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Research Article
Mohammed A. El-Banna*, Ali M. Basha, and Ashraf A. A. Beshr
Creating digital maps for geotechnical
characteristics of soil based on GIS technology
and remote sensing
https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0495
received July 22, 2022; accepted May 10, 2023
Abstract: This article investigates creating digital maps for
physical and geotechnical characteristics of soil based on
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) technology and
remote sensing for one of the most important areas in
Egypt, namely, Delta Nile region, which is characterized
by its agricultural and cultural resources. To create accu-
rate digital maps for the soil characteristics of this area,
data are collected mechanically, manually and in the
laboratory and loaded up with the help of GIS technology
using Modified Inverse Distance Weighted as a spatial
interpolation technique throughout using 119 soil samples
inside Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate, Egypt. A digital eleva-
tion map of the Delta region has been downloaded using
remote sensing technology to obtain the reduced levels
of the different points for the studied area. Data were
analyzed and studied well to produce six digital maps
describing the important physical and geotechnical char-
acteristics of soil such as groundwater level, pH water
−Log (H
+
); the percentage of salts and chlorides (NaCl);
Sulfate ratio (SO
4
); average appearance of the sand layer
and average appearance of the clay layer. The results indi-
cate a significant increase in the percentage of chlorides
and sulfates, as the percentage of chlorides increased at a
rate ranging between 2,000 and 6,000 mg L
−1
up to 86.95%
of the study area. It was noted that the percentage of sul-
fates increased at a rate range between 1,000 and more
than 2,000 mg L
−1
up to 91.5% of the study area. The final
groundwater level ranges between 1.5 and 3 m under
ground level, but the largest percentage is at a level of
1.5 m with a percentage up to 70% of the area of the study
area. When conducting tests on water to determine the
acidity and alkalinity aspect, we concluded that most of
the values are between 6.8 and 7.3, with 44.62% for the first
and 52.63 for the latter.
Keywords: GIS, digital soil mapping, prediction, MIDW,
digital elevation model
1 Introduction
The properties of soil are characterized by a high degree of
variability and uncertainty. Soil may consist of local origin
material or be transported by one of the known means of
transport such as wind, water, seas, gravity, etc. Errors in
the irrigation process of the lands scattered in Egypt led to
the deterioration of the soil [1,2], increasing the salt content
of the soil to levels detrimental to plant production and the
deterioration of some chemical and biological properties of
the soil [3,4]. Some lands are transformed into an acid state
as a result of excess sodium, which further degrades the
natural characteristics. The use of digital maps using geo-
graphical information systems (GIS) has now paved the
way to optimally store and control soil variation and our
ability to chart the exact variation of the landscape around
the world is enhanced by the incorporation of GIS with
remote sensing. GIS aids in city planning and decision-
making, as well as in reading the infrastructure of any
position [5]. Digital maps have a special role in GIS, as
the process of drawing these maps has become of great
importance to many users, such as engineers and develo-
pers, whether on the educational or professional side, as
it has become easier than any cartographic or manual
method as it was in the past [6–8].
* Corresponding author: Mohammed A. El-Banna, Civil
Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Kafr
El-Sheikh University, Kafr El Sheikh governorate 33511, Egypt,
e-mail: midooo.elbanna.me@gmail.com
Ali M. Basha: Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Kafr
El-Sheikh University, Kafr El Sheikh governorate 33511, Egypt,
e-mail: ealibasha@eng.kfs.edu.eg
Ashraf A. A. Beshr: Public Works Engineering Department, Faculty of
Engineering, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt; Civil Engineering
Department, Delta Higher Institute for Engineering and Technology, Mansoura,
Mansoura governorate 35511, Egypt, e-mail: aaabeshr@mans.edu.eg
ORCID: Mohammed A. El-Banna 0000-0002-8142-9225; Ashraf A. A. Beshr
0000-0002-4083-2245
Open Geosciences 2023; 15: 20220495
Open Access. © 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Nutrients, water absorption, soil strength, and soil
transport properties are all affected by the surface area
of individual particles [9]. Soil contains minerals, organic
matter, plants, and animals, as well as air and water [9].
Soil contents change regularly. There are many types of
soil, each with distinct properties including color and com-
position [10]. Particles known as sand, silt, and clay make
up most of the mineral content of the soil [10]. Sand and silt
are particles of the mineral’s quartz and feldspar [11]. Clays
consist of illite, kaolin, micrite, vermiculite, and other
minerals [11]. Trace amounts of several minerals add nutri-
ents to the soil, including calcium, phosphorous, and potas-
sium [11]. Most soils are called mineral soils because more
than 80% of their particles are minerals. Before beginning
to build any structure, it is necessary to study the soil
characteristics and understand its properties in order to
avoid problems that may impede the construction process
and damage buildings during and after the construction
process is completed. It is important also to know the
appropriate foundation depth and date to determine the
type of foundations suitable for use and to identify the expected
decline according to the loads and nature of the soil, the
method of groundwater draining if any, and the extent of
its impact on the neighbor’s buildings, and determining the
types of materials used in the foundations (cement–iron–
sand), according to the percentage of salts and sulfates and
the extent of their impact on concrete. Therefore, it is sig-
nificant to study the soil and be familiar with its character-
istics and nature [12], especially at present when Egypt
is currently witnessing the level of engineering and national
projects, which are a great breakthrough and a major
unprecedented construction renaissance. There are many
methods of spatial interpolation of unidentified points,
and each method has its own advantages and disadvantages,
which depend first and foremost on the properties of the
point data set. It is important to choose the appropriate
method of interpolation through criteria for point data
with specifying interpolation goals because different goals
can produce different criteria for evaluating interpolation.
The article’s novelty is the use of modified inverse distance
weight (MIDW) for predicting soil properties rather than
traditional prediction techniques that aid in the creation
of digital maps for soil characteristics [13]. Talking about
the most important method appropriate to the nature of
the study is an inverse distance weight (IDW) method, which
relies on giving more weight to the points close to those
farther away by distancing each point, which is a very suc-
cessful method that gives acceptable and good results, but it
is critical to the weighting function and can be affected by
the uneven distribution of data points [13]. Therefore, we
will rely on the MIDW, which considers the Z level, which is
the difference in heights between points and some of them,
to get the best results, which will be mentioned in detail
during the research. Therefore, the main objectives of this
research are as follows:
1. Create digital soil mapping for the study area using GIS
tools based on the management, processing, and ana-
lysis of 119 soil samples (119 soil borings) inside the study
area that is obtained from field and laboratory studies,
statistical analysis data, and remote sensing related to
spatial and non-spatial soil information.
2. Study the possibility of applying MIDW as a spatial inter-
polation technique for estimating attributes at point
locations that are not sampled or at which we don’t
have the data, by using the attributes at point locations
for which we have the data. Spatial interpolation tech-
niques differ from traditional modeling approaches in
that they incorporate information about the sample
data points’geographic location.
2 Study area
Nile Delta region is a delta formed in northern Egypt where
the Nile deviated from its course in the form of two
branches to the Mediterranean. The study area is Kafr El-
Sheikh Governorate as shown in Figure 1, which is one of
the most important governorates of the Delta due to its
many ingredients in many agricultural, industrial, tourism,
and commercial fields. It is in the far north of Egypt in the
Nile Delta, and its capital is Kafr El-Sheikh City. It has a
population of 3,919 million, and an area of 3716.68 km²
representing 28.6% of the total area of the Delta region
and about 0.35% of the total area of Egypt [14]. Its entire
area is located in the north of the Delta and overlooks the
Mediterranean Sea. Administratively, the governorate is
divided into 10 centers. Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate is bor-
dered to the north by the Mediterranean Sea with an exten-
sion of 100 km, to the south by Gharbia Governorate, and to
the east by Daqahlia Governorate. From the west, the Nile
River –Rasheed Branch, with an extension of 85 km, where
Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate extends between latitudes 31°
and 31° 37° N, and longitudes 30° 20° and 31° 20°.
3 Data collection and soil
laboratory investigations
Soil boring is a technique for investigating soil properties
that involves extracting several shallow cores from the
2Mohammed A. El-Banna et al.
sediment. It is used when a drilling jacket or jack-up rig is
to be supported on the soil. In this article, 119 different
samples of soil (119 soil borings) in several different places
and positions in Kafr El-Sheikh governorate are collected
as shown in Figure 2 (distributed to cover all the study area)
using mechanical tensioners with different depths of 20, 25,
and 30 m according to the engineering requirements of the
Egyptian code. To design and implement the foundations, soil
laboratory experiments and investigations were conducted at
the Foundations and Soil Mechanics Laboratory, Faculty of
Engineering, Kafr El-Sheikh University, Egypt. The level of the
natural land at the site of each boring was zero. Altered
samples were extracted from the loose soil during the execu-
tion of each palpation every 1 meter of the excavation depth,
Figure 1: Map of the study area, Kafr El-Skeikh governorate, Egypt.
Creating digital maps for soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing 3
as well as when a difference in the soil. Undisturbed samples
were extracted from the cohesive clay soil every 1 m. Soil
samples were chemically analyzed to determine the percen-
tage of sulfate and chloride salts. The initial and final depth of
groundwater was measured in each session to determine the
final depth of water stability.
A set of laboratory tests were also carried out as shown
in Figure 3a, b, d and e. Some samples that were extracted
from one of the study sites that have all the details of the
site written on them, sample number, depth, date, and
place of extraction, and to preserve them, they are placed
in plastic bags to keep them from changing until they are
transported to the laboratory; for picture C, it is a sample of
sand extracted from a site to verify the visual character-
ization of the soil samples and to determine some of the
physical, mechanical, and chemical properties as follows:
Figure 2: Soil samples locations in the study area map.
4Mohammed A. El-Banna et al.
3.1 Moisture content and unit volume
weight
Experiments were carried out on cohesive clay soil samples
to use them attributed to the limits of fluidity and plasticity
to determine the strength index, which is an important indi-
cator of the degree of soil cohesion in its natural state and
thus its strength to shear and compressibility.
3.2 Granular gradient test
The Granular Gradient Test was done on a sample of non-
cohesive soil at the site to verify the accuracy of the visual
characterization and to determine the percentage of fine
materials (passing through the No. 200 sieves) because of
their effect on the behavior of the non-cohesive soil.
Regarding the physical and chemical analyses of
groundwater:
i) natural investigation and analysis;
ii) chemical investigation and analysis.
A chemical analysis test was done on a sample of
groundwater at the site to determine the percentages of
dissolvedsaltsofsulfatesandchloridesandthePH
number in this water especially sulfates for their effect
on concrete and chlorides for their effect on reinforcing
steel, to take precautions when designing and imple-
menting foundations.
The groundwater was monitored during the excava-
tion (the level of the beginning of the emergence of water)
Figure 3: Experimental tests in soil laboratory, Kafr El-Sheikh University, Egypt.
Creating digital maps for soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing 5
as well as after the extraction of the pipes of the probes.
These levels are measured from the level of the natural
ground surface of the earth. The final level of the stability
of the groundwater was monitored below the natural sur-
face of the ground at the site according to the Egyptian
code for soil mechanics and foundations. Therefore, the
results of all tests for all 119 soil borings are recorded.
4 Interpolation technique
using MIDW
To draw an actual and accurate digital map describing the
actual soil properties for the studied area, an accurate
interpolation technique must be applied to determine the
soil properties in places where the real investigations data
are missing. In this article, MIDW is applied to predict the
soil properties for several thousands of positions inside the
study area depending on the resulting soil properties from
119 boring investigations.
IDW is one of the simplest and easiest spatial interpo-
lation methods that exist today [15]. It is a method of esti-
mating the characteristics or features of sites that have not
been sampled and one cannot obtain data or information
about it. By obtaining information from neighboring sites
(soil properties), one can predict data in sites from which
information is not available. But this method depends on
that the points are all at the same level of level of eleva-
tions, which is not commensurate with our study. There-
fore, this method was modified and we used (MIDW); we add
theattributevariabletotheequations,asthepointsofthe
study area were not at the same level of elevations, and this
led to improving the accuracy of the results that we got it. This
method assumes that the variable being assigned decreases in
effect with distance from the sample location in addition to the
vertical distance, which is the levels of the different points, in
other meaning, the height of the land above sea level. An
average of values is taken within a space to be determined,
and the weights are a decreasing function of distance, and its
mathematical form can be controlledbymanyoptionsforthe
size of the neighborhood utilizing several points or radius.
MIDW uses spatial correlation in mathematics, where the clo-
sest values have a greater effect, while the less effective is for
the far values, where it cannot deduce values higher than
the maximum values and less than the minimum values.
As for the power settings and the strength of the impact, a
higher energy value is selected, which enables us to focus
more on the nearest points. Therefore, the close data will
havethegreatestimpact,andthesurfacewillbemore
detailed and less smooth. With increasing power, the
inferred values begin to approach the value of the nearest
sample point. Setting a lower value for energy will increase
the impact on distant surrounding points, resulting in a
smoother surface. Lo presented the MIDW equation as fol-
lows [16–18]: ·
=
∑⎛
⎝⎞
⎠
∑⎛
⎝⎞
⎠
>
=∆
=∆
Ssk,0
,
x
i
nd
H
k
i
i
nd
H
k
1
1
xi
xi
xi
xi
(1)
where S
x
is the spot one need to estimate it;
⎟
⎛
⎝⎞
⎠⎞
⎠
∆d
H
k
xi
xi is the
weight of each point; d
xi
is the distance between each-
known point and unknown point which one needs to esti-
mate; ΔH
xi
is the elevation difference between points; Kis
the power; nis the number of points used.
Equation (2) is the model of Chang et al. which has
assumed that the inverse multiply of distances and eleva-
tion as a weight in MIDW [17,18].
=∑
∑>>
=
=
Shd
hdSm n
*
**, 0, 0
,
xi
nxi xi
i
nxi xi i
1
1
nm
nm (2)
where mand nare the powers,
h
xi
is the elevation difference between points.
This mathematical interpolation technique is applied
for soil properties prediction in the study area
5 Contour lines and point elevation
for study area from digital
elevation model (DEM)
For detecting the levels of all points in the study area, DEM
is used and applied. DEM files are free files that can be
acquired from several international websites on the Internet
andaregeneratedbytheUnitedStatesSurveyAuthority[19
].
These files depict the topography of the Earth’ssurfaceandits
humanusage,aswellastheEarth’s coverings, which can be
used with these files in preliminary and final surveying works
[19–21]. The study area, as shown in Figure 4, was downloaded
from the Internet via the SRTM 1 (Shuttle Radar Topography
Mission) satellitewith a resolution of 30 m as it is a radar
through which a complete topographic database is created
to obtain digital elevation models, and opened with the
ARCMAP program [22]. UTM WGS 1984 zone 36 N was selected
for the digital elevation file. The elevations of the study area
range between 0 and 15 m above sea level. Contour map, as
shown in Figure 5, was created from the raster option with a
contour interval of 0.5 m to graphically represent data based on
values to model the potential change between the points. Then,
6Mohammed A. El-Banna et al.
tinlayershowninFigure6wasdoneusingcontourlines.There-
fore, the levels of the study area were obtained, and the differ-
ence in the levels between the points was obtained (zaxis).
6 Results and discussion
The map of the study area, which is the map of Kafr El-Sheikh
Governorate, was uploaded to the program, a geographical
location for the map was made, the WGS 1984 coordinate
system was selected, and the location was chosen as Zone
36 N, and thus, the undefined coordinates became metric
coordinates. Then, the base map taken by the scanner
was added and its coordinates were set to ensure that
the error rate was reduced, and the map was saved on
the device; we have returned the map geographically. A
database has been created for the map by ARCMAP to be
used in drawing the map layers by adding the geographi-
cally corrected map and choosing the location; in addi-
tion, shape files for all the layers were drawn on the map,
such as roads and city boundaries. Finally, the layers of
the map are drawn, and all layers are made on the map.
The available data were collected from the soil borings
analysis and data from interpolation techniques using the
Figure 5: Contour layer of the study area.
Figure 4: Digital Elevation Model of the study area.
Creating digital maps for soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing 7
MIDW method and recorded to an Excel sheet for each of
the parameters (coordinates, levels, and soil parameters)
that were fed into the program to produce digital maps
for each parameter separately. The following parameters
are studied for soil characteristics.
a) ground water level;
b) pH water −Log (H
+
);
c) percentage of salts and chlorides (NaCl);
d) sulfate ratio (SO
4
);
e) average appearance of sand layer;
f) average appearance of the clay layer.
Digital maps were produced for each parameter indi-
vidually using the MIDW method and GIS tools. The results
are as follows:
6.1 Groundwater level variation
Groundwater is considered one of the most significant pro-
blems that affect the safety of facilities, especially the foun-
dations of buildings. Water penetrates to many centimeters
above the surface of the earth, which leads to damage to
the elements of construction and building resources, thus
reducing the life of the building and making ituninhabitable
[23]. This water leads to the growth of fungi and bacteria in
the building and the growth of mold inside homes, which
greatly affects human health. It also affects cement and
leads to a lack of good cohesion, corruption of the used
wood, its bending, disintegration, and salting of floors, walls,
and foundations. Figure 7 shows a digital map for repre-
senting the distribution of the final groundwater level index
resulting from GIS using the MIDW method for the study
area. The level of water was stable after 24 h of taking sam-
ples in each region of Kafr El-Sheikh governorate.
From Figure 7, it is deduced that the finalwaterlevelin
the study area varied between depths 1.5 and 6.50 m from the
ground surface. The percentages and areas of each depth are
calculated depending on the resulting digital map using GIS
tools; the results are illustrated in Figure 8 and Table 1.
Therefore, it is recommended to make wells provided
with pumps to transfer and withdraw water outside the
site according to the level of the groundwater in the sur-
rounding area. It is also preferable when using the pillars
to dig them down to the strong soil and pour them with
reinforced concrete according to the design that has been
Figure 6: Tin layer and elevations of the study area.
8Mohammed A. El-Banna et al.
Figure 7: Digital map of final groundwater level index resulting from GIS using MIDW method.
Creating digital maps for soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing 9
prepared based on the weight of the equipment and the
type of soil. In the case of mat foundations, it is preferable
to replace the soil with the required depth to obtain the
required tolerance, based on soil investigations at the site.
It also is recommended to make a moisture-proof layer to
prevent the rise of groundwater and the passage of moisture
or water between building materials after pouring regular
or reinforced concrete for the foundations, which should be
continuous on all walls that have foundations below the
level of the natural ground and be at a height of 15–20 cm
so that its level is above the level of the earth surface to
prevent moisture pathways to the floor.
6.2 Investigation of PH water
values −Log (H
+
)
Soil PH is one of the most important ways to determine soil
characteristics. Soil PH value is used to measure the degree
of acidity and alkalinity of water [24]. The PH value, which
represents the danger limit, is limited to a narrow range,
which requires extreme accuracy in determining its value.
Knowledge of PH aims to assess the value of the elements
that are present in water and soil such as free acids, sul-
fates, chlorides, magnesium, and aluminum [25]. Samples
were withdrawn by a pump directly from inside the palpa-
tion hole and were immediately placed in clean, dry, pre-
pared bottles in the sampling place with a capacity of 2 L.
When conducting a chemical analysis test on samples of
groundwater in the sites to determine the PH value as
shown in Figure 9. The results of the study indicated that
one side of the study area tends to alkalinity (acidity and
alkalinity index greater than 7) and another side tends to
acidity low salinity (acidity and alkalinity index less than 7).
Most of the values were limited between 6.8 and 7.2 as
shown in Figure 10. PH less than 6.5 indicates that the sur-
face has a detrimental effect on concrete. Table 2 shows
the total area of each indicator for the values extracted
from the total area of the study area. The best results were
obtained when the indicator was at the number 7, which
means that it is the neutral and ideal result of water to reduce
the dangers of ground water, whether it is alkaline or acidic,
which affects the soil and permeates between its particles,
leading to its loosening and increasing its salinity and thus its
impact on foundations, buildings with its paints, wood, etc.
From the results, it is recommended to use special
concrete mixtures and cement resistant to salts and sul-
fates. Concrete elements surfaces can also be coated with
bitumen to form an insulating layer to isolate the concrete
from water, especially the base layer. It is also preferable
to use low-alkali cement in the case of alkaline water,
which is cement-free of sodium or potassium oxides so
that it does not interact with aggregates and active water.
25.55%
70.31%
2.95%
0.89% 0.27%
Less than 1.5 m
1.5 m
3 m
4 m
More than 5.6 m
Figure 8: Final groundwater level percentages resulted from the created digital map.
Table 1: Final groundwater level areas and percentages resulted from
created digital map
Grid Code Area (km
2
) Percentage
Less than 1.5 m 979.7891 25.55
1.5 m 2697.007 70.31
3 m 114.1498 2.98
4 m 34.35236 0.89
More than 5.6 m 10.19678 0.27
Total 3835.461 100
10 Mohammed A. El-Banna et al.
Figure 9: Digital map of Soil PH water index resulted from GIS using MIDW method.
Creating digital maps for soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing 11
Portland cement can be used, as it is characterized by high
permeability and high density when used in concrete
works, it is also resistant to sulfates and is characterized
by a low hydration temperature, which qualifies it for use
in thick concrete castings. Consider the intensification of
concrete as much as possible.
6.3 Determination of the percentage of
SALTS AND CHLORIDES (NaCl)
Sodium chloride is one of the most common salts, as it is
present in many natural resources such as seawater, sand,
rocks, and building materials [26]. Increased salinity of soil
and water leads to corrosion of steel reinforcement, which
causes cracking of the concrete cover and affects infra-
structure such as roads and pipelines [27]. Depending on
the laboratory investigations for collected 119 boring for a
percentage of Salts and Chlorides and using MIDW inter-
polation technique, the digital map of the study area was
created as shown in Figure 11.
From Figure 11, it becomes clear that the percentage of
chlorides increases in the study area, where the largest
percentage ranges between 2,000 and 6,000 mg L
−1
. This
is a normal situation for the Delta region, which is famous
for its high salt contents as a result of the spread of the
irrigation method by immersion and the non-imposition of
fees for the use of water, and the lack of settlement which
has led to the excessive use of the Nile water, which led to
the waterlogging of the soil and the poor condition of the
land drainage. NaCl area and percentages are shown in
Figure 12 and Table 3.
From the results, it is recommended to use anti-salt
cement, as it has an inherent property, which is its union
with the chlorides present in concrete and turning it into
harmless compounds. The permeability of concrete should
also be reduced by adding pozzolanic materials to the con-
crete mix used below the ground surface to avoid corrosion
of concrete and steel reinforcement. It is highly recom-
mended to use good quality drinking water, and the salts
in the grit should be disposed of by washing it well. An
epoxy-coated iron should be used to delay the arrival of
salts to it. Measures must be taken to provide a suitable
drainage network, to dispose of wastewater away from
the building, and to have good ventilation of the enclosed
spaces to avoid condensation of water on the concrete and
2.40%
44.62%
52.63%
0.35%
Figure 10: Soil PH water percentages resulted from created digital map.
Table 2: Soil PH water areas and percentages resulted from created
digital map
Grid Code Area (km
2
) Percentage
Less than 6.8° 92.191351 2.40
6.8° 1711.303 44.62
7° 2018.474 52.63
More than 7.7° 13.517224 0.352
Total 3835.486 100
12 Mohammed A. El-Banna et al.
Figure 11: Digital map of NaCl values index resulting from GIS using MIDW method.
Creating digital maps for soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing 13
walls from the inside and to lay the foundations of the
building above the groundwater level as much as possible
to avoid the accumulation of dust, water, and moisture on
the exposed concrete surfaces. Reinforcement steel must also
be cooled by spraying it with water before pouring concrete
and after the casting is finished. The concrete must be covered
with wet burlap to avoid water evaporation.
6.4 Calculation of sulfate ratio (SO
4
)
Studying the sulfate ratio is an important factor for foun-
dation design. The increase in the proportion of sulfates in
the soil and water may be a major reason for the destruc-
tion of concrete structures. Measuring this percentage is
very necessary to maintain and avoid the resulting dan-
gers. Sulfates chemically react with hydrated calcium alu-
minate or calcium hydroxide components in solid cement
to produce sulfur crystalline compounds that cause concrete
cracking and destruction, which is technically known as
a sulfate attack [28,29]. Therefore, the reinforcement steel
begins to be exposed to more erosion factors, and even-
tually, the concrete begins to crumble and lose its bond
with the reinforcing steel, and the life of the concrete
decreases significantly, so the concrete elements begin to
chip and fall [28]. Hence, determining the amount of sulfate
is vital to assess the damages before the reconstruction,
restoration, and construction process. Based on the labora-
tory investigations for collected 119 boring for a percentage
of sulfate ratio (SO
4
) and using the MIDW interpolation
technique, the digital map of the study area was created
as shown in Figure 13. Sulfate Ratio areas and percentages
are shown in Figure 14 and Table 4.
From the results, it is recommended to use sulfate-resis-
tant Portland cement that conforms to the specifications in
regular and reinforced concrete works for foundations at a
rate not less than 400 kg per cubic meter of reinforced con-
crete and not less than 300 kg per meter cube of regular
concrete. Concrete intensification is considered as much as
possible, clean and graded Suez sand and gravel are highly
recommendedtobeusedinconcreteandtakealltheafore-
mentioned measures in the problem of chlorides. Low-porous
concrete is used by compacting it well when pouring.
6.5 Average appearance of the sand layer
The appearance of the sand layer in Delta Egypt is vital for
the selection of the foundation type and design and conse-
quently the construction cost. Sandy soil is considered one
of the good soils in the construction process due to its
characteristics. It is characterized by a high percentage
of pores in it, which makes it quick to drain and does not
12.70%
44.20%
32.97%
9.58%
0.53% 0.10% Less than 1000
mg liter-1
2000 mg liter-1
3000 mg liter-1
6000 mg liter-1
9000 mg liter-1
More than 9000
mg liter-1
Figure 12: NaCl Percentages resulted from created digital map.
Table 3: NaCl Areas and percentages resulted from created digital map
Grid Code Area (km
2
)%
Less than 1,000 mg L
−1
487.3825 12.70
2,000 mg L
−1
1695.628 44.20
3,000 mg L
−1
1264.658 32.97
6,000 mg L
−1
367.5576 9.58
9,000 mg L
−1
20.19719 0.53
More than 9,000 mg L
−1
0.045115 0.1
Total 3835.641 100
14 Mohammed A. El-Banna et al.
Figure 13: Digital map for SO
4
index resulted from GIS using MIDW method.
Creating digital maps for soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing 15
retain water. Sand has a rough texture that is not elastic or
cohesive, and its size varies between the volume of gravel
and silt. The size of sand particles ranges from 0.06 to
2 mm, so it is very small. Sand is classified under coarse-
grained soils.
Depending on the results of all 119 borings and using
MIDW and GIS tools, the digital map for the appearance of
the sand layer was created as shown in Figure 15.FromGIS
tools, the areas for each section of resulting digital map for the
sand layer can be calculated as shown in Table 5 and Figure 16.
From Figure 17 and Table 5, it is deduced that the level
of appearance of suitable sand layer for construction
ranges between a depth of 7 and 15 m in most of the study
area, except for Balti city which is characterized by its
sandy nature and thus the appearance of the sand layer
at a depth of less than 7 m. Sandy gravel soils are considered
one of the best sandy soils that support solid foundations,
due to the availability of large particles in its components,
and it is free from soft rocks. They are highly permeable
soils, where the water is expelled in a short time, and thus,
subsidence occurs in a short time and ends with the com-
pletion of the construction process.
6.6 Average appearance of the clay layer
Clay soil consists of small particles with a diameter of less
than 0.002 mm [30,31]. Clay soil is effective because it
retains moisture well; therefore, the level of its drainage
is bad. When exposed to water, it shrinks and swells.
Therefore, the possibility of its exposure to subsidence as
a result of loads is very large, which may cause problems in
the structure in case of lack of knowledge and a good study
of that soil before the start of the foundation stage on it and
taking technical and design precautions [31]. In the case of
increased moisture of the clay soil, its volume increases
3.44% 5.05%
8.45%
15.36%
23.54%
44.15%
Less than 680 mg
liter-1
680 mg liter-1
1000 mg liter-1
1300 mg liter-1
1600 mg liter-1
More than 2000
mg liter-1
Figure 14: SO
4
Percentages resulted from created digital map.
Table 4: SO
4
Areas and percentages resulted from created digital map
Grid Code Area (km
2
) Percentage
Less than 680 mg L
−1
132.04392 3.44
680 mg L
−1
193.8414 5.05
1,000 mg L
−1
324.1486 8.45
1,300 mg L
−1
588.9907 15.36
1,600 mg L
−1
902.9254 23.54
More than 2,000 mg L
−1
1693.511 44.15
Total 3835.4611 100
16 Mohammed A. El-Banna et al.
and is exposed to an eruption, which leads to cracks in the
building. In the event of a lack of moisture and exposure to
drought, its volume decreases, and cracks appear. Depending
on the results of all 119 borings and using MIDW and GIS tools,
the digital map for the appearance of the clay layer was cre-
ated as shown in Figure 17. From GIS tools, the areas for each
section of the resulted digital map for the clay layer can be
calculated as shown in Table 6 and Figure 18.
Figure 15: Digital map for the average appearance of sand layer Index resulting from GIS using MIDW method.
Creating digital maps for soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing 17
From the results, more than half of the study area
shows the clay layer at a depth of fewer than 5 m as shown
in Figure 18, and the rest of the area ranges between a
depth of 8.9 and a depth of 18 as shown in the percentage
ratio in Figure 18.
Therefore, when building on clay soil, it is recom-
mended to use a high-quality aggregate filling process,
which contributes to alleviating the effects of expanded
clay in areas that contain soft clay soil. It is also preferable
to increase the area of foundation bases and recycle water
sources that affect soil moisture. It is also preferable
to replace the soil if possible and use concrete covering
the entire surface of the building in the design of the
foundations. Loading the soil with loads equal to or more
than the pressure of the loads that will be built on it is
done by ramming and then removing it after a specified
period.
7 Conclusions
This article investigates the possibility of producing digital
maps for physical and geotechnical characteristics of
soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing for the
Kafr El-Sheikh governorate, one of the important gover-
norates in the Delta region, Egypt, with the help of MIDW
Spatial Interpolation technique. Depending on the previous
experimental and field works, analysis, and numerical results
obtained, the following conclusions can be summarized:
1. GIS technique is a good and effective tool to create
digital maps and predict the properties of soil, identify
its problems, and its ability to display them excellently and
professionally, to be a reference for students, researchers,
and engineers in various ways and different fields.
2. Creation of digital soil maps is the optimum choice for
making the right decisions about building and construc-
tion processes on different types of soil accurately and
professionally instead of the old traditional methods.
3. The MIDW interpolation method as presented was able
to provide predictions about soil properties in places
where one could not collect samples, and it is one of
the best methods in this particular study.
4. It is preferable to establish on sandy soil because its load
is greater as a result of the higher friction angle between
the grains, as well as it is faster in pressure and is not
affected by the rise and fall of groundwater. Therefore,
it is safe to work from clay soil, since the problems of
Table 5: Average appearance of sand layer areas and percentages
resulted from created digital map
Grid Code Area (km
2
) Percentage
Less than 7 m 292.9969 7.64
7 m 1410.95 36.79
10 m 1136.29 29.63
15 m 731.1287 19.06
More than 15 m 264.1186 6.88
Total 3835.461 100
7.64%
36.79%
29.63%
19.06%
6.88%
Less than 7 m
7 m
10 m
15 m
More than
15 m
Figure 16: Average appearance of sand layer percentages resulted from created digital map.
18 Mohammed A. El-Banna et al.
Figure 17: Digital map for the average appearance of clay layer index resulted from GIS using MIDW method.
Creating digital maps for soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing 19
clay soil are many, as the soil stress is 1.1 kg/cm
2
for clay
and 2.2 kg/cm
2
for sand.
5. The Delta region is one of the regions in which the
percentage of chlorides, salts, and sulfates increases.
Therefore, it is important to take this into account in
the design and construction process by using materials
that comply with specifications and conditions.
6. Care must always be taken to isolate all concrete, build-
ings, and basement walls below the level of the decks
and all surfaces adjacent to the soil, using moisture-
proof materials to avoid the problems that occur to
the buildings.
Funding information: This research received no specific
grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial,
or not-for-profit sectors.
Conflict of interest: The authors declare that there is no
conflict of interest.
Data availability statement: All data, models, and code
generated or used during the study appear in the sub-
mitted article.
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Creating digital maps for soil based on GIS technology and remote sensing 21
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