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The Ghassulian Galilean Sub-Culture in the Late Chalcolithic Period
Abstract
In 1986, when Tom Levy indicated that distinct regional cultures emerged in the Late Chalcolithic period, he did not refer to the Galilee, as available information on that region was sparse. In the same year, Frankel and Gophna defined Galilean painted “Abu-Sinan” pottery, but additional information regarding the Late Chalcolithic material culture in the mountainous Galilee was still scarce and mainly based on a few survey collections. The discovery of the Peqi‘in secondary-burial cave in 1995 changed the hitherto general impression that the Galilee during the second half of the fifth millennium BCE was a barely populated periphery. Since then, interest in the mountainous Galilee during this period has increased, engendering additional surveys and some excavations. The updated information shows that this area housed more than 30 settlements, and that its material culture was in general typical of the period and the Ghassulian culture. However, variations in pottery types, decoration, and motifs as well as flint, differentiates this area. We suggest that these distinctive Galilean characteristics should be considered a Ghassulian Galilean sub-culture.
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The unique Chalcolithic burial cave was unexpectedly discovered in Peqi‘in, Upper Galilee in the summer of 1995. It was clear from the first glance that the view spread before the excavators of stalagmites, stalactites, ossuaries, burial jars and skeletal remains was of an outstanding nature.
The cave was first used for temporary occupation during the early Chalcolithic period. Later, it was converted into an extraordinary cemetery where a large variety of objects was found, attesting to cultural connections with other regions and particularly, with the Golan Heights. The main findings were dozens of ossuaries decorated with hitherto unknown painted and sculpted iconography. The vast number of ossuaries, burial jars and skeletons representing at least 600 individuals indicate that the cave served as a central burial ground where these Chalcolthic peoples practiced ancestor worship. The findings illustrate the high cultural, technological and artistic level of the makers of these items as well as the rich spiritual life of their community. The selection of Upper Galilee as the final resting place for their tribal ancestors demonstrates for the first time the significant role played by this hitherto poorly known region.
This volume concludes the excavation and research that followed it and opens new horizons for the study of the Chalcolithic period.
Results of the survey of Map No. 3 of the Israel Survey (Shomera map in western Upper Galille), includes 144 sites dating from prehistoric to Ottoman periods, various maps, color illustrations, plans and figures of finds. Discussions relating to period and finds. Bilingual (Hebrew and English).
The emergence of social complexity in the Southern Levant during the Chalcolithic (c. 4500–3600 cal. BC) was intimately tied to intensification in animal management. For the first time, secondary products such as milk and wool were intensively exploited, supplying communities with increasingly diverse foodstuffs and raw materials for craft production and exchange, but the precise herding practices underlying these new production strategies are unknown. Here, we explore the role of multi-species livestock pasturing through carbon and nitrogen isotopic analysis of animal bones from Marj Rabba (Har Hasha’avi, West) in the Lower Galilee (ca. 4600–4200 cal. BC). Isotopic results suggest different pasturing/foddering of sheep compared with goats. Cattle were largely pastured locally, but high δ13C values in some animals indicate access to the Jordan River Valley (the Ghor in Arabic), where major Chalcolithic settlements were situated. This may indicate some cattle were moved along regional Chalcolithic exchange networks established for other prestige objects, such as copper. Finally, we provide evidence for moderate 15N enrichment in pigs relative to herbivorous livestock indicates. Possible interpretations include consumption of nuts (esp. acorns), household refuse containing animal protein, and/or fattening pigs on grain. Although an interpretation that requires further exploration, grain foddering of pigs would complement the zooarchaeological data for early slaughter, which suggests intensive meat production at Marj Rabba. It might also help explain why pig husbandry, as a drain on grain stockpiles, was gradually abandoned during the Bronze Age. Taken together, the isotopic and zooarchaeological data indicate an economy in transition from a non-specialized, household-based Neolithic economy to one in which the production of agrarian wealth, including animal secondary products, was beginning to emerge.
The Late Chalcolithic period of the Southern Levant is marked by increased regional behaviour. Despite this, there is an increased production and distribution of finely made basalt vessels. These were frequently adorned with a single row of incised triangles along the rim. This motif is widely distributed throughout the Southern Levant and was formed according to specific morphometric guidelines and standardisation. These include a preference for symmetrical acute triangles filled with hatches. This standardisation attests to a somewhat specialised production and perhaps a shared significance behind the design, tied directly to the value of basalt or the basalt vessels. The triangle design then acts as a commentary on the Chalcolithic socioeconomic system. Résumé. La période du Chalcolithique ancien au Levant Sud est marquée par un plus grand développement régional. En addition à cela, une augmentation de la production et de la distribution de fines vaisselles faites de basalte est attestée. Elles sont souvent décorées avec une rangée de triangles incisés le long du rebord du col. Le motif est largement distribué au Levant Sud et est formé selon des lignes directrices typomorphologiques spécifiques. Ces directives comprennent une préférence pour des triangles aigus symétriques remplies de hachures. Cela peut indiquer que leur production était dictée par des conventions portant une signification sociale pour les communautés chalcolithiques. C'est pourquoi l'utilisation courante de ce motif triangulaire nous porte à croire que les villages chalcolithiques ont partagés un système d'utilisation et de production commun des bols de basalte décorés dépassant les limites régionales.
Between 2007 and 2012, a Hebrew University expedition explored the lower course of Nahal Arbel (Wadi al-Hamam), a perennial stream in the northeastern Lower Galilee. The expedition conducted five excavation seasons at the Roman village-site of Khirbat Wadi Hamam (KWH) and three excavation seasons at the Roman fortification on the plateau of Har Nitai (HNF) rising above the village. In addition, a thorough survey of natural and man-made caves in the cliffs and slopes of the mountain (Har Nitai Caves, HNC) was undertaken. While focusing on remains from classical periods, sizeable quantities of late prehistoric lithic and ceramic finds were collected in all three components. This paper presents the contexts of the late prehistoric materials and discusses their typo-technological traits and chronological attribution. The majority of finds date from the Chalcolithic period (KWH, HNF and HNC) and the Early Bronze Age I (KWH and HNC). The precise dating of the Chalcolithic components and the nature of activity in these late prehistoric occurrences are, however, less clear.
During the late fifth and fourth millennia B.C. significant technological and social changes occurred among societies living in Palestine. This paper, the first of a new series in BA, surveys the archaeological research that illuminates these changes.
Grar is one of the largest Chalcolithic sites in southern Israel. The first part of this article presents an overview of the results of excavations carried out on the site during 1981–1987. The site of Grar is a cluster of occupational units once inhabited by sedentary farmers growing cereals and raising sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle. Grar is similar to other sites in the northern Negev previously considered as ephemeral. This suggests that the role of pastoralism and semi-nomadism in the Chalcolithic period has been overemphasized. Grar and other sites of the Chalcolithic period are, in fact, the earliest versions of villages of the Near Eastern fellahin, or peasants.A comparative study of Grar and other northern Negev sites follows. Although the area in question is small, it is suggested that during the Chalcolithic period the northern Negev was settled by two groups, or “tribes,” with the same cultural background but different modes of lift.
The Levant of the fourth millennium B.C. was scattered with numerous small farming communities. The agricultural activities were based on growing barley, wheat, lentils, and fruit trees. This was accompanied by raising sheep-goats, pigs, and cattle and occasionally using marine resources. The architecture and the thick accumulation of debris loaded with pottery refuse indicate that the sites were sedentary and occupied for long periods. The social organization of these communities does not seem to have been very complex. The evidence argues against the existence of hierarchies and high-status social units that had the power to dominate and permanently regulate production and distribution. The evidence of religious activities also indicates that a priesthood, if it existed, was not dominant in the regulation of social and economic activities. The rapid cultural changes in the Levant during the late fourth and early third millennium were probably caused by the impact of the events in Egypt and Mesopotamia. The local modifications were readjustments to the large-scale changes in the Near East which influenced the rural and provincial Levantine Chalcolithic societies.
In the southern Levant, the late fifth millennium to mid-fourth millennium BC—traditionally known as the Chalcolithic period—witnessed
major cultural transformations in virtually all areas of society, most notably craft production, mortuary and ritual practices,
settlement patterns, and iconographic and symbolic expression. A degree of regionalism is evident in material culture, but
continuity in ceramic styles, iconographic motifs, and mortuary practices suggests a similar cultural outlook linking these
sub-regions. Luxury items found in group mortuary caves provide good evidence for at least some inequality in access to exotic
materials. The level of complexity in social organization, however, is still debated. Divergent interpretations of Chalcolithic
socio-economic organization suggest that, with the large amount of new information now available, a reevaluation of the debate
is due. In this article we synthesize the more recent evidence and weigh interpretations of processes that led to the widespread
fundamental changes witnessed during the late fifth to early fourth millennium BC.
Salvage excavations at the archaeological site of Shoham were carried out by the authors in anticipation of the construction of today’s thriving town of the same name, from June 12th until August 9th, 1994 and resumed, after a short interruption, from September 1st until November 17th, 1994 (IAA License No. 2148). The second season (IAA License No. 2338) took place between August 7th and August 24th, 1995. The excavations revealed a karstic cave system consisting of four interconnected caves that were used intermittently for burial as well as domestic purposes during the Chalcolithic period, Early Bronze Age I and Intermediate Bronze Age. Careful analyses of the finds deriving from the Chalcolithic burial contexts, in particular the ceramic ossuaries and pottery assemblages, the groundstone and flint assemblages, and the human, archaeobotanical and faunal remains, have contributed to a better understanding of Chalcolithic mortuary behaviour in this area, as well as the distribution pattern of Chalcolithic burial caves and associated contemporaneous settlement sites in the coastal plain and beyond.
The excavations were directed by the authors on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority with the assistance and participation of numerous people. During the first season: I. Accus, U. Ad, M. Mints, H. Torge and G. Jinjikhashvili (area supervision), with the participation of A. Hajian and N. Kollele (surveying), T. Sagiv (field photography), G. Cohen and A. Kloner (administration), S. Itkis (geophysical and magnetometric tests), U. Kafri (geological survey) and O. Marder (flint analysis).
During the second season: M. Dagon (area supervision and pottery registration) and E. Yannai, with the participation of O. Marder (flint analysis),
C. Commenge (pottery analysis), L.K. Horwitz and M. Sade (archaeozoology), N. Lipschitz (palaeobotany), H. Mienis (archaeomalacology), Y. Rowan (groundstone analysis), D. Segal and I. Carmi (14C analysis), A. Hajian (surveying), T. Sagiv (field photography), D. Amir (administration) and V. Eshed (physical anthropology).
The Early Bronze Age (ca. 3700–2500 b.c.) was an era of wide-ranging changes in the Southern and Central Levant, commonly interpreted in the context of the advent of urban structures in this region. Key elements in regional narratives of urbanization are large fortified sites viewed as regional centers, whose local history is often perceived as a paradigmatic expression of the entire process. Here we present the first stage of research at the site of Qedesh in the Galilee (Israel), that emerged as a large Levantine hub at the turn of the 4th millennium b.c. The study is based on systematic high-resolution surface survey followed by density analysis, probing, and small-scale excavations. Our research suggests that Qedesh was a hitherto unknown key player in the interregional trajectory of social complexification by virtue of its size (min. 50 ha), composite inner structure, and ecotonal location that enhanced connectivity within an economic network associated with the production and distribution of South Levantine Metallic Ware.
The preliminary report on four seasons of archaeological reconnaisance at Sataf (1987-89) in the central highlands of Palestine. Evidence is presented showing settlement and landscape modifications from the protohistoric through to late Ottoman modern periods. It is now quite clear, as a result of this project of landscape archaeology, that the excavation of agricultural terraces can provide significant stratigraphic information and dating evidence.
The site lies in the center of the Korazim Plateau, which extends from the Hula Valley southward to the Sea of Galilee. Three squares were excavated: two (Sqs 1, 3) revealed the remains of very poorly preserved structures dating to the Late Chalcolithic period, and the third (Sq 2), a portion of a structure or complex rich in ceramic finds. The small excavation at Horbat Duvshan is the first in the eastern Galilee to reveal definitive "Golan" affinities: its ceramic repertoire is identical to that of the Golan in its distinctive dark, reddish brown basaltic ware and in its typology.
Two areas were excavated (A, B) at the site, and a report on Meir's Excavation C (1976-1982) is included as well. Six round, rockhewn pits were exposed in Area A, all of which probably belong to one system. In Area B, three natural steps were found on bedrock, as well as part of a pressing installation(?) for wine or oil production. Areas A and B were covered with gray soil that contained stones, potsherds, flint items and animal bones. The site also yielded limestone and basalt vessels, pottery spindle weights, bone points and archaeozoological remains. The pottery at the site dates from the Pottery Neolithic and Early Chalcolithic 1 and 2 periods, and the flint tools are characteristic of the Early Chalcolithic and Late Chalcolithic periods. Some of the flint artifacts recovered from Meir's Excavation C provides conclusive evidence that the site was already settled in PrePottery Neolithic B; it may also have been occupied in PrePottery Neolithic A. The site is one of over fifty protohistoric sites found in the Gal'ed Hills, providing a dynamic picture of the different stages of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods in this region.
The central hill country of Palestine, from the Jezreel Valley in the north to the Beer-sheba Valley in the south, has been almost fully surveyed in the last two decades. The article summarizes the archaeological data on the sites and settlement patterns in the region in three phases of the fourth and third millennia B. C. E.-the Chalcolithic, the Early Bronze I, and the Early Bronze II-III-and compares them to the settlement patterns in the lowlands of the country. The highlands, which form the best-suited part of Palestine for horticulture-based economy, experienced a dramatic settlement and demographic growth in EB I. This wave of settlement was contemporaneous to the establishment of Egyptian trading communities in the southern coastal plain. The demographic expansion to the hill country was apparently stimulated by the growing demand for Palestinian horticulture products in Egypt. The intensification of agricultural specialization in the highlands and in other parts of the country played an important role in the urbanization process in the southern Levant, which also commenced at the end of EB I.
The Chalcolithic site of Marj Rabba, in the lower Galilee of Israel, features shallow limestone structures situated in a terra rossa matrix. Calcareous substrates such as terra rossa, common throughout the region, are often not considered amenable to ground-penetrating radar (GPR) studies due to strong attenuation, particularly within the relatively high frequency range most often used in archaeological GPR surveys. Energy loss due to scattering from small embedded stones also exacerbates attenuation at this particular site in addition to obscuring detected archaeological features, thereby complicating interpretation. Because features are fairly shallow (upper 1.5 m) and contrast well with the soil, however, GPR was successful in spite of poor substrate quality. The selection of a somewhat lower antenna frequency (250 MHz) than is often recommended for archaeology, played a role in the success of the work. The end result expands the known spatial extent of the site by five-fold, increasing our knowledge of architectural and village plans for a time period which is poorly understood in this region. The settlement scale and complexity shown by these new results indicates that Chalcolithic villages are not only present in the Galilee but are as extensive and architecturally sophisticated as contemporaneous settlements in other regions. In combination with excavation results, the structures detected with GPR at Marj Rabba provide the largest plan of an early Chalcolithic settlement in the Galilee.
In the past decade, the idea that speaking of a culture inevitably suggests an inordinate degree of boundedness, homogeneity, coherence, and stability has gained considerable support, and some cultural/social anthropologists have even called for abandoning the concept. It is argued here, however, that the unwelcome connotations are not inherent in the concept but associated with certain usages that have been less standardized than these critics assume. The root of the confusion is the distribution of learned routines across individuals. while these routines are never perfectly shared, they are not randomly distributed. Therefore, "culture" should be retained as a convenient term for designating the clusters of common concepts, emotions, and practices that arise when people interact regularly. Furthermore, outside anthropology and academia the word is gaining popularity and increasingly understood in a roughly anthropological way. Retaining the concept while clarifying that culture is not reproduced unproblematically, has its limits in the individual and the universal, and is not synonymous with ethnicity and identity will preserve the common ground the concept has created within the discipline. Moreover, it will simplify communicating anthropological ideas to the general public and thus challenging mistaken assumptions.
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