A novel approach for enhancing the color and antimicrobial properties of pine and beech wood using Se-NPs

Abstract

Pine wood (PW) and beech wood (BW) are the most used wood in furniture and other applications owing to their unique characteristics and low machining cost. However, their biodegradability and varied moisture content limit their wider use and durability. Therefore, in this study, nanotechnology was used as a novel eco-friendly approach to enhance the durability, antimicrobial properties, and color of wood. Selenium nanoparticles (Se-NPs) were prepared in spherical shape at varied concentrations (25 and 50 mM) using an eco-friendly method in the range of 35–80 and 40–155 nm, respectively. Se-NPs formation at the nanoscale was confirmed using UV/Vis analysis, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The prepared Se-NPs were then impregnated into PW and BW for different periods ranging from 2 h to 1 week. The treated wood were then leached in distilled water for 14 days to eliminate excess Se-NPs from the wood surface. The treated wood surfaces were examined using energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In addition, the depth of Se-NPs penetration into the treated wood at both tangential and radial sides was determined. Se-NPs impacts on the color properties, density, moisture content and antimicrobial activities of the treated wood were evaluated. PW treated with Se-NPs showed better antimicrobial and color characteristics than treated BW. PW samples immersed in 50 mM Se-NPs for 2 h showed the highest K/S values, whereas the highest antimicrobial values were obtained for those immersed at the same concentration for 2 days, and 1 week.

Full text

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A novel approach for enhancing
the color and antimicrobial
properties of pine and beech wood
using Se‑NPs
Tarek Abou Elmaaty
1*, Abeer Swidan
2, Khaled Sayed‑Ahmed
3* & Nancy Zaghloul
2
Pine wood (PW) and beech wood (BW) are the most used wood in furniture and other applications
owing to their unique characteristics and low machining cost. However, their biodegradability and
varied moisture content limit their wider use and durability. Therefore, in this study, nanotechnology
was used as a novel eco‑friendly approach to enhance the durability, antimicrobial properties,
and color of wood. Selenium nanoparticles (Se‑NPs) were prepared in spherical shape at varied
concentrations (25 and 50 mM) using an eco‑friendly method in the range of 35–80 and 40–155 nm,
respectively. Se‑NPs formation at the nanoscale was conrmed using UV/Vis analysis, transmission
electron microscopy (TEM), and X‑ray diraction (XRD). The prepared Se‑NPs were then impregnated
into PW and BW for dierent periods ranging from 2 h to 1 week. The treated wood were then leached
in distilled water for 14 days to eliminate excess Se‑NPs from the wood surface. The treated wood
surfaces were examined using energy‑dispersive X‑ray spectroscopy (EDX) and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM). In addition, the depth of Se‑NPs penetration into the treated wood at both
tangential and radial sides was determined. Se‑NPs impacts on the color properties, density, moisture
content and antimicrobial activities of the treated wood were evaluated. PW treated with Se‑NPs
showed better antimicrobial and color characteristics than treated BW. PW samples immersed in
50 mM Se‑NPs for 2 h showed the highest K/S values, whereas the highest antimicrobial values were
obtained for those immersed at the same concentration for 2 days, and 1 week.
Wood has been used for centuries for many reasons owing to its outstanding qualities. It represents a primary raw
material because of its high strength, low weight, and relative durability. erefore, it can be used in numerous
applications, such as indoor and outdoor applications, if treated with ecient materials1,2. All wood are derived
from trees that are either sowood or hardwood, according to botanical classication, such as pine (Pinus syl‑
vestris) and beech (Fagus sylvatica)3,4. PW is used in furniture owing to its good strength-to-weight ratio; and
therefore, it is typically regarded as appealing wood5. BW is a sturdy wood that machines well and is ideal for
steam bending6. In addition, it is a reasonably priced material with a low machining cost7. However, there are
two disadvantages that minimize mainly its wider use and durability, including biodegradability and dimen-
sional instability as a result of change in its moisture content8–10. Additionally, the traditional wood treatments,
including paints, stains, varnishes, polishes, and adhesives, if not handled properly, can harm the environment
and humans11.
In this respect, the use of nanotechnology can enhance the durability of wood, thereby increasing the service
lifetime of the wood products such as furniture due to the unique properties of NPs in the range of 100 nm or
less12. e concepts of biological, physical, material, and chemical sciences are merging in nanotechnology for
the development of various technologies13. When using dierent NPs for wood protection, it is possible to reduce
moisture uptake and improve ultraviolet protection, mechanical properties, and re resistance14–17. NPs provide
a wide variety of antimicrobial classes, and oer persistent antibacterial action with little toxicity18. In addition,
they have the ability to impart multifunctional properties and coloration to materials without compromising
the inherent characteristics of the substrate19,20. A wide range of color tunability is possible owing to the optical
OPEN
1Department of Textile Printing, Dyeing and Finishing, Faculty of Applied Arts, Damietta University,
Damietta 34512, Egypt. 2Department of Interior Design and Furniture, Faculty of Applied Arts, Damietta
University,Damietta 34512,Egypt. 3Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Damietta
University,Damietta34512,Egypt. *email: tasaid@du.edu.eg;drkhaled_1@du.edu.eg
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properties of NPs such as surface plasmon resonance, quantum connement eects, and NPs-structured colors.
By changing size, shape, composition, and surface function, NPs could have dierent colors21,22.
Novel wood composites with improved characteristics have been developed with the help of nanotechnology23.
Wood plastic composites with improved physical, mechanical, and thermal properties can be created by adding
nanollers such as ZnO-NPs, TiO2-NPs, nanoclays, and SiO2-NPs24–26. It is possible to produce plywood com-
posites with improved exural strength, dimensional stability, bonding strength, exural modulus, and screw
withdrawal resistance properties using SiO2-NPs, Al2O3-NPs, and ZnO-NPs27. In addition, the modulus of rup-
ture, modulus of elasticity, bonding strength, and screw withdrawal resistance of the particleboard composites
were enhanced by reinforcement with SiO2-NPs and Al2O3-NPs28. Because of their carbon-neutral structure, low
toxicity, biodegradability, wide range availability, and superior properties, lignocellulosic green nanomaterials
have great potential for fabricating wood plastic composites with improved characteristics24. Eco-friendly wood-
based composite panels can be fabricated using low-formaldehyde-emitting adhesives enhanced by the addition
of nanocellulose at proper loading levels23,29 and using SiO2-NPs, Al2O3-NPs, and ZnO-NPs30.
Green nanotechnology refers to the synthesis of NPs without hazard chemicals to limit the cytotoxicity levels
of the prepared NPs31–33. Biomolecules and eco-friendly substances have been discovered to have an obvious
role in the production of NPs of all shapes and sizes, paving the way for the development of greener, and safer
NPs synthesis techniques34–36. Selenium is a non-metallic element, it is a trace micronutrient element that is
extremely important in the ecosystem37,38. Se-NPs with a red hue represent a novel study target because of their
unique properties, low toxicity relative to selenium molecules, and outstanding bioactivity39,40. Due to their
antimicrobial properties, Se-NPs are becoming increasingly important in the food and medical industries41.
However, its practical features as a wood treatment to improve the physicochemical characteristics of wood and
give it an aesthetic color have yet to be described.
us, the objective of this study was to produce sustainable materials for furniture production using nano-
technology. In this respect, green synthesized Se-NPs were impregnated into PW and BW to enhance their
durability, antimicrobial properties and color characteristics. Se-NPs were used at dierent concentrations and
impregnation periods to evaluate the eects of concentration and impregnation time on the antimicrobial and
color properties of the treated wood compared to those of the control.
Experimental sections
Materials. Two dierent types of wood, non-defective sapwood of pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and beech (Fagus
sylvatica L.), were purchased from Moelven (Hedmark, Norway) and CEDAR d.o.o. (Rijeka, Croatia), respec-
tively. e collection of the studied wood complied with the relevant institutional, national, and international
guidelines and legislation. Wood specimens were then used with dimensions of 25 × 25 × 15 mm3 and were
sorted into eight groups of PW and BW for dierent impregnation periods of 2 hrs, 1 day, 2 days, and 1 week
(each group consisted of 10 specimens). Sodium hydrogen selenite, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), and ascorbic
acid were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich and were used without further purication.
Procedures. Green synthesis of Se‑NPs. Se-NPs were synthesized via redox reaction based on the proce-
dure described by Abou Elmaaty et al.42. Sodium hydrogen selenite was utilized, as a precursor for Se-NPs at dif-
ferent concentrations of 50 and 100 mM. Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) was then added to this solution at a con-
centration of 12 g/100 ml to maintain the stability of the prepared Se-NPs. In addition, ascorbic acid at various
concentrations (100 mM and 200 mM) was added to the previous mixture at a molar ratio of 2:1 and a volume
ratio of 1:1 (vitamin C: sodium hydrogen selenite). e formation of Se-NPs was conrmed aer the change in
solution color from colorless to dark orange43. For XRD analysis, the Se-NPs colloidal solution was completely
dried at 130 °C and then stored at 4 °C for further use.
Impregnation of Se‑NPs into wood and leaching.. PW and BW specimens were impregnated with Se-NPs col-
loidal solutions at concentrations of 25mM and 50mM inside a vacuum desiccator at a vacuum of 80 kPa. e
impregnation process was carried out for various periods of 2 hrs, 1 day, 2 days, and 1 week to study the eect of
impregnation time on the color and antimicrobial properties of the tested wood samples. Wood samples treated
with Se-NPs were then dried at 30 °C in an oven for one week. en, the treated samples were leached. In this
respect, the equilibrium moisture content was attained by conditioning the treated specimens at 20 °C and 65%
RH. e specimens were then immersed in distilled water (20 °C, pH 5.5) for 14 days. e aim of the leach-
ing process was to remove excess Se-NPs that were not well deposited onto the wood surfaces. e water was
changed four times during the leaching process: aer 2 hrs, 2 days, 4 days, and 8 days of leaching44. e leached
wood specimens were then dried in an oven at 30 °C for 1 week, as shown in Figure1.
Characterization of Se‑NPs and wood surface. TEM analysis. Se-NPs were examined using a trans-
mission electron microscope (JEOL, JEM 2100F, Tokyo, Japan) at 200 kV to characterize their morphology and
size. A drop of Se-NPs solution was added to a copper grid (400-mesh) coated with carbon, and the solvent was
then let in air at room temperature until its evaporation.
UV–Vis spectroscopy. Se-NPs formation was also qualitatively conrmed via UV/Vis spectra of Se-NPs col-
loidal solutions due to their surface plasmon resonance (SPR) using UV-visible spectrophotometer (Shimadzu
Co., Kyoto, Japan).
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X‑ray diraction (XRD). Xray diractometer (Bruker D8 ADVANCE, Karlsruhe, Germany) was used to deter-
mine the crystalline nature of the synthesized Se-NPs and those absorbed on the treated wood surfaces.
Testing of the treated specimens. SEM and EDX analyses. Wood samples were examined using a
scanning electron microscope (JEOL JSM-6510LB, Tokyo, Japan) to study the eect of impregnation with Se-
NPs on the morphology of their surfaces, compared to blank samples. In addition, chemical analysis of the ele-
ments found on the wood surface was conducted using an energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDX) unit attached
to a scanning electron microscope.
Colorimetric analysis. K/S values and color characteristics of the treated PW and BW specimens were meas-
ured using spectrophotometer (Minolta CM-3600 d, Tokyo, Japan), and then compared with the untreated sam-
ples as a control.
Determination of moisture content, density, and penetration depth. e moisture content and density of the
tested wood samples were determined according to ISO 13061-1:201445 and ISO 13061-2:201446, respectively.
e depth of Se-NPs penetration into the treated wood at both tangential and radial sides was measured using a
digital vernier caliper (silverline, UK).
Evaluation of antimicrobial activities of wood specimens. e antimicrobial activities of the blank wood speci-
mens or those treated with Se-NPs against G-ve bacteria (Escherichia coli), G+ve bacteria (Bacillus cereus and
Staphylococcus aureus), and yeast (Candida albicans) were tested based on the AATCC Test Method (147-1988)
and the zone of growth inhibition (mm) was used as an expression for the antimicrobial activity47.
Statistical analysis. e data obtained from this study were statistically analyzed using the Costat program
version 6.311 (CoHort soware, Monterey, USA). Wood samples were compared using statistical analysis of
variance (ANOVA). In addition, the standard deviation (SD) of the obtained data was calculated. Duncan’s new
range test at P = 0.05 was used to determine the signicant variations among all means. Each sample in this study
was analyzed three times48–50.
Results and discussion
Characterization of synthesized Se‑NPs. TEM analysis. e prepared Se-NPs were characterized
using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to study the eect of the Se-NPs concentration on their mor-
phology and size. TEM micrographs conrmed the formation of well-dispersed spherical Se-NPs, as shown in
Figure2. Moreover, these micrographs showed no deformation or aggregation in the colloidal solution of the
synthesized Se-NPs. Most of the NPs prepared at a concentration of 25 mM were in the range of 35-80 nm. On
the other hand, the majority of Se-NPs at a concentration of 50 mM showed larger diameters ranged from 40 to
155 nm, illustrating that Se-NPs size increased as the increase in NPs concentration.
Furthermore, the Se-NPs prepared at a concentration of 25 mM were spherical and ring-shaped. Whereas,
ordinary solid spherical particles were observed for Se-NPs synthesized at a concentration of 50 mM. e
micrographs obtained from TEM analysis revealed that the specic surface area of Se-NPs increased with the
Figure1. Schematic drawing of the impregnation process of PW and BW with Se-NPs.
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reduction in NPs concentration owing to the decrease in the Se-NPs diameters and their hollow shape, as dis-
played in Figure2.
UV–Vis spectroscopy. Se-NPs formation was conrmed by the change in the color of Se-NPs colloidal solution
from colorless to dark orange due to the surface plasmon resonance phenomenon (SPR) as a result of the elec-
trons combined vibrations of the obtained Se-NPs51. UV-Vis spectra ranging from 200 to 700 nm were utilized
for Se-NPs characterization at varied concentrations (25 mM and 50 mM). e Se-NPs exhibited a maximum
peak at approximately 266 nm, conrming the formation of Se-NPs in spherical shape52, as displayed in Figure2
(e).
Testing of the wood treated with Se‑NPs. SEM and EDX analysis. SEM analysis was carried out to
conrm the deposition of the synthesized Se-NPs on the treated wood surfaces at both transverse and tangen-
tial sides, comparing to the reference samples of untreated PW and BW. SEM micrographs of the blank wood
specimens showed that their surfaces were typically clear with scales free from Se-NPs. An obvious change in the
morphology of wood specimens surfaces aer the deposition of Se-NPs on them. e surfaces of PW and BW
treated with Se-NPs exhibited shiny and spherical particles at the nanoscale, indicating the presence of Se-NPs
on the surfaces of the treated wood, as displayed in Figure3. SEM micrographs illustrated that Se-NPs were well
distributed on the treated wood surfaces impregnated with Se-NPs. In addition, more Se-NPs were deposited on
the treated PW surface than on the BW surface. PW exhibits broader pores and higher permeability than BW
Figure2. TEM images of Se-NPs at dierent concentrations of (a,b) 25mM and (c, d) 50mM, and UV/Vis
spectra of Se-NPs synthesized at various concentrations and sodium hydrogen selenite.
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that enables it to absorb larger quantities of Se-NPs than BW15. e EDX spectra of PW and BW treated with
Se-NPs were obtained to analyze the chemical elements found on their surfaces. e EDX spectra of PW and
BW impregnated with Se-NPs showed peaks corresponding to Se-NPs at approximately 1.3, 11.2 and 12.5 Kev,
conrming the successful deposition of Se-NPs on their surfaces53, as displayed in Figure3 (e,f).
XRD analysis. XRD analysis was conducted to conrm the successful synthesis of the prepared Se-NPs and
their deposition on the wood specimens impregnated with Se-NPs based on the XRD patterns and the crys-
tallinity nature of Se-NPs. As displayed in Figure4, the synthesized Se-NPs and those deposited on the wood
Figure3. SEM images of untreated (a) PW, (b) BW, the treated (c) PW, (d) BW with 50mM Se-NPs at
transverse section, the treated (e) PW, (f) BW with 50mM Se-NPs at tangential side, and (g, h) EDX spectra of
treated PW and BW.
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specimens surfaces were highly crystalline. Additionally, the crystal planes of 100, 101, 102 and 210 observed
at 24.28º, 29.24º, 43.64º and 64.28º, respectively, were attributed to Se-NPs, as described in the JCPDS 86-2246
international database54. All wood specimens impregnated with Se-NPs showed XRD patterns corresponding to
Se-NPs, indicating the presence of the Se-NPs on their surfaces and the deposition of Se-NPs on the surfaces of
the treated wood specimens.
Color measurements. e colorimetric measurements of wood samples and those impregnated with Se-NPs
were determined spectrophotometrically to study the eect of Se-NPs impregnation on the color properties of
the PW and BW surfaces. e wood specimens impregnated with Se-NPs acquired a dark orange color as a result
of treatment with Se-NPs. As shown in Figure5, Se-NPs were deposited suciently on the surfaces of the treated
wood specimens with good homogeneity. While, blank PW and BW samples were clear and free of NPs. e
color intensity increased with increasing concentration of Se-NPs. e PW specimens absorbed higher amounts
of NPs than BW specimens that may be due to the variation in their microstructure. BW has a permeability less
than that of PW owing to the narrow pores in its surface15, as illustrated by the SEM micrographs in Figure3.
e color strength (K/S) data of PW and BW wood were measured aer impregnation with Se-NPs at 25
and 50 mM for various periods of 2 hrs, 1 day, 2 days, and 1 week, as shown in Figure5. At low concentration
of Se-NPs, the treated PW and BW samples exhibited low positive K/S values. With an increase in Se-NPs con-
centration, the K/S value increased and the treated samples gave a more reddish tone to the wood samples. e
PW samples impregnated with Se-NPs exhibited higher K/S values than those of the treated BW, as shown in
Figure5. is comes to the fact that the BW bers are generally shorter and smaller in diameter than the PW.
In addition, the pits in the bers of the BW are much smaller and less numerous, and hence less conspicuous
than those in the PW55,56.
e highest K/S value was recorded for the PW specimens at an impregnation time of 2 hrs at a concentra-
tion of 50 mM Se-NPs. In addition, the color of the treated PW samples decreased as the impregnation time
increased except for those impregnated with 25 mM Se-NPs for one week, which showed higher K/S values
than those impregnated with the same concentration for 2 days. e decrease in the K/S value may be due to the
aggregation of Se-NPs owing to the increase in the impregnation time and therefore the augmentation of the
amount of Se-NPs that encourages NPs aggregation. While, the highest K/S values of the treated BW specimens
were obtained aer 2 days of impregnation. BW has less permeability than PW15; therefore, it absorbs fewer
Se-NPs on the surface that means a low concentration of Se-NPs and slow aggregation over time on the surface,
as shown in Figure5.
Density and moisture content. Wood density is considered an important measurement and corresponds to
several mechanical properties of wood57. e average density values of untreated and treated PW were lower
than those of BW. is variation in density may be due to the dierence in the microstructures of PW and BW.
PW exhibits broader pores and higher permeability than BW15. e highest treated PW density values (0.426
and 0.434 g/cm3) were observed aer impregnation periods of 2 days for those treated with 25 and 50 mM Se-
NPs, respectively, and there were no signicant variations in the density value between them and untreated PW,
as listed in Table1. However, the average density values of the other PW treated with Se-NPs were lower than
the blank sample. Impregnation with 25 mM Se-NPs for 2 hrs and 1 day and with 50 mM for 1 day led to a sig-
nicant decrease in PW density compared to the blank. is reduction in density may be due to the expansion
of wood as a result of the impregnation process and water absorption58 that led to an obvious decrease in PW
density. However, an increase in impregnation time may lead to the deposition of more Se-NPs onto the surface
and an increase in density values59. In addition, the highest density values of treated BW were obtained for those
Figure4. X-ray diraction (XRD) spectra of (a) treated and untreated PW, and (b) treated and untreated BW
comparing to Se-NPs spectrum.
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impregnated with Se-NPs (25 mM and 50 mM) for only 2 hrs. Furthermore, there was a signicant increase in
the BW density as a result of the increase in the Se-NPs concentration at an impregnation time of 2 hrs. Moreo-
ver, no signicant variations were observed among the mean density values of the other treated BW specimens
and the blank sample. Overall, the density values of wood samples treated with 50 mM Se-NPs were usually
higher than those treated with 25 mM Se-NPs. is variation may be due to the increase in the concentration of
the deposited Se-NPs, which exhibit high density compared to the tested wood.
Figure5. Images of PW surfaces: (a) blank, (b) treated with 25mM Se-NPs, (c) treated with 50mM Se-NPs,
BW surfaces: (d) blank, (e) treated with 25mM Se-NPs, (f) treated with 50mM Se-NPs, penetration of 50mM
Se-NPs in (g) PW and (h) BW treated with 50mM Se-NPs at the radial section, and the eect of Se-NPs
concentration and impregnation time on K/S values of (i) the treated PW, and (j) the treated BW at 360nm.
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e moisture content of the treated and untreated wood was determined to study the eect of the Se-NPs
concentration and impregnation time on the moisture content of the tested wood, as shown in Table1. e
moisture content of untreated BW was signicantly lower than that of untreated PW, which has higher perme-
ability and larger pores than BW15,55. In the case of PW, the moisture content increased signicantly compared
to the blank sample as a result of the impregnation process with Se-NPs, except for those impregnated with 50
mM Se-NPs for 2 hrs, which showed a non-signicant increase in moisture content in comparison with the
PW control. In general, the moisture content of PW and BW samples treated with 50 mM Se-NPs decreased
signicantly compared to those treated with 25 mM Se-NPs at the same impregnation time for the same wood
type. is decrease may be due to the increase in the quantity of NPs deposited on the surface as the Se-NPs
concentration increased, which may minimize the absorption of water. erefore, impregnation with metal NPs
such as Se-NPs is a relatively physical blocking that lowers the penetration of water into impregnated wood that
enhances the physical and hydrophobic properties of wood treated with Se-NPs60.
Se‑NPs penetration into wood. It was found that the depth of Se-NPs penetration into the treated wood varied
based on the change in Se-NPs concentration, impregnation time, and the type of the tested wood. Regarding
wood type, the average depth values of Se-NPs penetration into PW at both the tangential and radial sides were
signicantly higher than that of BW at the same impregnation time, as shown in Figure5, except those impreg-
nated with Se-NPs (25 and 50 mM) for 1 day or with 25 mM Se-NPs for 1 week, as shown in Table1. BW exhibits
less permeability than PW owing to its microstructure with narrow pores that may minimize Se-NPs penetra-
tion into the tested BW specimens15,56.
ere were no signicant variations in the penetration depth at the tangential side among the treated PW
samples with the change in Se-NPs concentrations at the same impregnation time, except for those impregnated
for 2 days. ey showed a signicant increase in Se-NPs penetration with the decrease in the Se-NPs concentra-
tion at the tangential side. In addition, similar results were obtained on the radial side, except for those treated
with 25 mM Se-NPs for 2 hrs, which showed a signicant increase in penetration depth with increasing Se-NPs
concentration. is high penetration may be due to a high quantity of Se-NPs at the high concentration (50
mM) and the low impregnation time that prevents NPs aggregation compared to long impregnation periods.
e obtained results indicated that relatively small Se-NPs in size were deposited well inside the wood compared
to aggregated particles, which may be removed easily during the leaching process. No signicant variations in
penetration depth at both radial and tangential sides were observed among treated BW at the same impregnation
period with the change in Se-NPs concentration except those impregnated for 1 week. ey showed a signicant
decrease in the penetration depth as the increase in Se-NPs concentration, as listed in Table1.
Antimicrobial activity. e antimicrobial activities of wood samples treated with Se-NPs were evaluated using
the inhibition zone method according to the method described by Munir etal.61. Antimicrobial activities were
tested against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Candida albicans, and Bacillus cereus. PW specimens
impregnated with Se-NPs showed higher antimicrobial activities than those of treated BW samples due to the
Table 1. Eect of impregnation with Se-NPs on the density and moisture contents of the treated wood and the
depth of Se-NPs penetration into the treated PW and BW at both tangential and radial sides. a–i Means within
a column followed by the same letter(s) are not signicantly dierent according to Duncan’s multiple range test
(P = 0.05).
Wood type Se-NPs Conc. (mM) Impregnation time
Penetration depth (mm)
Moisture content (%) Density (g/cm3)Tangential side Radial side
PW
Untreated – – – 9.28 ± 0.062g 0.428 ± 0.003 c
25
2h 3.34 ± 0.18 b 2.41 ± 0.11 b c 9.74 ± 0.106 b 0.380 ± 0.007 e
1day 2.46 ± 0.44 defg 2.12 ± 0.37 b cd 9.93 ± 0.032 a 0.391 ± 0.008 de
2days 3.90 ± 0.29 a 3.24 ± 0.67 a 9.86 ± 0.065 a 0.426 ± 0.038 c
1week 2.75 ± 0.61cd 2.46 ± 0.26 bc 9.86 ± 0.022 a 0.414 ± 0.003 cde
50
2h 3.11 ± 0.12 b c 3.19 ± 0.60 a 9.30 ± 0.101g 0.390 ± 0.025 de
1day 2.60 ± 0.39 cde 2.76 ± 0.34 ab 9.60 ± 0.007 c 0.413 ± 0.008 cde
2days 2.08 ± 0.27 efgh 2.36 ± 0.44 bc 9.76 ± 0.070 b 0.434 ± 0.036 c
1week 2.74 ± 0.17cd 2.31 ± 0.43 bc 9.69 ± 0.041 b 0.415 ± 0.021cd
BW
Untreated – – – 8.45 ± 0.033 i 0.660 ± 0.011 b
25
2h 1.88 ± 0.43 g hi 1.40 ± 0.32 efg 9.39 ± 0.029 f. 0.684 ± 0.030 b
1day 2.50 ± 0.27 def 1.93 ± 0.37 cdefg 9.49 ± 0.033 de 0.669 ± 0.004 b
2days 1.98 ± 0.14 fghi 1.36 ± 0.39fg 9.48 ± 0.008 de 0.670 ± 0.013 b
1week 2.19 ± 0.41 defgh 2.04 ± 0.40 bcdef 9.51 ± 0.016 d 0.673 ± 0.019 b
50
2h 2.40 ± 0.35 defg 2.10 ± 0.38 bcde 9.06 ± 0.004h 0.725 ± 0.026 a
1day 2.67 ± 0.28 cde 2.41 ± 0.18 b c 9.33 ± 0.035fg 0.676 ± 0.022 b
2days 1.74 ± 0.19 hi 1.59 ± 0.36 defg 9.37 ± 0.009fg 0.674 ± 0.012 b
1week 1.41 ± 0.22 i 1.32 ± 0.08g 9.40 ± 0.024 ef 0.661 ± 0.017 b
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high permeability of PW (sowood) compared to that of BW (hardwood), which enables Se-NPs to penetrate
the wood layers and increases the Se-NPs concentration inside it55,56. Moreover, Se-NPs concentration aected
the antimicrobial activities of the treated wood specimens. In the case of PW, wood samples treated with high
Se-NPs concentration (50 mM) showed higher antimicrobial activity than specimens soaked in Se-NPs colloidal
solution at a concentration of 25 mM. On the other hand, BW samples treated with a low concentration of Se-
NPs showed higher antimicrobial activity than specimens impregnated with a high concentration of Se-NPs.
is may be due to the narrow pores in the case of BW, which obstruct Se-NPs permeability and result in Se-NPs
accumulation on the wood surface with increasing soaking period. erefore, Se-NPs aggregation leads to an
increase in Se-NPs size, and therefore, decreases their antimicrobial activity. As shown in Figure1, Se-NPs at
a low concentration of 25 mM had small nanoparticles ranging from 30 to 80 nm, which enhanced their per-
meability through the BW surface and reduced the possibility of aggregation. Additionally, their hollow shape
augmented their specic area and antimicrobial activities compared to those of Se-NPs prepared at 50 mM. e
highest antimicrobial activity was obtained in the case of PW samples treated with 50 mM Se-NPs against E. coli.
Furthermore, S. aureus showed higher sensitivity towards the decrease in Se-NPs diameters. e antimicrobial
activity of wood specimens treated with Se-NPs against S. aureus increased with a decrease in Se-NPs size and
an increase in soaking period in both PW and BW. On the other hand, Candida albicans was more resistant to
the Se-NPs eect than the other tested microbes, as shown in Table2.
Conclusions
In this study, we succeeded in the impregnation of Se-NPs onto PW and BW surfaces to obtain antimicrobial
wood with good color properties and high durability. e Se-NPs prepared at concentrations of 25 and 50 mM
were characterized via instrumental identication, conrming the formation of Se particles at the nanoscale.
e diameters of the Se-NPs decreased with increasing concentration, which also aected NPs morphology. At
25 mM, Se-NPs were spherical with a hollow shape, whereas Se-NPs synthesized at 50 mM were only spherical
in shape. In addition, the prepared Se-NPs were impregnated at dierent concentrations for various periods
onto the PW and BW surfaces to study the eect of Se-NPs concentration and impregnation time on the color
and antimicrobial properties of the wood specimens. e wood samples impregnated with Se-NPs were exam-
ined using EDX, SEM, and XRD analyses, which illustrated successful Se-NPs deposition on the treated wood
surfaces. e results of color properties revealed that the highest K/S values were obtained aer impregnation
with 50 mM Se-NPs for 2 hrs and 2 days of impregnation time in the case of PW and BW, respectively. e best
antimicrobial activities were obtained aer impregnation of Se-NPs into PW at a concentration of 50 mM for
1 week, and BW treatment with 25 mM Se-NPs for 2 days. PW and BW treatments using Se-NPs were helpful
in improving the color and antimicrobial properties of the tested wood, thereby ensuring the applicability of
Se-NPs as a protective and decorative layer for wood surfaces and enhancing wood durability. PW and BW, as
so- and hardwood species, are preferred and employed in the manufacturing of furniture, buildings, and inte-
rior and outdoor projects. In this respect, the increase in wood durability using Se-NPs treatment enhances the
applicability of PW and BW in these elds.
Table 2. Eect of Se-NPs on the antimicrobial properties of the treated and untreated BW and PW samples.
a–k Means within a column followed by the same letter(s) are not signicantly dierent according to Duncan’s
multiple range test (P = 0.05).
Sample Inhibition zone area (mm2)*
Wood type Se-NPs Conc. (mM) Impregnation time Staphylococcus aureus Bacillus cereus Escherichia coli Candida albicans
PW
Untreated –0 ± 0.0 d 0 ± 0.0 d 0 ± 0.0 d 0 ± 0.0 d
25
2h 9 ± 0.5h 10 ± 1.0 d 12 ± 0.3 e 0 ± 0.0 d
1day 12 ± 0.5 d 11 ± 1.2 b cd 19 ± 1.0 c 0 ± 0.0 d
2days 13 ± 0.3cd 12 ± 0.5 b c 20 ± 0.6 b 0 ± 0.0 d
1week 15 ± 0.5 b 13 ± 0.8 a 22 ± 0.6 a 0 ± 0.0 d
50
2h 13 ± 0.5 c 10 ± 0.3cd 10 ± 0.3g 7 ± 0.9 c
1day 15 ± 0.5 a 11 ± 0.5 bc 11 ± 0.6 ef 11 ± 0.3 a
2days 17 ± 0.5 a 12 ± 0.3 ab 18 ± 0.3 d 10 ± 0.6 b
1week 13 ± 0.3 c 13 ± 0.5 ab 23 ± 0.6 a 11 ± 0.3 b
BW
Untreated –0 ± 0.0 d 0 ± 0.0 d 0 ± 0.0 d 0 ± 0.0 d
25
2h 4 ± 0.5 i 8 ± 0.5 ef 4 ± 0.0 j 0 ± 0.0 d
1day 9 ± 0.5 gh 8 ± 0.3 e 7 ± 0.5 i 0 ± 0.0 d
2days 17 ± 0.3 a 9 ± 0.5 e 11 ± 0.3 f. 0 ± 0.0 d
1week 12 ± 0.5 d 10 ± 0.3 d 11 ± 0.5f. 0 ± 0.0 d
50
2h 9 ± 0.6 fg h 7 ± 0.5 f. 0 ± 0.0k 0 ± 0.0 d
1day 10 ± 1.0 ef 8.5 ± 0.5 e 3 ± 0.5 j 0 ± 0.0 d
2days 11 ± 0.5 e 8 ± 0.5 ef 4 ± 0.5 j 0 ± 0.0 d
1week 10 ± 0.3 efg 9 ± 0.9 f. 8 ± 1.0h 0 ± 0.0 d
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Data availability
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article [and its supplementary
information les].
Received: 28 April 2023; Accepted: 30 July 2023
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Author contributions
T.A.E. conceived the original idea of this study and participated in the design, coordination, and draing of
the manuscript. N.Z. was responsible for the impregnation experiments, color measurements, and preparation
of samples for antimicrobial activity testing. K.S. prepared the NPs in addition to their characterization and
interpreted the results of antimicrobial and color properties. K.S. and N.Z. were responsible for the statistical
analysis. A.S. revised the impregnation methodology and discussed the obtained data of the color properties.
All authors participated in writing and draing the manuscript.
Funding
Open access funding provided by e Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in coopera-
tion with e Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB).
Competing interests
e authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Supplementary Information e online version contains supplementary material available at https:// doi. org/
10. 1038/ s41598- 023- 39748-5.
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to T.A.E.orK.S.-A.
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