What makes a Grand Slam champion? Early engagement, late specialization and timely transition from having fun to dedication

Abstract

In order to provide adequate support for young tennis players, it is important to understand the development path and factors which can have a positive or negative impact on the development of a player. The aim of this research was to determine the factors that affected sports specialization in tennis by means of qualitative analysis (early, optimal, or late). As well as to deepen the knowledge around the phenomenon of specialization in tennis among players of differing success levels through their personal experiences, in order to contribute to a better understanding of their specialization. The authors interviewed 30 tennis players of differing levels, including 10 participants from the most elite level (Grand Slam champions), exploring their contrasting experiences of development. The data set was analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. Three topics were generated, which included the following: engaging in sport, decisions, and time of specialization. The obtained results offer a stimulus to reflect on numerous aspects of athlete development.

Full text

EDITED BY
Jaime Fernandez Fernandez,
Universidad de León, Spain
REVIEWED BY
Rafael Martínez-Gallego,
University of Valencia, Spain
Philip Edward Kearney,
University of Limerick, Ireland
*CORRESPONDENCE
Dario Novak
dario.novak@kif.hr
RECEIVED 27 April 2023
ACCEPTED 30 June 2023
PUBLISHED 21 July 2023
CITATION
Oršolic
M, Barbaros P and Novak D (2023) What
makes a Grand Slam champion? Early
engagement, late specialization and timely
transition from having fun to dedication.
Front. Sports Act. Living 5:1213317.
doi: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1213317
COPYRIGHT
© 2023 Oršolic
, Barbaros and Novak. This is an
open-access article distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in
other forums is permitted, provided the original
author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are
credited and that the original publication in this
journal is cited, in accordance with accepted
academic practice. No use, distribution or
reproduction is permitted which does not
comply with these terms.
What makes a Grand Slam
champion? Early engagement, late
specialization and timely transition
from having fun to dedication
Mario Oršolic
1, Petar Barbaros2and Dario Novak2*
1
Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia,
2
Faculty
of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
In order to provide adequate support for young tennis players, it is important to
understand the development path and factors which can have a positive or
negative impact on the development of a player. The aim of this research was to
determine the factors that affected sports specialization in tennis by means of
qualitative analysis (early, optimal, or late). As well as to deepen the knowledge
around the phenomenon of specialization in tennis among players of differing
success levels through their personal experiences, in order to contribute to a
better understanding of their specialization. The authors interviewed 30 tennis
players of differing levels, including 10 participants from the most elite level
(Grand Slam champions), exploring their contrasting experiences of
development. The data set was analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. Three
topics were generated, which included the following: engaging in sport,
decisions, and time of specialization. The obtained results offer a stimulus to
reflect on numerous aspects of athlete development.
KEYWORDS
tennis, specialization, success, development path, interview, reflexive thematic analysis
1. Introduction
There is an increasingly frequent discussion, both in the academic and sporting world,
around the best pathway and age for children with a high potential for success to begin
participating in sport (1). Uneven development paths experienced by athletes from sports
in which top-level performance takes place before or after an athlete has fully matured,
may imply various patterns of support by the parents, coaches, and peers during the
development of an athlete. For example, in some sports, top-level performance is achieved
at an adult age (2,3). In order to provide support to young athletes, it is important to
understand the development path and factors which can have a positive or negative affect
on the development of their specialization, as well as to distinguish between athletes who
achieve highly, as well as their less successful colleagues (4–7).
In scientific literature, many different viewpoints have been researched and presented.
One point of view emphasizes the importance of a high level of specialization in young
athletes (e.g., national team level and above) for the later achievement of high-level senior
performance, whereas another point of view suggests the limitations of high-level
specialization among young athletes for later senior high-level performance (6). For this
reason, the question arises whether an early start in sports specialization is a prerequisite
for later success in sport. A large number of previous studies indicate that early sports
specialization is not a prerequisite for success, and that it can actually even hinder long-
term achievement in certain sports (6,8–18).
TYPE Original Research
PUBLISHED 21 July 2023
|
DOI 10.3389/fspor.2023.1213317
Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 01 frontiersin.org

Despite the fact that early specialization in sports is increasing,
recent studies found that late specialization (described as
specialization after the age of 12) is more common among top-
level athletes (19). Opposite to early specialization, elite athletes
in multiple sports tend to start with more intensive training later
on in their adolescence (20). In a study of elite and near-elite
Danish athletes with the average age of 24,5 (athletics,
weightlifting, cycling, rowing, swimming, skiing), the results
showed that the elite group started with intensive training at a
later age, as well as spending fewer hours practicing their main
sport up to the age of 15 when compared to the near-elite group
(21). For most sports, it is more probable that early diversity
(diversification) shall lead to success (21–30). Current data on
the sports specialization of elite, professional, and Olympic
athletes is mostly retrospective and consists of survey-based
evidence, according to which a majority of sports show better
performance following the multi-sports engagement of young
athletes. While additionally, sports specialization among young
athletes is also associated to an increased risk of injuries among
athletes at the highest of levels (31). Present guidelines for youth
participation in sports greatly differs within and between sports,
and there is lack of consensus on how young athletes should
train. Other aspects of participation in sports also need to be
regarded, as they can also contribute to the problem of sports
specialization in young athletes (32). However, many parents and
athletes believe that early specialization is the best method for
becoming a top-level athlete (19,33–35).
On the other hand, in a study overview by Mosher et al. (36)
they found that there is explicit evidence that early specialization
is harmful and should be avoided in any context. At the
conclusion of the study, it was determined that without a
consistent definition of early specialization, it is difficult to
conclude on such a level of harmfulness of early specialization
for young athletes as it is claimed by numerous organizations
(e.g., American Orthopedic Society for Sports Medicine,
American Academy of Pediatrics, International Society of Sport
Psychology, National Association for Sports and Physical
Education). Some defined early specialization as “year-long
intensive training in one sport with the exclusion of other
sports”(15), whereas others defined the beginning of early
specialization as “the period when an athlete determines one
sport as more important than another”(37). Hendry and Hodges
(38) consider an increase in the number of training sessions per
year as a key marker of early specialization, while Baker et al.
(39) indicate early age and early inclusion into competitive sport
as key parameters of early specialization.
There are presumptions among coaches, whereas the literature
is not persuasive, as to the optimal starting age for beginning with
tennis training that would allow for future success, given that
tennis is a complex skill-based sport, usually characterized by
long careers and with many top-level players actively playing
even in their thirties (40–43).
Some coaches claim that many top-level professional tennis
players started training as early as at the age of four, as well as
that it is important to start early in order to ensure a satisfactory
level of acquiring technical tennis elements (44). Further research
by Li et al. (45) indicated that 75% of the top 300 players started
playing tennis between the ages of 3 and 7, whereas 21% began
playing between the ages of 7–10, and 4% started later, between
10 and 13. With regard to specialization, a study by the
American Tennis Association showed that 70% of athletes
specialized by the age of 10 years (46). However, a study by
Carlson (24) concludes that elite tennis players specialized later
and trained less than their near-elite peers between the ages of
13 and 15, but that they significantly increased their training
after the age of 15. Result-based talent identification forces
athletes to specialize in their sports at a younger age. Tennis
experts suggest that on-court results should not be utilized as the
only predictor of later success, particularly before puberty (47–49).
On the basis of all the above-mentioned, the conclusion can be
made that it is important to focus research towards what athletes
emphasize as relevant for their career to be successful, as such an
approach has not been previously implemented in the creation of
individual sporting careers, nor has the personal experience of
one’s own sports career been assessed in an appropriate manner.
In view of the defined research problem, the following research
question has been raised: which factors do tennis players of
different levels of success perceive as key for optimal
specialization in tennis? Therefore, the purpose of this study is to
deepen the knowledge around the phenomenon of specialization
in tennis among players of differing success levels by means of
their personal experiences, in order to contribute to their better
understanding, as well as to improve the process of creating
individual sporting careers. In accordance with the mentioned
purpose of this study, the aim is to provide an in-depth
qualitative description of the development path of tennis players,
as well as how different development paths affected specialization
in tennis (early, optimal or late). The secondary purpose of the
study is to collect enough data to share valuable information for
parents, coaches, and junior tennis players. In layman’s terms,
which key decisions have former male Grand Slam singles
players made during their junior careers that helped propel them
to winning a Grand Slam or multiple Grand Slams?
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Philosophical perspectives and design
In this study, thematic analysis was used as a qualitative
descriptive approach. Thematic analysis as an independent
qualitative descriptive approach is mostly described as “a method
for identifying, analyzing and reporting on patterns (themes)
within data”(50,51). Given that this study was focused on
understanding the perspective of different development paths of
tennis players during their adolescence, the qualitative descriptive
approach was considered as appropriate. This study was
positioned within the Interpretivist Paradigm as well as following
Subjectivist Epistemology. The rationale for the approach was
understanding the complexity of personal experiences of the
tennis players, on the basis of which data shall be produced
regarding differing levels of success among tennis players. On the
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level of content, this implies focusing on understanding what a
certain life situation or problem meant for an individual player,
as well as what can be used to enhance individuals’development
paths of future players who are hoping to achieve success in
tennis. By studying the beginning of sports specialization in
tennis players, this study aims help identify tennis players who
started with sports specialization either early or late on in their
life. In this way, specific strategies and interventions within
tennis practice can be created and implemented which could
facilitate achieving a more adequate method of specialization in
tennis. By determining the beginning of sports specialization, this
study shall assist in producing an optimal approach for including
children into the process of sports specialization.
Upon taking into consideration the aim of the study, male
tennis players of differing levels of sporting success participated
in this research. The selection method adheres to a specific
approach for biographical studies which includes all participants
who best correspond to the research questions and from whom
the most valuable information shall be obtained in response to
these questions (52).
Consequently, 30 players (aged between 25 and 50 years)
selected by deliberate sample were interviewed. Eight of the
participants are still active players, whereas 22 of them had
finished their competitive careers. The research participants were
divided into three categories: (1) Grand Slam winners (N= 10),
i.e., tennis players who won at least one of the four Grand Slam
tennis tournaments (Australian Open, US Open, Roland Garros
or Wimbledon), (2) players ranked between 150 and 300 on the
professional men’s tennis rankings (N= 10) [according to the
official website of the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP)
or who were at one point in their career ranked in that position],
and (3) senior male tennis players of national rank (N= 10)
(ranked between 1st and 10th place on the national ranking list
or between 500 and 1,500 on the ATP ranking, i.e., who were at
one point in their career ranked in one of these positions). All of
our participants tennis careers took part between the time period
1990 and 2022.
2.2. Methods and data collection
In this research, a qualitative methodological approach was
used by implementing biographical studies by means of
collecting life stories from tennis players of differing levels of
sporting success.
The participants, who meet the above-mentioned criteria, were
invited to take part through direct personal contact. In order to
ensure optimal personal context of the data, it was extremely
important for each participant to distinctly relay personal
experience to key phases which relate to their own careers
(4,53). It had previously been shown that such an approach
increases the accuracy and authenticity of memories (4,54) and
had been an important step in overcoming certain limitations of
retrospective remembering. This is a specific and key aspect for
this type of data collection by ensuring the remembrance of each
participant’s personal experience related to a specific life period.
Each question in the interview guide was open-ended, which
resulted with a range of responses that were meaningful for each
single participant.
All interviews were conducted by an individual educated in
implementing such procedures, who is also a coach with
extensive experience on the ATP tour. The above-mentioned
circumstances allowed for a more comfortable atmosphere during
the interview and sincere replies in communication with the
players. Prior to conducting the interviews, a selection of the
participants took part in pilot interviews. The pilot interviews
greatly contributed to the increase of the research quality-level of
this study, as they resulted in recognizing the need adapt certain
questions or other methods which did not elicit proper responses
or enable the researcher to receive a rich set of data (55). All
interviews were transcribed verbatim, i.e., recorded according to
what was said. Each interview lasted between 50 and 70 min,
with an average duration of 60 min. The interviews where then
checked with the co-authors, which enabled the head interviewer
to rehearse and improve the interview process, including the
comprehensibility and clarity of the questions, use of more
accessible language for the participants, as well as the effective
use of probes for elaboration and clarification (56–59).
Data collection was organized in three phases by applying the
semi-structural interview method. The first phase included
establishing contact with the potential participant via telephone
call and email. The second phase referred to explaining the
procedure, purpose, and topic of the research to the participants.
The third phase included the implementation of the interview
with the participant. The interviews were conducted in quiet and
isolated places in order to prevent environmental factors (noise,
light, bad weather) from affecting the participant’s responses. A
default interview structure was prepared in advance, however
questions were open ended in order to gain individual insight
into each participants different experiences. The interviews were
conducted up until the point when the research topic was
exhausted, i.e., as long as conversation reflections did not start
repeating.
The interviews began with a detailed explanation of the aim
and purpose of the research, which was then followed by the
participants’providing their names and age, as well as a short
introduction of their development path in tennis. The mentioned
process facilitated the follow-up questions and transcriptions, as
well as served as a type of icebreaker. After this initial phase, the
interview was continued with questions regarding the
specialization process of the tennis player. The problem questions
within this study included: at what age did the player start
engaging in sports?, at what age did the player begin training?,
was tennis the only sport the player trained in? (if not, which
other sports), did the tennis player train in a small or big club?,
does the tennis player think that young players should
immediately start training at top-level camps (clubs) in order to
achieve elite-level results?, at what age did the tennis player start
with more intensive tennis training?, does the tennis player
consider that children should start with specialization in tennis
as soon as possible?, if the tennis player could go back to the
beginning of his career would he change something about the
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specialization process?, would the tennis player start earlier or later
with more intensive tennis training and why would the tennis
player start earlier/later with more intensive training?. The
participants were asked to elaborate on their response to each of
the questions.
Considering the subjective and individual nature of the
research topic, each participant was asked an additional set of
questions at the end of the interview in order to gain a deeper
understanding of the sports path that tennis players go through.
The questions at the end of the interview were asked with the
aim to extract additional information, such as: what does success
in tennis represent for each player?, which factors determine
success in tennis?, is genetic heritage important for success in
tennis, or are external conditions more important?, what
differentiates successful from less successful tennis players?, and
if there is something the player wanted to add or further explain
regarding a previously discussed topic if a certain question was
not asked or in case the tennis player was not able to fully
respond in that instance.
2.3. Ethics
All participants agreed to take part in the study and gave prior
informed consent, while the research was approved by the home
institution of the second and third researchers and co-authors.
2.4. Data analysis
For the possibility of later transcription and interview analysis,
all interviews were recorded with a tape recorder and video camera,
which was communicated to the participants prior to the start of
any said recording, and they were required to give their consent.
Anonymity was guaranteed to each participant, as well as
confidentiality of any personal information. Participants were
allowed to remove themselves from the study at any given
moment. All interviews were transcribed verbatim, i.e., recorded
according to what was stated. The reflexive thematic analysis
approach was used, which was developed by Braun and Clarke
(60), for interview analysis, which comprises of six separate
stages and is implemented inductively, so that the statements of
the participants are coded with the aim to summarize them at
the level of explicit meaning. The first phase comprised of
interview transcription, which is deemed a good method for
familiarizing oneself with the obtained data. The mentioned
phase also included several readings of interview transcripts and
the identification of data segments which contained significant
information. The second phase consisted of producing initial
codes from the data. Several potential topics were coded that
were regarded as interesting and relevant for further research.
The third phase involved sorting different codes into possible
topics and comparing all relevant coded data extracts within the
identified topics. The fourth phase consisted of a two-level review
and refinement of topics, as follows: review at the level of coded
data, and coding of additional data within topics which was
omitted during the previous coding phases. The fifth phase was
the definition and naming of the topics, during which the chosen
topics were further refined. The final sixth phase consists of
producing a report having finished with fully developing the topics.
3. Methodological rigor
Thematic analysis is a qualitative research method for
identifying, analyzing, organizing, describing, and reporting on
topics contained within a data set (50). Braun and Clarke (50)
state that thematic analysis is a useful method for examining the
perspectives of different research participants, pointing out
similarities and differences, as well as generating unexpected
insights. A series of steps was introduced in order to increase
data credibility (57,61). Conducting pilot interviews (and using
the same interviewer the entire time) assisted in increasing the
consistency of the interviews. The interviewer’s experience
(identical as in the pilot interview) as a coach with a rich
background on the ATP tour procured trust and a comfortable
atmosphere during the interview. All interview transcripts were
delivered to the participants for their verification, allowing them
to add, delete, or revise any data they considered as wrong in
relation to their communication during the interview (56).
Furthermore, the third author subsequently contacted the
participants by telephone in order for them to confirm their
statements and discuss the study findings. All of these activities
confirmed to the authors that the participants were properly
instructed for the research involvement. All of the participants
verified their transcripts. All three members of the research team
participated in joint meetings and collectively took part in the
analysis of the obtained data. The mentioned meetings included
detailed discussions on the standout topics. There were some
uncertainties in relation to some of the topics, however, following
repeated meetings and detailed analysis, an agreement was
reached in order to present the obtained data as accurately as
possible. The final coding scheme was agreed in the course of the
above-mentioned discussion and analysis. This important process
contributed to data credibility, ensuring the interpretative
validity, and minimizing the risk of individual research bias (62).
4. Researchers’reflexivity
I have personally (third author) experienced the
misunderstandings of my coaches and my surroundings in
tennis, as a result of which my wrong decisions arose from not
understanding the path experienced by top-level athletes with the
aim to achieve the best possible results. For this reason, I decided
to terminate my sports career and enroll into college. At college I
specialized in tennis and started working both as a tennis and a
physical conditioning coach. Athletes’limitations on the path
towards achieving top-level results became the subject of my
research interest. It was my own personal sports experience that
created this desire to study the mentioned area. Both the first
and second authors (also former tennis players and coaches)
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took part in the data collection process, as they also ended their
sports careers and engaged in researching athletes’success.
Conducting reflexive discussions with both mentioned co-authors
assisted me in elaborating on my presumptions, as well as in
remaining focused on the experiences of the participants, instead
of my personal situations. All of the above-mentioned is reflected
in the subjectivist epistemological position of this paper.
5. Results
In keeping with the aim of this study, data analysis resulted in a
large amount of relevant information which had an impact on the
development of the careers of the athletes involved. The data
analysis aimed to include quotes by the participants within each
question or sub-question. Stories of the participants from their
childhood onwards were presented with the aim of
demonstrating how different events and experiences in key
developmental moments formed their sporting careers. The
analysis resulted in seven sub-topics that were presented as part
of three main topics: (I) engaging in tennis, (II) decisions, and
(III) time of specialization.
With the aim to facilitate the tracking of quotes, the
participants were marked according to their category of success.
Grand Slam winners were tagged as Level 1, participants ranked
between position 150 and 300 were Level 2, while participants
ranked between position 500 and 1,500 were Level 3. The second
number of each mark represents the sequential order when the
participant was interviewed within his category.
TOPIC 1. Engaging in tennis
This topic represented the different ways in which the
participants described their beginnings in tennis. Within this
topic, there were three sub-topics: important people relating to
an athlete choosing tennis, impact of additional activities, and
growing up in different environments.
Important people relating to an athlete choosing
tennis
An early beginning in playing tennis was found in almost all
participants at the third level of sporting success. This mostly
included tennis lessons, mini tennis, and playing in groups, with
training sessions being once or twice per week. However, two
participants from the third level of success stated that their first
contact with tennis took place when they were three and four
years old:
“I think I was four years old, and somewhat more seriously
probably at the age of six. I don’t remember that, but my
parents told me so.”L3/9
Participants at the second level of sporting success, in
comparison with their less successful colleagues, had a similar
early beginning (at the age of six or seven):
“I started when I was six and a half years old, before I started
first grade at school. It was tennis school, mini tennis.”L2/7
While a similar early start characterized participants at the
second and third level of sporting success (at the age of 6 or 7
years old), most Grand Slam winners had a somewhat earlier
start (aged 4 or 5). In the beginning, these were training sessions
once per week, and when the coaches noticed their talent, they
started training twice per week and were included into team
training with older players. They described their early beginning
in tennis as follows:
“I started when I was five years old and I played only one day
per week, on Saturdays.”L1/1
“So I started playing tennis when I was really, really young. I
was very small, almost still in diapers. When I was four years
old, at home I was always hitting a ball against the door of
our apartment.”L1/2
“I began playing tennis when I was four, three or four, early.
When I was really young, maybe one and a half years old, or
one, as soon as I could crawl, I had a wooden tablespoon for
soup and a small ball, and I would hit the ball and then
crawl to catch it, that is how I started.”L1/3
The participants hereafter described the process of choosing
tennis, i.e., who initiated the choice to be precisely tennis. With
regard to them starting to play tennis, the participants recounted
their experiences in detail while reminiscing and illustrating
various individual events, whereas their beginnings in the sport
and how they ended up specifically in tennis, they consider a be
a combination of circumstances.
Participants at the third level of sporting success chose tennis
as a result of multiple reasons, and some of them stated that
their brother or sister already played tennis:
“My sister started tennis before me, and then, along with her, I
also tried it. I went to her training without any obligations and
then, in the end, I liked it.”L3/2
One of the participants reported that he was the initiator in
deciding upon tennis:
“I saw tennis on the TV and then I told my father that I wanted
to play.”L3/4
Another participant at the third level of success stated that his
PE teacher played a considerable role in his choosing when he
contacted his parents:
“The PE teacher was a private coach, and he asked my parents
if they wanted their child to try playing tennis. And that was
how it started, and then I played my first tournaments.”L3/5
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Some of the participants from the third level of success said
that they chose tennis mostly because the tennis courts were
nearby their house or because they saw their father playing tennis:
“I lived 150 meters away from the tennis courts and that’s how
I ended up in tennis, and not, for example, at a football stadium
which was farther away.”L3/3
“My father was banging the tennis ball against the wall, and my
sister and I were running around him and shouting: ‘Let me try
it, let me try it!’. And then we took that racquet in our hands
and banged the tennis ball against the wall. Six months later,
we enrolled in a tennis school.”L3/6
It is interesting that among participants at the second level of
success, fathers played an important part in their child’s
enrollment:
“My father played tennis recreationally and applied for a
coaches’license. And so I played a little with him. I liked it
and after that the racquet never left my hands.”L2/9
One of the participants at the second level of success described
choosing tennis by emphasizing that it was exclusively his initiative:
“It was my initiative to play tennis. I also played football, and I
was good at it, but I left it and went to play tennis. There was
plenty of my initiative, and it is not often seen nowadays that
someone would simply take a racquet and tennis ball and go
and hit it against a wall.”L2/4
Some of the Grand Slam winners pointed towards fathers as
key individuals:
“My father started playing at a club. He joined in and started
playing tennis. He then brought me and my brother, who
was five years older than me, with him to play at this club.
So yes, I followed my father, joined the club, and enrolled in
a tennis school.”L1/1
“Tennis was a new sport here, and my uncle was the head of
some tennis club in Germany. That is how my father took
me and my older brother to training, and so I started
training tennis.”L1/7
Impact of additional activities
Additional activities turned out to be an interesting topic in
which a significant difference can be observed among the players
of the three different levels of success. For example, for
participants at the third level of success, tennis was the only
sport they engaged in, while participants at the second level of
success also showed interest in other sports. Despite being
interested in other sports, they were nonetheless not included
into training at organized sports clubs for these other sports.
When they started playing tennis, participants at the third level
of success did not demonstrate interest in playing other sports at
organized clubs.
“I was at tennis the entire day, at that point I trained tennis for
six, seven hours.”L3/10
However, during their developmental years, participants at the
second level of success also showed interest in other sports, but
they pointed out that their attention was still directed towards
tennis:
“Yes, there was also football and handball, but that was all on
an amateur level. I mean, there was no thinking about any
other sports for me as soon as I felt that this was it.”L2/1
During their developmental years, Grand Slam winners also
showed a liking for other sports. In addition to tennis, they also
actively trained in other sports, whilst their attention was equally
directed both towards tennis and the second sport that they were
involved in. It was not until their later years that they focused
solely on tennis:
“At first my father wanted me to play two sports, tennis, and
ice hockey. And so I did that for one or two years, but then
I concentrated only on tennis.”L1/3
“At sports school I learned athletics, cricket, field hockey,
basketball, and different kinds of sport, so that I developed
as an athlete practically before I developed as a tennis
player.”L1/5
Growing up in different environments
Participants feelings towards the challenges of growing up in a
smaller towns or larger cities when related to sport showed a high
level of awareness on the certain advantages and disadvantages that
could be present. The participants believed that the size of the city
definitely affected the beginning of sports specialization.
However, growing up in a smaller town meant athletes did not
have too much of a choice, i.e., the option of training in other
sports, directed them towards early specialization. A bigger city
offers more possibilities in terms of a more versatile
development, but also a wider selection in choosing more expert
training teams. One of the participants at the third level of
success who grew up in a smaller town stated the following:
“In a big city there are certainly more quality-level coaches, and
there are certainly more options if you are looking for a private
coach. It is a fact that you have a wider choice for playing other
sports, and at a certain point you can better decide on what
better suits you.”L3/4
Several participants at the third level of success pointed out that
leaving the smaller town for a bigger city made them feel uneasy
and less safe:
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“What was a huge disadvantage for me when I was leaving for
bigger cities was that I felt uncomfortable or perhaps less safe
because in my smaller environment I felt comfortable.”L3/3
Participants at the second level of sporting success described
how growing up in a smaller or bigger town affected the
beginning of sports specialization. Likewise, they stated that with
consideration to the environment they grew up in, they did
everything they could to benefit from it, as well as that some
tennis players, regardless of the limitations of growing up in a
small town, managed to get to the international level:
“Yes, I do think that the size of the town does affect
specialization. In environments where there is only one sport,
then everyone plays that one sport.”L2/3
“Some of my colleagues at a certain point in their growing up,
just like me, when they turned 14, 15, 16 years old, started
training somewhere else because this was a too small
environment for them.”L2/5
In addition to this, they also stated that growing up in a big city
offers a wider set of possibilities, for example, tennis clubs, the
option of sparing with better players, and competitions, etc.:
“I think that bigger towns offer more when it comes to the
conditions. But I think that in the end all that is not as
crucial as, in my opinion, that there is not really any
education for those children, coaches and parents who work
with those athletes during those phases.”L2/9
Grand Slam winners described growing up in smaller or bigger
towns to be less relevant for their advancement, however, that this
aspect also depends a lot on one’s character. They emphasized that
between the ages of 8 and 14, the most important aspect is to train
and have fun:
“I think that it depends on someone’s character, as well as on
their situation at home. So, I am not an overly social person,
and that’s why I think that it wouldn’t be good for me if I
had been growing up in the city. But I do know some
players from my youth, who grew up in the city and they
were good players when they were younger, but then, when
they were 13 or 14 years old, they started going out a little,
and having other interests, and in cities there is a lot going
on. There is nothing interesting happening in the village.”
L1/3
One Grand Slam winner believed that growing up and training
in a smaller town was an advantage for him and that because of
this, his attention was directed solely towards tennis:
“So, the attention, perhaps, that you receive in a smaller town is
greater, and you can train much more. However, at the same
time, I was really lucky because in my club there were
players who were in the top 7 in the world, and there were
also other players, I would say between positions 120 and
400. And that is why I always had excellent sparring
partners, you know, partners with whom I hit tennis balls
with. And players who could teach me how to improve my
game. That’s why I couldn’t have been in a better place, and
have a better environment for growing up as a tennis player.”
L1/2
TOPIC 2. Decisions
The second topic of this research piece concentrated on the
decisions that guided the subsequent tennis career of each
participant. This topic contained two sub-topics: the
development path, and from having fun to transitioning towards
a more dedicated training process.
Development path
All three categories of participants elaborated on both the
positive and negative sides of their experiences within their own
tennis development. What significantly characterized participants
at the second and third level of sporting success was a premature
narrow specialization, as well as the fact that at some point, they
lacked competition. The majority of the participants from the
second and third level of success pointed out that if they could
go back in time, they would build their tennis story on the
principle of broadness, where they would partake in more
international events to gain more experience as opposed to
staying in their home country and competing in local tournaments.
“I lacked, however, some of that competitive experience. I
would add that perhaps I should have competed more in
some international tournaments to get a broader
perspective.”L3/2
It is interesting that going to world renowned tennis academies
was marked as one of the key decisions in their sports careers that
they perhaps should not have made. Participants’perceptions were
that staying at the best tennis academies was not the right path
towards development for these players, and that they believe they
would have achieved much more progress if they had stayed at
home with a good coach.
“I was at one of the best tennis academies and I think that
wasn’t the right path. I lost several years at the academy, and
learned probably 10 to 15% of what I could have learned
with a good coach, and a quality programme. I would’ve
learned more in three weeks during the summer when I was
at home, then I would’ve learned in six months at the tennis
academy.”L3/8
As a reason for the inability to reach their full tennis potential,
participants at the second level of sports success also mentioned
their experience in going to world-renowned tennis academies:
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“I consider that to be a mistake as I think that I had been more
focused on some other things, instead of tennis. At home I
would’ve surely been more focused on tennis than I had
been at the tennis academies.”L2/1
They would postpone going away to tennis academies for a
time when they would be ready to focus on nothing other tennis:
“I would change only that I would prolong another few years of
being at home during that period between 13, 14 and 15 years
old.”L2/1
Some of the participants stated that they did not have sufficient
tennis skills and that they learned certain skills as late as at the age
of 20, 21 and 22. The participants felt that by that point, they
should have already known these aspects if they were to progress
to a better level. They believe that their path towards success
could not have been kept up by insufficiently competent coaches
and the work that had been carried out in younger age categories:
“I think that we had coaches who only started and that it was
them who learned from us. This is perhaps one of the reasons
why among many players, and also in my case and many of my
colleagues, a pronounced weariness takes place after a certain
number of years if specialization is started too early.”L2/5
“In my case, I lacked this through the childhood years, a certain
type of education, and here I mean things around tennis, such
as some kind of physical work, i.e. physical conditioning
training. What I would’ve liked was that I had the
opportunity of someone educating me a little better and
teaching me why you must stretch out, why you must run
for condition, what that adds up to in the end.”L2/9
As positive example one of the Grand Slam winners pointed
out was the moment they started to train with an elite group of
players:
“The key moment in my career was when the federation put us
in the group with older players. Three other top players in my
age group were also there. We always trained together.”L1/1
“I was in luck, I ended up with a coach who also trained four
national champions.”L1/2
Nevertheless, the most significant was the reaction of the Grand
Slam winners to the support they received from their teammates.
They considered the support to be the accelerant for their future
success:
“We had much success with assembling teams as, you know, if
he can win the championship, then I can also win the title
because I won against him at last week’s practice. You
support one another and that’s something that I think is
extremely efficient. I this that’s very successful all around the
world.”L1/2
Settling down in a new environment and a new club was a
challenge which was difficult to deal with even for Grand Slam
winners:
“Allow me to explain one key moment in my career, and that
crucial point was when I moved. Yes, that transition was
pivotal for me. I wasn’t feeling good in the beginning. I
didn’t like it, and I went home for the weekend every Friday
afternoon for almost two years. That wasn’t easy for me.”L1/1
From having fun to dedication in the training
process
In some parts of the interview, the participant also often
mentioned dedication to the training process, thus the mentioned
sub-topic proved to be extremely important in the segment of
reaching their tennis potential demonstrated at an early age. The
participants at the third level of sporting success demonstrated
the opinion that they were not actually fully committed and
enthusiastic in their training process:
“Perhaps the difference between me and the players who
reached the top level is that they enjoyed it, while us who
didn’t reach that level, we weren’t serious, we fooled around,
etc. I wasn’t responsible enough. I would say that my
training was excellent, however, it wasn’t always 100% as
when there was someone with me. If it was a great day, then
I would have a great practice, but if it wasn’t, then my
performance would be at 60 or 70%.”L3/1
On the other hand, there were once again explicit qualitative
differences between participants at the second and third level of
success. The participants at the second level of sporting success
were mostly characterized by a positive dedication, love for
tennis and focus:
“Well I think that 100% dedication is important for success in
tennis, and I mean really 100%. So, if you are willing to work,
then it must be at 100%. There is no other option, only that.
Dedication and arrogance. Arrogance, you must be really
audacious to show your teeth and to realize that nobody can
break you.”L2/1
“First you want to achieve certain goals, and that kept me going
between the ages of 21 and 30. Although there were rough
times, I had been injured, I wasn’t earning money, I had
accomplished enough, but not too much. And then I made a
career from the age of 30 until I was 40 years old.”L2/2
Despite the fact that they trained really hard and were focused
on tennis, they felt that they were missing a certain detail to
become even more successful. They emphasized that tennis is a
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specific sport and that for success, it was important to integrate a
number of factors:
“I was really concentrating on my tennis, how to improve my
strokes, but on the other hand, I wasn’t doing enough work on
speed for my body. Therefore, that was one of the mistakes in
the end. I had to be very careful, but earlier, between the age of
20 and 30, I surely wasn’t doing enough work.”L2/2
“Modesty is certainly my virtue, however this package, which is
necessary for a professional player to get into the top 100, I
didn’t have. I had 9 out of the 10 required elements
(categories), but I didn’t have this one I was missing—
perseverance.”L2/4
Grand Slam tennis players demonstrated exceptional
dedication and love for tennis even in their earlier years:
“I had found my love for sport at a very early age. I was a
fanatic when it came to tennis. I only wanted to play, and
play, and train, I never had enough. Sometimes my mother
and father had to drag me from the tennis court as it was
enough, they said, and I had to go get some sleep and eat,
get myself ready.”L1/2
Success and winning Grand Slam tournaments can be
contributed to dedication, focus, and love for the sport:
“But I believe that the basic thing lies in what you really want.
The basic thing is your commitment and your love for the
sport you’re playing.”L1/10
TOPIC 3. Time of specialization
The third research topic was oriented towards the time of
player specialization. Within this topic, there were two sub-
topics: targeted and more intensive training, and most optimal
time for targeted and more intensive training.
Targeted and more intensive training
A large number of participants at the third level of sporting
success pointed out that they started with targeted and more
intensive tennis training very early on in their tennis career.
They attribute their early beginning with more targeted and
intensive training to talent, due to which they acquired faster
initial tennis skills and for this reason, with their coach’s
initiative, they transferred from group to individual training:
“I didn’t stay for long in club training as it wasn’t working for
me, so I, starting since I was seven or eight years old, trained
everything individually.”L3/1
“I transferred from group to individual training around the age
of eight, and that was early. I remember being better than the
others in the group, so the coach took me to tournaments.”
L3/5
However, some of the participants at the third level of success
trained in groups the entire time, and they did not perceive the
precise transition to more intensive trainings from group to
individual sessions:
“Everything was mostly organized at the club-base level, club
trainings, sparing partners, matches, etc. So I don’t really
know about private classes (laughter).”L3/4
“To be completely honest with you, it was all a game to me.
When did the exact transition take place, I don’t know, I can
only say that I did not notice that there was any transition.”
L3/10
Among participants at the second level of success, a later start
of targeted and more intensive training is noticeable. Data analysis
determined that the reason for this was playing another sport at a
recreational level, which the participants at the second level of
success equally loved. Below are their statements regarding the
age at which they focused and trained more solely in tennis:
“Well, I started training more seriously when I was 14 years
old, that is when I began playing tennis every day.”L2/3
“I started training more seriously at the age of 14, 15, and then
at the age of 16, I went to Germany. I totally went into
professionalism.”L2/4
The statements of Grand Slam winners are not in favor of early
specialization, i.e., of prematurely focusing and training intensely in
tennis, which is confirmed by the data analysis—as they themselves
did not start too early with specialization:
“I started training more individually when I was perhaps 12, 13
years old, when I played at the national championship. At that
point I trained almost every day. And it was not until later on
that I started competing on weekends, both individually and in
team competitions.”L1/1
“I played and trained in other sports as well, and then, when I
was 15 years old, there was only tennis.”L1/5
“I began training more seriously and more intensively only
after finishing elementary school, for sure not too early.”L1/7
The most optimal time for targeted and more
intensive training
Below are some considerations of the participants regarding the
most optimal time for starting with targeted and more intensive
training (narrow specialization) in tennis. The participants
believe that in sport today, and thus also in tennis, intensive
individual training starts sooner than it did previously, and that
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this is not beneficial. Likewise, they elaborated on the fact
that focus should be directed more towards technique, as well as
that players should be slowly introduced into competitions.
Participants at the third level of success also maintain that
children should not focus exclusively on tennis too early on in
their life, however, this surely varies from one player to the
other. On the basis of their personal experiences, participants
stated that they would recommend that children train at club
level, and that only occasional individual training is included.
“Today I would advise children and their parents to keep this
sort of club programme until the age of 12 to 14 years old,
however, also to introduce individual training once or twice a
week.”L3/2
“In my opinion, narrow specialization should be introduced at
that moment when the player has sufficient tennis broadness
and when he’s physically mature enough for it. I would
certainly build the story on broadness, and in no case on
narrow specialization in the sense of having many
tournaments.”L3/3
Some participants believe that parents pressure their children
and start with premature targeted and more intensive training
due to the fact that they did not succeed in their own
accomplishments, i.e., did not have a successful sports career
themselves.
“The problem is when parents pressure their children and then
the child decides something on force and is not sure of its
choice.”L3/1
“Sometimes people who didn’t accomplish something when
they were young, they ask that of their children, whereas the
children perhaps aren’t ready and don’t want that, and then
problems occur.”L3/6
Participants at the second level of success also reported that it is
not a good choice to start with premature specialization. Equally,
they believe that children should be directed towards engaging in
as many sports as possible and with the main goal being to have
fun.
“When you’re 15, 16 years old, you can play tennis, but before
that, it’s too early in my opinion. It’s dangerous to specialize
too early.”L2/2
“I think it’s important to also train in another sport, such as
athletics, football or any other sport, as long as you’re
training something else.”L2/10
This type of more versatile beginning and later specialization
was additionally emphasized by one participant for whom
narrow and early specialization did not prove to be the optimal
solution. The below quote confirms the thesis on why his friends
quit sport early on in their life:
“I know a lot of children, my friends, who were in sport from
the age of 1 to 12, or to the age of 14, and then they gave up on
sport. I think that it’s very important to start slowly.”L2/3
Statements from Grand Slam winners suggest that it could be
beneficial for future aspiring players to develop their motor skills
through engaging in other sports at a young age, as well as not
to start too early with targeted and intensive training (narrow
specialization). It is interesting that Grand Slam winners pointed
out the following—that for someone to be a better and more
successful athlete, they feel that it would be highly beneficial for
players to play as many sports as possible, and their most
optimal suggested time for targeted and intensive training was
described in the following quotes:
“At a certain phase, if you want to be successful, very successful
in a certain sport or to be excellent in something else, you must
focus on a specific topic or one sport, depending on what it is.”
L1/5
“I think that if you strain your body too much before it has
completely grown up, there is a great risk of many injuries,
which will then cause problems.”L1/7
“I don’t know, but I certainly wouldn’t play for three of four
hours each day of the week. And you need to rest also, you
know.”L1/10
6. Discussion
This is the first study which presents qualitative research
factors that affected specialization in tennis among players at
three levels of sporting success: (1) Grand Slam winners, (2)
players ranked between position 150 and 300, and (3) players
ranked between position 500 and 1,500 on the professional men’s
tennis rankings. Through thematic analysis, early specialization
was identified as an important barrier to a successful tennis
career. The accounts of successful and less successful players
provided valuable insight into how their tennis careers initially
developed, players’perceptions of how specialization impacted
upon success, and the consequences of early specialization
experiences for overall success.
Grand Slam winners described that when they started playing
tennis at a very early age, it was characterized by a small number
of training sessions per week, they also emphasized that tennis
was not the only sport that they engaged in. Balyi, Way and
Higgs (63) claim that at the purpose of the childhood
development phase should be to instill the love for sports and
encourage children to get involved in sport. Introducing children
to a racquet and ball appropriate for their age group, improving
hand-eye coordination, gaining confidence, learning various basic
tennis moves—are all some of the goals which should be
achieved during this period according to Lloyd et al. (64).
Starting early is quite often correlated with success, and thus
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Li et al. (45) state in their research that some coaches claim how
many top-level professional tennis players started as early as at
the age of four, as well as that it is important to start early in
order to acquire technical tennis skills. However, studies have
shown that an earlier beginning and a greater volume of specific
sports training and competition during adolescence is not
necessarily correlated with greater success (65,66). According to
Roetert et al. (67), coaches have a significant role in terms of
introducing young children into tennis and teaching the skills
required for enjoying the game for the duration of one’s lifetime.
Coaches can surely play an important role in achieving a healthy,
positive and educational surrounding which is suitable for proper
skill development (68). Nevertheless, the inclusion of young
children in sports greatly depends on the parents, as parental
influence presents 57% at that age, whereas later on this
important role is taken over by sports clubs and coaches. Parents
have the greatest influence on the decision of a young athlete to
play tennis (69).
Studies have shown that young children who participate in a
large number of sports at a younger age have higher results in
tasks of gross motor coordination, as well as a reduced risk of
injuries in comparison to children who specialized in only one
sport at an early age (70,71). Without the opportunity to try out
different sports during their childhood, it is less likely that young
athletes shall acquire fundamental physical, psychosocial, and
cognitive abilities which are relevant for long-term success in
sports (72). By specializing in only one sport, athletes can reduce
the need to participate in versatile sports activities throughout
the entire year, which can in turn result in a decline of sporting
skill development during one’s lifetime (73).
The size of the city where an athlete is born can be a significant
prerequisite for future sporting achievements (74). Studies quite
often point out arguments which explain why it is more
advantageous to grow up in smaller to middle-sized cities, as
opposed to bigger cities. Despite the fact that big cities can offer
children and young athletes better conditions, such as well-
designed and equipped sports facilities and better coaching
leadership, it appears that sports programs implemented in big
cities significantly lack time, more personal athlete-coach
relationships and an insufficient focus on the individual (75,76).
Combined qualitative reports provided by coaches and
quantitative data analysis from various research pieces further
support the idea that smaller and middle-sized cities, as opposed
to big cities, are considered as a more suitable sports
environment for children and adolescents (aged between 14 and
18) (77). For the above-mentioned reasons, training in a smaller
town has its advantages, however, in order to achieve better
sports results, after the age of 14 it is necessary to switch
sporting surroundings from smaller to bigger cities.
The private sector in tennis offers highly professionalized
training centers and academies which provide all-inclusive
development paths for players, from talent identification to elite-
level tennis (78). Tennis players advance through a talent
development process to tennis clubs and national training centers
or private academies (79). Data analysis revealed that the
participants were not satisfied with going to tennis academies,
and therefore Crespo and Over (80) believe that the key role is
that of local-level tennis clubs, both in providing the opportunity
to participate in sports, and providing modified sports programs
and competition formats. Consequently, De Bosscher et al. (81)
consider that the development of elite athletes, including success
at national and international competitions, inevitably requires a
strategic approach to the development of top-level athletes.
Having fun leads to dedication in the training process, thus this
seemingly insignificant factor during training holds the potential of
having a significant role in terms of ultimate success. Weiss et al.
(82) presented results which found that having fun was the
primary indicator of dedication in sports among 198 USA junior
tennis players. Another study by Casper et al. (83), including
adult tennis players in the USA, revealed that having fun and
personal investment represented the most significant
preconditions for dedication in sports. In an interesting research
piece by Weiss and Neibert (84), the authors reported that the
level of dedication among athletes can alter in the process of
aging. The results of this study likewise showed that Grand Slam
winners were more enthusiastic and dedicated to training, and
also considered enjoying the game as a main factor for success.
There is no evidence that intensive training and specialization
before adolescence is required for reaching elite-level status in
individual sports such as tennis. The risks of early sports
specialization include higher injury rate, greater psychological
stress, and ceasing to play sports in early youth (85,86). In a
paper by Li et al. (45), the results showed that the majority of
players started tennis between the age of 3 and 7, which
indicates that tennis is a sport that children start playing early,
which seems to be an important if the aim is to achieve success
on a professional level, while such results are also confirmed by
research in football implemented by Hendry and Hodges (38).
Furthermore, a common characteristic of those who started late
with more targeted and intensive training was that they also
engaged in other sports as well (e.g., football, gymnastics, etc.).
The mentioned research points to the fact that an early start in
tennis and late specialization can also result in elite-level success
(87). However despite this,, young athletes are increasingly
getting involved in early sports specialization (i.e., intensive
engagement in only one sport starting at early childhood) in
order to gain an early advantage in the sense of developing
skills (88).
The age at which young athletes should specialize is one of the
most relevant discussions in youth sports today, whereas
researchers from around the world have been debating this issue
for decades (89). Determining the timely beginning for sport
specialization in young athletes, and its effect on the further
career of athletes, present the key finding of this study, which
will assist in defining the optimal time for introducing children
to tennis. The debate about specialization is grounded on the
question when an athlete should specialize in a particular sport.
According to Jayanthi et al. (20), sports specialization in tennis
should be constantly ongoing. In the study by Schneider and
Jayanthi (87), it was concluded that an early introduction and
late specialization in tennis can result in elite-level success. It is
interesting to recognize that all Grand Slam winners developed
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their career precisely in that manner. Sports specialization is
recommended in late adolescence, as early specialization results
in great risk of injuries, psychological stress and reduced
participation in sport, which is definitely identified in this study
and further confirmed in various other research pieces (19,20,
36,90).
It is precisely the experiences of Grand Slam winners that
shows it is possible to reach the top of the game without
specializing early. It looks like pre-adolescent specialization is not
always a requirement to become an elite athlete. Moreover, later
specialization may mean there is more chance of children
choosing the sport that is best for them—not simply one that
suited their physical predispositions better at a particular time, or
was their parents’favorite (91). Based on the findings of this
qualitative research, we might conclude that a hybrid approach—
early engagement and later specialization—offer a prudent
alternative to early specialization (91,92). In the early
engagement model, players are actively encouraged to accumulate
sufficient hours in their main sport, in this case tennis, so as to
not accumulate a large practice deficit relative to early
specializers. But early engagers are also encouraged to continue
playing as many sports as they like to gain the necessary sport-
specific skills, as well as a broad range of physical and mental
skills (91). There are no empirical studies on early engagement
in tennis, however, there are some studies supporting this model
in other sports (38,93,94).
A key strength of this study was that a substantial proportion of
the sample were Grand Slam champions, which is uncommon in
qualitative and sport science research. Studies often research less
successful tennis players because they are much more accessible.
There is different criteria for determining the sample size within
qualitative research (60). The sample size containing sufficient
information strength depends on the following: (a) aim of the
research, (b) specificity of the sample, (c) use of the established
theory, (d) quality of dialogue, and (e) analysis strategy (95).
With a total of ten Grand Slam champions recruited in this
study, the sample size met the recommendation for a qualitative
research study (60). However, it is important to acknowledge that
the research findings may not be generalizable to the entire
population of male tennis players. Furthermore, the content
quality of this study is demonstrated by the possibility of
generalization, reliability, and versatility of the obtained data. We
believe that the presented results provide an adequate incentive
for speculation among coaches, parents, and any other members
of sports staff regarding the proper manner of supporting young
athletes.
Focusing exclusively on male tennis players presents the main
drawback of this study, as it does not provide a complete picture on
sports specialization in tennis. Future studies should certainly be
directed towards researching personal situations and experiences
among female tennis players. Upon insight into literature, one
can notice a very small number of qualitative research studies on
the personal events and experiences of athletes/tennis players at
differing levels of sporting success, as well as studies on sports
specialization in tennis in general, and thus this study provides a
basis for other researchers in their future research within this
field. There is a need to determine how other barriers influence
tennis careers and impact levels of success in tennis. The inter-
relatedness of other barriers may be important in understanding
a holistic approach to improving success levels of younger tennis
players, and for the measurement of success-related barriers.
However, more research is needed to explore these inter-relations.
Based on the presented study results, it can be recommended
that first introduction to tennis should take place early on in an
individuals life, however, it should be directed primarily towards
evoking the feeling of having fun. Furthermore, we can say that
an early engagement in tennis should be followed by later
specialization.
7. Conclusion
This qualitative study examines the experiences of three
differing categories of tennis players. The players reflect on their
perspective of their own sporting careers, and on how they
experienced their development path prior to reaching a certain
level of success. The results of this study clarified the difficulties
that tennis players are faced with on their path towards success.
The results also enable planning for the optimal time to start
with sports specialization in tennis for future tennis players,
coaches, and other sports staff.
In the process of this review, topics were identified, and the
following standards were proposed. These standards should be
included in future practice in order to assist sports communities
and service providers in making all processes more effective:
- it is important that first introduction tennis is more towards
earlier youth with the aim of evoking positive feelings and
love for the sport;
- specialization (targeted and more intensive training) is
recommended later on in adolescence, as early specialization
includes great risk of sports injury occurrences, experiencing
great psychological stress, and consequently stopping
participation in sport;
- previous research also indicates that it is desirable for tennis
players, in addition to training, to do other sports as well in
order to develop various skills and abilities that shall provide
long-term benefits in achieving greater success in tennis.
Data availability statement
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be
made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
Ethics statement
The studies involving human participants were reviewed and
approved by Committee for Scientific Work and Ethics of the
Faculty of Kinesiology University of Zagreb, number: 6/2021. The
patients/participants provided their written informed consent to
participate in this study.
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Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 12 frontiersin.org

Author contributions
All authors contributed to the conception and design
of the study. DN and MO performed the data
collection. All authors contributed to manuscript
revision, read, and approved the submitted version. All
authors contributed to the article and approved the
submitted version.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank all the participants for agreeing to
participate in this study. We would also like to thank the
professors who helped us with this project.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the
authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated
organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the
reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or
claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed
or endorsed by the publisher.
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