagb. gov/ conte nt/ dam/ nagb/ en/ docum ents/ publi catio ns/ frame works/ techn
ology/ 2018- techn ology- frame work. pdf
van der Velden, M., & El Emam, K. (2013). “Not all my friends need to know”: A qualitative study of teenage patients,
privacy, and social media. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association : JAMIA, 20(1), 16–24. https:// doi.
org/ 10. 1136/ amiaj nl- 2012- 000949
Vassilakopoulou, P., & Hustad, E. (2023). Bridging digital divides: A literature review and research agenda for information
systems research. Information Systems Frontiers, 25(3), 955–969. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s10796- 020- 10096-3
Vernon, L., Modecki, K. L., & Barber, B. L. (2018). Mobile phones in the bedroom: Trajectories of sleep habits and subse-
quent adolescent psychosocial development. Child Development, 89(1), 66–77. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1111/ cdev. 12836
Vinuesa, R., Azizpour, H., Leite, I., Balaam, M., Dignum, V., Domisch, S., Felländer, A., Langhans, S. D., Tegmark, M., & Fuso
Nerini, F. (2020). The role of artificial intelligence in achieving the sustainable development goals. Nature Communi-
cations, 11, 233. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1038/ s41467- 019- 14108-y
Waffenschmidt, S., Knelangen, M., Sieben, W., Bühn, S., & Pieper, D. (2019). Single screening versus conventional double
screening for study selection in systematic reviews: A methodological systematic review. BMC Medical Research
Methodology, 19, 132. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1186/ s12874- 019- 0782-0
Wylie, L., & McConkey, S. (2019). Insiders’ insight: Discrimination against indigenous peoples through the eyes of
health care professionals. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 6(1), 37–45. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/
s40615- 018- 0495-9
Żerebecki, B. G., & Opree, S. J. (2022). The direct and indirect effects of social technology use on children’s life satisfaction.
International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 34, 100538. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. ijcci. 2022. 100538
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Terms and Conditions
Springer Nature journal content, brought to you courtesy of Springer Nature Customer Service Center GmbH (“Springer Nature”).
Springer Nature supports a reasonable amount of sharing of research papers by authors, subscribers and authorised users (“Users”), for small-
scale personal, non-commercial use provided that all copyright, trade and service marks and other proprietary notices are maintained. By
accessing, sharing, receiving or otherwise using the Springer Nature journal content you agree to these terms of use (“Terms”). For these
purposes, Springer Nature considers academic use (by researchers and students) to be non-commercial.
These Terms are supplementary and will apply in addition to any applicable website terms and conditions, a relevant site licence or a personal
subscription. These Terms will prevail over any conflict or ambiguity with regards to the relevant terms, a site licence or a personal subscription
(to the extent of the conflict or ambiguity only). For Creative Commons-licensed articles, the terms of the Creative Commons license used will
apply.
We collect and use personal data to provide access to the Springer Nature journal content. We may also use these personal data internally within
ResearchGate and Springer Nature and as agreed share it, in an anonymised way, for purposes of tracking, analysis and reporting. We will not
otherwise disclose your personal data outside the ResearchGate or the Springer Nature group of companies unless we have your permission as
detailed in the Privacy Policy.
While Users may use the Springer Nature journal content for small scale, personal non-commercial use, it is important to note that Users may
not:
use such content for the purpose of providing other users with access on a regular or large scale basis or as a means to circumvent access
control;
use such content where to do so would be considered a criminal or statutory offence in any jurisdiction, or gives rise to civil liability, or is
otherwise unlawful;
falsely or misleadingly imply or suggest endorsement, approval , sponsorship, or association unless explicitly agreed to by Springer Nature in
writing;
use bots or other automated methods to access the content or redirect messages
override any security feature or exclusionary protocol; or
share the content in order to create substitute for Springer Nature products or services or a systematic database of Springer Nature journal
content.
In line with the restriction against commercial use, Springer Nature does not permit the creation of a product or service that creates revenue,
royalties, rent or income from our content or its inclusion as part of a paid for service or for other commercial gain. Springer Nature journal
content cannot be used for inter-library loans and librarians may not upload Springer Nature journal content on a large scale into their, or any
other, institutional repository.
These terms of use are reviewed regularly and may be amended at any time. Springer Nature is not obligated to publish any information or
content on this website and may remove it or features or functionality at our sole discretion, at any time with or without notice. Springer Nature
may revoke this licence to you at any time and remove access to any copies of the Springer Nature journal content which have been saved.
To the fullest extent permitted by law, Springer Nature makes no warranties, representations or guarantees to Users, either express or implied
with respect to the Springer nature journal content and all parties disclaim and waive any implied warranties or warranties imposed by law,
including merchantability or fitness for any particular purpose.
Please note that these rights do not automatically extend to content, data or other material published by Springer Nature that may be licensed
from third parties.
If you would like to use or distribute our Springer Nature journal content to a wider audience or on a regular basis or in any other manner not
expressly permitted by these Terms, please contact Springer Nature at
onlineservice@springernature.com
Content uploaded by Tarun Reddy Katapally
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Tarun Reddy Katapally on Feb 07, 2024
Content may be subject to copyright.
Content uploaded by Tarun Reddy Katapally
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Tarun Reddy Katapally on Aug 30, 2023
Content may be subject to copyright.
