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Ünal et al.: New records of the living Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana L., 1758) in the Mediterranean region of Turkey
- 1043 -
APPLIED ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 21(2):1043-1059.
http://www.aloki.hu ● ISSN 1589 1623 (Print) ● ISSN 1785 0037 (Online)
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2102_10431059
© 2023, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
NEW RECORDS OF THE LIVING ANATOLIAN LEOPARD
(PANTHERA PARDUS TULLIANA L., 1758) IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN REGION OF TURKEY
ÜNAL, Y.1,2* – UYSAL, H.3 – KOCA, A.4 – ZENBILCI, M.5 – ERSIN, M. Ö.6
1Faculty of Forestry, Isparta University of Applied Sciences, 32260 Isparta, Turkey
2Istanbul Ticaret University, Istanbul, Turkey
36. Regional Directorate, General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks,
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Republic of Turkey, Antalya, Turkey
4Sutculer Prof.Dr. Hasan Gürbüz Locational High School, Isparta University of Applied
Sciences, Sutculer, Isparta, Turkey
5Graduate Edication Institute, Isparta University of Applied Sciences, Isparta, Turkey
6WWF-Turkey (World Wildlife Fund), Fatih-Istanbul, Turkey
*Corresponding author
e-mail: yasinunal@isparta.edu.tr; yunal@ticaret.edu.tr; ORCID: 0000-0001-7180-133X
(Received 27th May 2022; accepted 11th Nov 2022)
Abstract. According to recent genetic studies, there are eight subspecies of leopards (Panthera pardus)
all over the world. Among these subspecies, the Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana) is
distributed in the southern and western regions of Turkey. It is a terrestrial mammal subspecies of
Anatolia that is important historically, culturally and biologically. To date, there have been no studies
about the Anatolian leopard, which is at the top of the food chain and has the characteristics of an
umbrella species, key species and flag species in conservation studies. It is known that until 1975, the
Anatolian leopard had dispersed along the forests of Central Anatolia, Mediterranean and Aegean regions.
Since then, no living records have been taken, with the exception of unconfirmed information from
scientists, local people and hunters. With this study, for the first time in history, one living individual(s)
of the Anatolian leopard (P. p. tulliana) was photographed and video recorded via camera trap method, in
the Western Taurus Mountains of the Mediterranean region of Turkey.
Keywords: big cats, Felidae, Anatolian leopard, conservation, camera trap, Mediterranean region, Turkey
Introduction
According to the classification adopted by most scientists, the leopard (Panthera
pardus) has the largest distribution and food range among the 36 cat species of the Felidae
family. However, it is categorized worldwide as Vulnerable (VU) and Critically
Endangered (CR) on the Mediterranean scale, by the International Union for Conservation
of Nature (IUCN) Red List (Stein et al., 2020; Laguardia et al., 2017; Jdeidi et al., 2010;
Henschel et al., 2008). Leopards are the most adaptable top predators in the regions in
which they live (Nowell and Jackson, 1996; Ripple et al., 2014). They are seen in
mountainous and relatively remote habitats from South Africa to the deserts of central
Africa, from the Middle East to Southeast Asia and in the extremes of northern Russia
(Gavashelishvili and Lukarevskiy, 2008). They play roles in stabilizing populations of
smaller and more populated animals which bear the potential of spreading diseases and/or
causing economic damage in the agriculture areas. As a result of their ecology and biology,
Ünal et al.: New records of the living Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana L., 1758) in the Mediterranean region of Turkey
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APPLIED ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 21(2):1043-1059.
http://www.aloki.hu ● ISSN 1589 1623 (Print) ● ISSN 1785 0037 (Online)
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2102_10431059
© 2023, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
leopards are timid species that live solitary. Their numbers are in rapid decline due to
several mortality factors stemming from human activities such as industrialization, forest
fires, tourism, and poaching (Madden, 2008; Linnell et al., 2001; Sarı, 2018; Zak and
Riley, 2016; Ünal et al., 2020).
Previously, nine subspecies of leopard were identified in the world, (Uphyrkina et al.,
2001). However, recent genetic studies have suggested that there are only eight subspecies
of leopard (Miththapala et al., 1996; URL, 2021, Kitchener et al., 2017). These subspecies
include Panthera pardus pardus, Panthera pardus tulliana (Panthera pardus saxicolor
and Panthera pardus ciscaucasica) Panthera pardus tusca, Panthera pardus kotiya,
Panthera pardus delacouri, Panthera pardus orientalis, Panthera pardus melas, Panthera
pardus nimr. The Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana) is distributed in the
southern and western regions of Turkey, (Borner, 1977; Riffel, 1990; Ulrich and Riffel,
1993; Jackson, 1994) while Panthera pardus saxicolor, Panthera pardus ciscaucasica are
also known to occasionally enter Turkey from the regions east of Turkey (Ulrich and
Riffel, 1993; Jackson, 1994; Sarı, 2018; Arpacık, 2018).
According to the Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild
Animals and Plants (CITES) the Anatolian leopard is listed as an Annex I species (species
that face threat of extinction and therefore the trade of their specimens must be strictly
regulated and allowed only in exceptional circumstances (Friedmann and Traylor-Holzer,
2008). Research conducted by the Cats Specialist Group estimated the population size of
the Anatolian leopard in Turkey as fewer than five (URL, 2021). This situation makes it
necessary to investigate the distribution map in existing-potential living areas with
comprehensive research and to take measures to identify, protect and develop individuals
in these areas (Ünal and Çulhacı, 2018).
Since Panthera pardus is found across a wide range of geographies and different
habitats, body size varies from region to region (Heptner and Sludskii, 1992). Ulrich and
Riffel (1993) reported that the Anatolian leopard is the largest subspecies of leopard. It is
known that an adult male weighs up to 100 kg, and has a total body length of 2.5 meters,
with a tail of up to 80 cm long (Johnson, 2003). The Anatolian leopard has bright,
yellowish-brown, rather short hairy fur, a large thin-rimmed badge, and a long, feathered
tail. Although the body colour is paler than subspecies in India and Africa, it has a
distinctive golden colour (Sarı, 2018; Arpacık, 2018). Panthera pardus saxicolor, on the
other hand, differs from the Anatolian leopard with its large size, pale long, yellowish fur,
medium-sized badge and short tail. Borner (1977), described the lower part of the
Anatolian leopard fur as lighter in colour but reddish dark yellow in his examination of
five peltry obtained in Turkey. He stated that the badges are wide, black in colour and are
continuous at the nape and tail bottom. He observed that the length of body hairs on the
Anatolian leopard change between 1.5-2 cm on average, and the tail length is either as long
as the body or longer than the body itself. He stated that the Persian leopard on the other
hand has body hair growing up to almost 7 cm, is a creamy yellow, light white colour, and
has a tail length shorter than the body length. Karataş (2016), reported that the subspecies,
which also lives in the western and southern parts of Anatolia, whose fur has a pale yellow
or grey colour, is the Anatolian leopard (P. p. tulliana). The subspecies that occasionally
appears in the eastern and north-eastern parts of Turkey, characterized by its grey hide, is
either the Persian leopard (P. p. saxicolor) or the Caucasian leopard (P. p. ciscaucasica).
Leopards live near slopes and in rocky areas that have risen to the surface (Heptner and
Sludskij, 1972). Leopard is a species that is rarely observed above 3,000 m. It is a species
of Felidae that is mostly nocturnal and territorial. They can only be seen in groups during
Ünal et al.: New records of the living Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana L., 1758) in the Mediterranean region of Turkey
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APPLIED ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 21(2):1043-1059.
http://www.aloki.hu ● ISSN 1589 1623 (Print) ● ISSN 1785 0037 (Online)
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2102_10431059
© 2023, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
breeding periods and when they are raising offspring (Hamilton, 1976). While in regions
where there is no shortage of prey, an adult Leopard might cover a very narrow territory,
whereas in regions where it must spend effort to search for food, it can designate a very
large territory as a wandering area. Females can roam within an area of 8,400 km², while
the home range size of an adult male may be up to 10,600 km² (Marker and Dickman,
2005). Male individuals mark their habitat completely every 3-4 weeks, repeating these
markings in search of a female during breeding periods. In order to leave a scent males,
drop scat, leave 35-50 cm long traces using their hind legs, and by scratch or rub trees or
cliffs (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002). Several females might be found in a male’s territory
and can travel between 25-75 km in one night (Green, 1991). Their prey extends from
small and medium-sized mammals (such as rodents and large bivalves) to game birds,
from ungulates to predators and sometimes even domestic animals such as poultry
(Heptner and Sludskii, 1972; Khorozyan and Malkhasyan, 2005). They prefer prey that are
smaller than themselves, ranging in body weight from 15 to 60 kg, rather than animals
close to their own body size (Stander et al., 1997; Nowell and Jackson, 1996; Sarı, 2018;
Arpacık, 2018).
Panthera pardus tulliana was found to have been translated into Turkish as “Anatolian
Leopard” within the borders of Turkey. Roman statesman Marcus Tullius Cicero, while he
was serving as Governor of Kilikia between 51-50 BC, asked Anatolian leopards to be sent
from the Kibyratis region, which is today located between Antalya, Burdur and Denizli
provinces of Turkey, to be used in gladiatorial battles. While modern researchers classified
leopard species based on Cicero’s notes on the properties of the leopard during this period,
they named their inhabitants in Anatolia “Tulliana” inspired by Tullius, the forename of
Cicero (Erön, 2020; Tozan, 2016). Information on the Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus
tulliana), dates back to ancient times. The oldest indicator of the existence of leopards in
Anatolia is the wall reliefs on the Temple of Leopard (Leopard Shrine) in Çatalhöyük,
Konya, dating back to 9,000 years. Throughout the history, many architectural artifacts,
sculpture findings, ceramics and coins show the significance of the Anatolian leopard in
almost every period in the Anatolian history (Akkurnaz, 2013).
Until 1975, the Anatolian leopard was known to have distributed in the forests of
Central Anatolia, Mediterranean regions, which are dominated by low-closed and
deformed woodlands, open areas and high mountain ecosystems, (Sarı, 2018). In 1975,
some individuals were hunted (shot dead) in Beypazarı district of Ankara province and
Seferler and Asar villages of Aydin province. Since then, it has been a topic of discussion
to this day whether they have continued to exist in Turkey. Although there are several
opinions about the existence of the species, no living record has been obtained. Various
research has been carried out on this subject. Kasparek and Kasparek (1990), stated that
the Anatolian leopard subspecies has likely disappeared in Turkey, and even if there are
some living individuals, they are not viable populations. Based on fresh scat found in 1992
in Termessos National Park in the province of Antalya it was claimed that the species was
still alive in Anatolia (Ullrich and Riffel, 1993). Based on data obtained during research
carried in the Taurus Mountains between 2000 and 2001, it was stated that leopard species
were distributed over a wide area in the Mediterranean region (Can, 2002). Although
research has been carried out and published to prove the existence of the Persian leopard
(P. p. saxicolor), which is known for its distribution in the northern regions of the country
and is known to migrate seasonally on the Iran-Iraq border, there has been no
comprehensive research to date on the existence of Anatolian leopard (P. p tulliana),
which is known for its distribution in Central and South Anatolia (Toyran, 2018; Avgan et
Ünal et al.: New records of the living Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana L., 1758) in the Mediterranean region of Turkey
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APPLIED ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 21(2):1043-1059.
http://www.aloki.hu ● ISSN 1589 1623 (Print) ● ISSN 1785 0037 (Online)
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2102_10431059
© 2023, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
al., 2016). Does it still live in the old natural sprawl area? If so, what region or regions
does it live in? What kind of habitat does it use? What is the number of living individuals?
These questions have not yet been answered by scientists. There are few studies to date
about the leopard in Turkey. Başkaya and Bilgili (2004) and subsequently Sarı et al. (2020)
have revealed tracks and signs of leopard living in the Eastern Black Sea Mountains. In the
same region, within the Caucasian ecological region studies, it was revealed that cross-
border movements and habitats can be found in our north-eastern Anatolia and eastern
Black Sea region, which are covered by small Caucasian Mountain range (Zazanashvili
and Bitsadze, 2020; Başkaya et al., 2022). Within the scope of Turkey’s national
biodiversity inventory studies, data on the existence of the subspecies, which is Panthera
pardus, were revealed because of camera trap studies around Şırnak province of south-
eastern Anatolia region (Ubenis, 2019, Karataş et al., 2021). However, there has been no
scientific evidence for the detection of Anatolian leopard on the Mediterranean scale,
which is the natural distribution area in the west.
History indicates that the Anatolian leopard (P. p. tulliana) had spread throughout the
Mediterranean region in the past. Although there is current information about the existence
of the Anatolian leopard in Turkey from scientists, local people and hunters, this
information is not clear. For this reason, the aim of this study is to use the camera trap
method to detect the Anatolian leopard. To make the first video detection of the Anatolian
leopard (P. p. tulliana), whose last individuals were detected (dead, hunted, rumour) years
ago in the Mediterranean region of Turkey, and whose existence has been the subject of
controversy ever since, using the camera trap method. In light of the data obtained, this
study will prepare the way for future scientific-based research, state plans, and policies to
be formed.
The use of camera trap in wildlife studies around the world was first started in the early
20th century (Chapman, 1927). It appears to have been widely used in the last 20 years
after this period (Rowcliffe and Carbone, 2008). The camera trap method is commonly
used in studies involving new scientific results on species’ protection and species’ ecology
(behaviour, population density, activity pattern, habitat preference, etc.) with the detection
of rare species that are often difficult to be seen and detected, (Kinnaird et al., 2003;
Rovero et al., 2008; Kays and Slauson, 2008; Linkie and Ridout, 2011; Burton et al.,
2015). With the advancement of technology, the use of camera trap was relatively cheaper
than other population determination methods and effective results were obtained (Tobler et
al., 2008). The camera trap is a remotely activated camera, equipped with a motion sensor
or infrared sensor, or using a beam of light as a trigger (Swann and Perkins, 2014.). The
use of camera traps in wildlife studies increases because of the progress in technology
(Meek et al., 2012). Camera trap data are widely used to obtain information about the
detection of rare carnivorous terrestrial mammals, population conditions, behaviours,
habitat preferences, activity patterns and interactions with other species and people living
in rural areas (Amaya-Castaño and Palomares, 2018; Trolliet et al., 2014; Soyumert et al.,
2010). McCain and Childs (2008) photographed the Jaguar (Panthera onca) 64 times
between 2004 and 2007, after 1940 in the Southeast Arizona Region, which was
photographed only once in 1996 and no other live recordings were found. Ahmed et al.
(2016) proved the existence of the Arabian Sand Cat (Felis margarita harrisoni)
subspecies using a total of nine camera traps in Baynouna Abu Dhabi, United Arab
Emirates. The camera trap method was preferred in our study to view the Anatolian
leopard live.
Ünal et al.: New records of the living Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana L., 1758) in the Mediterranean region of Turkey
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APPLIED ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 21(2):1043-1059.
http://www.aloki.hu ● ISSN 1589 1623 (Print) ● ISSN 1785 0037 (Online)
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2102_10431059
© 2023, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
Methods
Research area
This study has been carried out in the Western Taurus Mountain range of Turkey,
extending from Antalya to Burdur, Muğla and Denizli since 2019. The research area is
located between 28°59’6” (west) - 30°45’48” (east) eastern longitudes and 36°17’11”
(south) - 37°31’33” (north) northern latitudes (Fig 1). The region is dominated by a typical
Mediterranean climate, characterized by hot, dry summers and warm, rainy winters.
Favourable climatic conditions allow the tourism season to extend throughout the year,
which increases the intensity of tourism and recreational activities (Atik and Altan, 2004).
For this reason, all kinds of factors in the working area are able to affect the focal species.
Information on summer and winter temperatures and precipitation is needed, as well as
about the vegetation and size of the research area.
Figure 1. Research area and camera trap layout. Due to the priority of protecting the
individual leopard that we have captured with camera trap, information about the individual’s
location or recorded coordinate data is not displayed
Ünal et al.: New records of the living Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana L., 1758) in the Mediterranean region of Turkey
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APPLIED ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 21(2):1043-1059.
http://www.aloki.hu ● ISSN 1589 1623 (Print) ● ISSN 1785 0037 (Online)
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2102_10431059
© 2023, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
Camera trapping
Cuddeback and KeepGuard Color camera traps were used during the study.
Cuddeback camera traps belong to Isparta University of Applied Sciences. Cuddeback
camera traps can shoot in black flash E3 colour. Cuddeback camera traps have infra-red
shooting, 0.25 s trigger time, 15 meters night vision, 20-megapixel image quality, 1-5
photo shooting settings and video capture at the same time (Mengüllüoğlu and Ambarlı,
2019). KeepGuard camera trap Cam KG-690NV, passive infrared cameras (Keepway
Industrial Inc.) with a trigger speed of 0.8 s, programmed to take three photos with a
five min delay. We mounted cameras on trees 1.0–1.2 m above ground level, at an
appropriate distance (between ca. 5–15 m) from the trail and angled to take pictures of
the whole body of medium- and large-sized animals (Apps and McNutt, 2018a,b).
Google Earth, ArcMap 10.4 and Microsoft excel computer programs were used to
detect camera trap stations on the map and record them digitally. Taking into account
the ecological demands of the Anatolian leopard, the camera trap stations were carefully
chosen from routes where leopards could hunt, hide or use as a gateway. Camera trap
stations were established by the random opportunist method. A total of 100 camera
traps were installed in 300 stations. They were active for 3 months, and during each
camera trap period, the camera traps worked for an average of 30 days. Cameras were
installed at the interior parts of mountain and forest habitats within the research area,
(Fig. 1), at suitable and sheltered tree trunks from a height of 0.30–1.00 m above the
ground (Harmsen et al., 2011; Amaya-Castaño and Palomares, 2018).
After the camera traps were installed in the research area, we continuously checked
whether the camera trap continued to record actively. The day value of the camera
traps that were active during the controls was calculated using the number of days
between the start date and the control dates. However, during the checks, if it was
determined that the camera trap was not active for various reasons (full memory card,
flat battery, technical failures, etc.), the last photo taken by the camera trap was
accepted as the last day of the camera trap (Soyumert, 2010; Stein et al., 2008). The
study period was from September 2019 to October 2020. Observations were made
within this period. As additional information, the leopard individual and its habitat
identified at that time are still being observed. The cameras made observations on a
24/7 basis during the periods they were used. Controls were usually carried out on a
weekly basis.
The first camera trap recording of Anatolian leopard in the Mediterranean region was
obtained on August 08, 2019 by VI. Regional Directorate of Nature Conservation and
National Parks (NCNP), under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. Following this
development, a team was formed under the leadership of the General Directorate of
NCNP, in cooperation with the VI. Regional Directorate and the Department of Wildlife
Ecology and Management of the Faculty of Forestry at Isparta University of Applied
Sciences. In the first stage, a total of 100 camera traps were placed between September
22-27, 2019. Approximately three weeks after the beginning of the study, on October
10, and October 11, 2019 a camera trap image and a 20-second video recording of the
same individual were obtained, respectively.
According to the research conducted by Jule et al. (2008), the survival rate of large
carnivores that have returned to their natural habitat after being kept in captivity is very
low (30%). Among the causes of death for these large carnivores that have been
returned to their natural habitat, 50% are human caused. Other reasons include
starvation and disease. Similar studies show that predators returning to the wild are in
Ünal et al.: New records of the living Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana L., 1758) in the Mediterranean region of Turkey
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APPLIED ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 21(2):1043-1059.
http://www.aloki.hu ● ISSN 1589 1623 (Print) ● ISSN 1785 0037 (Online)
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2102_10431059
© 2023, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
search for easy prey as they have difficulty hunting, and in this case may experience
conflict with humans. The male individual we identified was tracked for more than one
year and even continues to be tracked. It was easily observed from the records that he
was easily fed and healthy during this period, which is also supported from the hunting
remains we detected in the field. In addition, no records of leopard human contact and
conflict were disclosed in interviews with residents and administrative institutions. This
indicates that the detected individual is a wild individual who can easily survive in its
own habitat, avoids human habitat, and is not used to human presence. In the study on
large mammals within the western Taurus Mountains of Turkey’s Mediterranean region
by Ünal et al. (2018), answers obtained from interviews with local people mention a
long-tailed cat with badges on a large yellow body, was frequently seen in the region
and is thought to reside in the region.
Results
On October 11, 2019, one of the camera traps installed at the work site recorded a
male Anatolian leopard, (Panthera pardus tulliana) (photo and 20-second video)
(Table 1). This recording is the first live Anatolian leopard video image that has been
obtained in the Mediterranean region within the borders of Turkey. For this reason, this
record has an important value and originality. In this research, while there are no other
living records other than unconfirmed information from scientists, local people and
hunters since 1975, the Anatolian leopard (P. p. tulliana), which is thought to have
disappeared, was recorded in the Mediterranean region for the first time in history with
the camera trap method (Table 1). This valuable first record was obtained with camera
traps after intensive field work. Since then, 20 different camera trap stations have
obtained leopard images by NCNP.
Table 1. Location, registration date, and record type (Photo or Video) of the same individual
Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana) by camera trap method. Considering the
importance and threats towards the species, coordinate information was not given due to
very high poaching activities in the area
No.
Registration date
Record type
and record
number
Photograph & video
1
08 August 2019
Photo (2)
a
Ünal et al.: New records of the living Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana L., 1758) in the Mediterranean region of Turkey
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http://www.aloki.hu ● ISSN 1589 1623 (Print) ● ISSN 1785 0037 (Online)
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2102_10431059
© 2023, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
2
11 October 2019
Photo (3),
video
b
3
10 November 2019
Photo (6),
video
c
4
05 January 2020
Photo (2)
d
5
22 March 2020
Photo, video
e
Ünal et al.: New records of the living Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana L., 1758) in the Mediterranean region of Turkey
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http://www.aloki.hu ● ISSN 1589 1623 (Print) ● ISSN 1785 0037 (Online)
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2102_10431059
© 2023, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
6
10 July 2020
Photo
f
7
21 August 2020
Photo
g
8
20 September 2020
Photo (4),
video
e
9
16 October 2020
Photo (3),
video
h
Ünal et al.: New records of the living Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana L., 1758) in the Mediterranean region of Turkey
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APPLIED ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 21(2):1043-1059.
http://www.aloki.hu ● ISSN 1589 1623 (Print) ● ISSN 1785 0037 (Online)
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2102_10431059
© 2023, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
The estimated criteria and features obtained from the images of the detected
individual and the anatomical features of the Anatolian leopard were compared, and it
was determined that the shoulder height, tail and body length, head size and head to
body ratio, badge width, and the peltry colour were quite similar.
In light of these data, the genetic material of the individual was collected from the
field (2020) and analysed by matching it with the data in the World gene bank. The
results of the analysis entered in the World gene bank database is Anatolian leopard (P.
p tulliana), (URL, 2022). These data from the genetic study are in preparation for future
publication.
We conducted a camera trap study on leopards in the Mediterranean region of
Turkey from September 2019 to October 2020. During the research period, the camera
traps were deployed using the opportunist method in 300 camera trap stations. Google
Earth, ArcMap 10.4, and Microsoft Excel programs were used to display the camera
trap stations on the map. 9000 camera trapping days were obtained throughout the
fourteen-month sampling period. A total of 5450 photos were captured, 2378 of which
were wild animals. One leopard was photographed in a total of 9 different camera trap
locations. Other animals seen at the leopard station are Capra aegagrus, Vulpes vulpes,
Lynx lynx, Sus scrofa, Lepus europaeus, and Caracal caracal. The percentages of
appearance of these species; Sus scrofa 38%, Capra aegagrus 34%, Lepus europaeus
11%, Vulpes vulpes 9%, Lynx lynx 4%, Caracal caracal 4%.
Discussion
The history and culture of the leopard, which is the most important terrestrial
predatory mammal species in Anatolia, is of great importance. In this context, it was
predicted that the species would become extinct in the Anatolian region after 1975.
However, the use of camera traps recordings has provided evidence that the Anatolian
leopard is once again present in the Mediterranean and Aegean region of Turkey. For
this reason, the significance of the natural areas in Western Taurus Mountains has
increased many fold. The conservation status of this area should be strengthened, and
species awareness studies/projects should be developed on national and local scales.
Awareness studies, especially for local people, are an urgent priority. Training activities
for local people and hunters should start under the guidance of the relevant institutions.
In addition, research should be expanded to identify different groups of individuals, if
any, by focusing on scientific projects.
This research is a historical milestone as it reveals evidence for the existence of the
Anatolian leopard (P. p. tulliana). Once was known to have dissemination in the
Mediterranean and Aegean region but other than unverified reports from local people
and hunters had no recent scientific record. Despite the studies carried out to date, there
is no information about the population of this species. The protection and sustainability
of this subspecies, which has come within an edge of extinction in Asia Minor due to
human, can only be possible by human support. Although each study was carried out to
achieve limited objectives, the crucial point is the restoration of this important
subspecies in Anatolia and reach the level it deserves. This research, proving the
existence of the Anatolian leopard within the Western Taurus Mountain range where is
the natural dissemination area in Turkey, forms a fundamental literature resource for
further research and projects that will be designed for the protection and succession of
this species.
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2102_10431059
© 2023, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
Borner (1977) mentions the existence of the Anatolian leopard in the western Taurus
Mountains. After hearing from local people and forest managers he even recorded that
some individuals were poisoned and shot dead. The re-detection of the Anatolian
leopard’s existence in Western Taurus Mountains after 45 years is an important
development for Turkey’s biodiversity. In light of this progress, solutions should be
designed with urgency, in order to tackle the direct and indirect threats towards its
population. In particular, the possibility of interaction with people increases at alarming
rates every day due to the fact that Anatolian leopard is active both day and night.
Currently, threats and threat levels to individuals are critical, high, medium, low, or
unknown. Some of the threats and treatments towards the species that need to be taken
into account include: (1) Poaching of wild animals, which is the food source of Anatolian
leopards (Critical), (2) Destruction of habitats, poaching and/or unconscious hunting of
leopards (Medium) and dog-borne diseases released by farm animals (Low), (3) Lack of
necessary and adequate research and monitoring methods identifying the interaction
between leopards and the animals they prey, (4) Lack of regional knowledge about the
biology of the subspecies. Threats to the species’ habitats include: (1) forest destruction,
grazing and competition between wild animals and farm animals, (2) agricultural
expansion and deforestation as well as unintended use of forest areas, (3) Infrastructure
expansion, (4) Highway construction, (5) Disconnection of habitats due to excessive
mining, hydro electrical power plants, factories etc., (6) Mining, (7) Lack of knowledge
about the distribution of the population, (8) Lack of knowledge of the ecology of the
subspecies, (9) Lack of information about the routes via which their populations are
dispersed and passed, (10) Insufficient information about appropriate habitats, (11) Lack
of knowledge on the dissemination map, (12) Limited information about human and
leopard encounters and many more threat factors should be taken into account.
Future research should focus on the detection of the potential dissemination areas of
the Anatolian leopard and the preparation of a dissemination map to identify, protect
and sustain young leopard populations. Urgent attention should be drawn towards the
direct and indirect threats of leopard populations. At this stage, it is necessary to obtain
survey data in potential habitats, to make an ecosystem inventory (vegetation,
environmental variables) and to implement the camera trap method in these areas.
Additionally, in the implementation of the findings obtained by means of field studies, it
is necessary to evaluate the compatibility of the compliance of each factor used in the
habitat conformity model and to draw the roadmap according to these results (Malone et
al., 2018; Sass et al., 2017). During the planning and implementation phase, the
following issues should be applied in turn:
1. In potential habitats, information meetings and awareness raising training should
be started with the participation and support of local representatives. For this reason,
discussions, surveys, interviews, and educational meetings should be planned with
interest groups (local people such as farmers, herders, and hunters, the General
Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks (NCNP), the General
Directorate of Forestry (FGD), Municipality, village legal entities, Non-Governmental
Organization (NGO) members etc.) to obtain information on the biopolitical,
socioeconomic and cultural structure of the region, to determine social pressure and
planning opportunities and to share information about the project.
2. There is a need to determine the presence of the Anatolian leopard species in
habitats thought to exist and to identify its habitat preferences between altitude, aspect
and various vegetation types. In order to estimate the extent to which these habitat types
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2102_10431059
© 2023, ALÖKI Kft., Budapest, Hungary
are used, it is necessary to correlate obtained data with habitat factors such as elevation,
aspect and slope (Oğurlu and Yavuz 1999). In potential habitats, screening data,
predator species identification, diversity, density, and distribution, human domestic
animal and other species interaction levels should be identified.
3. Existing variables in habitats where tracks and signs are found should be
determined and these variables should be prioritized (Özkan, 2009). In order to reveal
the mentioned variables, the information obtained from a detailed field-land inventory
must be analyzed with up-to-date statistical methods and package programs (Alho 1990;
Buckland et al., 2000). Within modern evaluation techniques, methods such as
Occupancy Model, maximum entropy, classification and regression tree technique
(SRAT), logistics regression method and generalized linear or additive models can be
used for distribution modelling of animal species. With these methods, evaluations can
be made for species present data, present-absent data, categorical data or continuous
data (Özkan 2012). During the research period, the Anatolian leopard potential habitat
model should be created by using environmental variables by adding data obtained from
habitats in other regions in addition to 9 different camera trap records, traces and signs
of the Anatolian leopard obtained particularly in Western Taurus Mountains of Turkey.
Leopards have a much wider food network than any other predator. It has the ability
to adapt well to the environment so that it can survive in various ecological
environments according to the quality and quantity of its prey in different climatic
regions (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Daniel, 1996; Sunquist 1999; Edgaonkar and
Chellam 2002). It has been concluded that the primary food of the Anatolian leopard is
the Wild goat (Capra aegagrus), which is known to exist in large numbers in the
research area and is detected by our camera traps at a very high rate. However, the fact
that there have been no complaints so far that there is an attack on farm animals in the
region, supports our hypothesis that it is due to the abundance of food in the wild.
Acknowledgements. We would like to extend our gratitude to the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks, for supporting the field studies of this
research. We thank Anatolian leopard team (İsmail Kaya, Abdülkadir BİLGİÇ, Ahmet Koca, Ahmet
Oğuz KARABACAK, Dilek ARSLAN, Emre MUTLU, Esat KIZILKAYA, İsmail KAYA, Özge
HORASAN, Mehmet Şirin Yelsiz, Mevlüt ZENİBİLCİ, Olcay GÜVEN, Süleyman ESEN, Serhan
YILDIRIM).
Compliance with ethical standards. The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. Camera
trapping in the present study is not within the context of EU legislation for animal experimentations.
Observations were carried on in cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry General
Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks, VI. Regional Directorate (GDNCNP). Anatolian
Leopard Research Center Coordinator ship and the Department of Wildlife Ecology and Management of
the Faculty of Forestry at Isparta University of Applied Sciences (ISUBU). Moreover, there is an
Anatolian leopard scientific research protocol between the GDNCNP and ISUBU. This article does not
contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.
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