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Water Air Soil Pollut (2023) 234:333
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-023-06260-5
A critical review ontheeffect ofnitrate pollution inaquatic
invertebrates andfish
PriyajitBanerjee· PramitaGarai·
NimaiChandraSaha· ShubhajitSaha·
PramitaSharma· ArpanKumarMaiti
Received: 14 September 2022 / Accepted: 21 March 2023
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
Abstract Apart from anthropogenic pollution,
nitrate contamination is prevalent in practically all
developing countries as a result of increased natu-
ral activities. The accumulation of nitrates in water
bodies causes cumulative effects on living species,
environmental receptors, and human vitality by accu-
mulation along the food chain. Nitrates have recently
piqued the interest of academics due to their wide-
spread pollution of surface and groundwater systems.
The presence of nitrate in high amounts in surface
and groundwater causes a variety of health issues,
including methemoglobinemia, diabetes, the emer-
gence of infectious diseases, and a negative impact
on aquatic organisms. Sensing nitrate is an alterna-
tive method for measuring the distribution of nitrate
in various bodies of water. The nitrate-laden wastes
from agricultural run-off, industrial discharges, and
livestock and poultry farms contaminate resources.
Nitrate toxicity shows swimming alteration, growth
retardation, and eventually death among aquatic
organisms. In fishes, it causes histopathological
alteration of gills, esophagus, and brain. Therefore,
this present review discusses the toxic concentration
of nitrates, its adverse effects on the aquatic animals
and the assessment of the safe limit of nitrate that is
crucial to prevent chronic toxicity among inverte-
brates and fish.
Keywords Nitrate toxicity· agricultural run-off·
methemoglobinemia· fertilizers· histopathological
alteration· anthropogenic pollution· food chain
Highlights
• Environmental pollution from nitrate is getting worse
and is harming health of aquatic ecosystem.
• Nitrate causes growth reduction, histopathological
changes, neurotoxicity, endocrine disruption, and
ultimately death to aquatic organisms.
• Nitrate disrupts thyroid function, causes cancer,
congenital cardiac defect, and methemoglobinemia in
infants, fishes.
P.Banerjee· P.Garai· N.C.Saha(*)· P.Sharma
Fishery andEcotoxicology Research Laboratory
(Vice-Chancellor’s Research Group), Department
ofZoology, The University ofBurdwan, Pin, Burdwan,
WestBengal-713104, India
e-mail: prof.ncshavcbu@rediffmail.com
S.Saha
Department ofZoology, Sundarban Hazi Desarat College,
South 24 Pargan, Darjeeling, WestBengalas-743611, India
A.K.Maiti
Mitochondrial Biology andExperimental Therapeutics
Laboratory, Department ofZoology, University ofNorth
Bengal, P.O. N.B.U., Raja Rammohunpur, District -,
Darjeeling, WestBengalPin-734013, India
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1 Introduction
Nitrogen is one of the primary constituents for bio-
molecules including DNA, RNA, proteins, chloro-
phyll, etc. Although gaseous nitrogen (N2) is very
abundant in the atmosphere, it is largely inacces-
sible to most organisms in this form. Inorganic and
bioavailable nitrogen is present in various forms like
NO3-, NH4+ and NO2-. These compounds are inter-
related via the nitrification cycle. Ammonia is a
metabolic bi-product directly excreted into the water
(Camargo et al., 2005; Romano and Zeng, 2013).
Ammonia is converted into nitrites and subsequently
nitrates through nitrification by naturally occurring
bacteria Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter, as follows:
In an aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem, the con-
centration of bioavailable nitrogenous compounds is
maintained at a low level. The plants and microbes
assimilate those nitrogenous compounds. The limiting
resource of bioavailable nitrogen maintains a balance
between primary productivity and global carbon stor-
age. In the United States, the maximum concentration
level for nitrate as nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) in public
drinking water is 10 mg/l, which is nearly equivalent
to the WHO recommendation of 11.3 NO3-N or 50
mg/l as NO3 (Singh etal.,2022). In India, the permit-
ted limit for nitrate ions in drinking water is 45 mg/l
(Bureau of Indian Standards) (Agarwal etal.,2019).
However, due to different natural and anthropogenic
sources, the level of these nitrogenous wastes includ-
ing ammonia (NH4+), nitrite (NO2-), and nitrate
(NO3-) are increasing in the ecosystem and becom-
ing a global threat for the animal life due to the toxic
impact (Valencia-Castañeda et al., 2019; Chong,
2022).
Increased exposure to ammonia (NH4+) changes
metabolic status in aquatic vertebrates, impair
muscle contraction due to competition with potas-
sium ions present in the muscle membrane (Sinha
etal.,2012). It also causes neurotoxicity by depo-
larizing the neurons and depleting ATP, which can
lead to cell death (Rodrigues etal.,2014). Elevated
nitrite concentrations cause acute toxicity in aquatic
animals. Nitrite exposure affects blood parameters,
NH+
4
+CO2+1.5O2+Nitrosomonas →NO
−
2
+H2O+H
+
NO−
2
+0.5O2+Nitrobacter →NO
−
3
leading to methemoglobin or ferrihemoglobin
hypoxia, and haemolytic anemia. It causes tissue
impairment and metabolism injure (Xiang et al.,
2010; dos Santos Silva et al., 2018). Nitrate can
enter the body of fish and crustaceans through dif-
fusion in the branchial epithelium (Jensen, 1996;
Stormer etal.,1996). Elevated nitrate concentration
in the body affects the food intake, growth rate (Sch-
ram etal.,2014; Stelzer & Joachim,2010), swim-
ming performance, reproductive capacity (Alonso
& Camargo,2013; Egea-Serrano & Tejedo,2014),
developmental alteration (Mallasen etal.,2003) and
survival rate (Camargo & Alonso,2006).
Nitrate toxicity to aquatic animals increases
with the increase of concentration of nitrate and its
exposure time (Camargo etal., 2005). The low pH
of water also enhances the effect of nitrate toxicity
on aquatic animals. At low pH, electrolytes such as
Na+ and Cl- are lost from the body, and to balance
the electrolytes metabolic energy is needed. There-
fore, simultaneous exposure to both low pH and
elevated nitrate concentration increases maintenance
costs and reduce maximum oxygen uptake, which
negatively impacts on growth and activity of animals
(Wood & Rogano, 1986, 1993). In contrast, water
salinity and increasing body size also cause a general
decrease in nitrate toxicity (Camargo etal.,2005).
Alteration in performance of aquatic animals in
nitrate toxicity is because of reduced oxygen-carrying
capacity of the blood. The oxygen-carrying pigments
hemoglobin and hemocyanin transformed into the
non-oxygen-carrying pigment methemoglobin, which
results in decreased oxygen levels in the blood. So,
the toxicity mechanism of nitrate is similar to that
of nitrite as nitrate is ultimately transformed into
nitrate in-vivo (Scott & Crunkilton, 2000; Cheng &
Chen,2002; Camargo etal.,2005).
Humans are exposed to environmental nitrate
through public drinking water supplies. Drinking
water nitrate concentration has increased in many
regions mostly due to the application of animal
manure and inorganic fertilizer in agricultural lands.
The safe level of nitrate in public water supply has
already been set to prevent infant methemoglobine-
mia, although other health issues were not considered.
The risk of various cancers, birth defects, thyroid dis-
ease, and other health damage can occur due to nitrate
intake through drinking water that increases the for-
mation of N-nitroso compounds (Ward etal.,2018).
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The major focus of this present review is to dis-
cuss the implications of elevated nitrate levels in
aquatic ecosystems and the acute toxic effect of
nitrate-N on aquatic invertebrates and fish. This
review also focuses on the link between nitrate con-
tamination in drinking water and adverse health out-
comes like methemoglobinemia, colorectal cancer,
thyroid disease, and neural tube defect in the human
population.
2 Source ofnitrate pollution andits
environmental fate
Some major sources of nitrogen compounds in the
aquatic ecosystem include atmospheric deposi-
tion, surface, and groundwater runoff from ferti-
lized agricultural lands, municipal and industrial
waste disposal, decaying plant debris, N2 fixation by
certain prokaryotes, etc. (Dauda et al., 2019; Xue
etal.,2016). Inorganic nitrogen can infiltrate aquatic
ecosystems from both point and nonpoint sources
resulting from human activity in addition to natural
sources (Howarth, 1988; Guildford & Hecky, 2000).
Due of their size and difficulty in control, nonpoint
sources are typically more important than point
sources (Howarth, 2005). Additionally, anthropogenic
inputs of organic and particulate nitrogen into the
environment can lead to inorganic nitrogen pollution
(Stevens etal.,2011; van den Berg etal.,2016). As
a result, inorganic nitrogenous compound concentra-
tions (NH4+, NO2, and NO3) in ground and surface
waters are rising globally, having a significant impact
on a variety of aquatic creatures and ultimately con-
tributing to the decline of freshwater, estuarine, and
coastal marine environments (Galloway & Cowling,
2002; Lacerda etal.,2018; Norton & Ouyang, 2019;
de Carvalho etal., 2021; Zhao et al.,2021). Nitrate
is added to act as a reservoir for nitrite (Lundberg
et al., 2009). The oxidation of human and animal
excrement causes nitrate to enter surface water and
groundwater as a result of agricultural operations
such the excessive use of nitrogenous fertilisers and
manures, wastewater treatment, and nitrate oxidation
(Mahvi etal.,2005; Sahoo etal.,2016). Nitrate lev-
els in surface and groundwater naturally range from
5-100 mg/l but can increase up to 500-1000 mg/l due
to natural and anthropogenic activities (Galloway
etal.,2004; Vitousek etal., 1997).
Although nitrate is typically thought of as a benign
substance, prolonged exposure to high nitrate levels
has significant effects on aquatic life (Isaza et al.,
2020b). The fate of nitrate is determined by the sur-
rounding environment and elements including the
presence of organic materials and rainfall. Nitroso-
monas transforms nitrate from nitrate in oxygen-
deficient water (WHO, 2016). The nitrogenous
wastes both organic as well as inorganic forms in
soil, decomposed primarily to give ammonia, sub-
sequently, oxidized to nitrite and nitrate (Bernhard,
2010). The nitrate released is drawn by plants which
are required for their growth, and building of complex
organic nitrogenous compounds (Fatta etal.,1999).
3 Toxicity toaquatic invertebrates
A predicted unimodal relationship states that nutri-
ent enrichment may cause a subsidy-stress effect. A
small number of nutrients prompt primary productiv-
ity, thereby, delivering advantage to the community
composition as well to biodiversity. Uncurbed nutri-
ents often lead to algal blooms, oxygen depletion, and
deteriorating habitat conditions creating environmen-
tal stress, and biodiversity loss (Niyogi etal.,2007).
The nitrate-nitrogen along with sediment and low
flows has been predicted to have cumulative stress on
freshwater communities (Wagenhoff etal.,2011; Pig-
gott etal.,2012). Nitrate toxicity to aquatic inverte-
brates depends on the nitrate concentration and expo-
sure time. Increasing body size, the salinity of water,
and environmental adaptation generally decreased the
toxic impact of nitrate on aquatic animals.
Soucek and Dickinson (2012) tested the 96 h LC50
value for two freshwater unionid mussels (Lampsilis
siliquoidea and Megalonaias nervosa), a fingernail
clam (Sphaerium simile), two stonefly species (Allo-
capnia vivipara and Amphinemura delosa), and an
amphipod (Hyalella azteca). They observed a wide
variety of sensitivity to nitrate, with the LC50 value
ranging from 357 to 937 mg of NO3-N/l. The nitrate
sensitivity order was as follows: L. siliquoidea>S.
simile>A. delosa>H. Azteca>A. Vivipara>M. ner-
vosa. Therefore, no clear trend in nitrate sensitiv-
ity for particular taxonomic groups was observed by
Soucek and Dickinson (2016).
Wang et al. (2020) examined the acute and
chronic toxicity of sodium nitrate to unionid mussel
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(Lampsilis siliquoidea) and a midge (Chironomus
dilutus and reported the midge as more sensitive to
nitrate compared to the unionid mussel. The mussel
and midge showed the median effect concentrations
(EC50) of 665 mg NO3-N/l and 189 mg NO3-N/l
respectively and chronic effect concentrations of 17
mg NO3-N/l and 9.6 mg NO3-N/l respectively. Yildiz
(2004) reported the acute toxicity range of nitrite
on narrow-clawed crayfish, Astacus leptodactylus,
between 22 and 70 mg/l after 48 hours (mean 29.43
mg/l) of exposure. Environmental chloride (100mg/l
chloride) elevated the toxicity of nitrite ranging
between 31-80 mg/l after 48 hours (mean 49.20 mg/l)
of exposure (Yildiz, 2004). Garai etal. (2022) investi-
gated the toxicity of nitrate on freshwater oligochaeta
(Annelida) worm Tubifex tubifex. The 96 h LC50 value
of nitrate to T. Tubifex is 664.38 mg/l. The LC50 val-
ues for different aquatic invertebrate species reported
by different investigator are denoted in Table1.
In order to investigate effect of ionic strength
on nitrate toxicity Baker et al. (2017) conducted a
chronic toxicity test for aquatic invertebrates Hya-
lella azteca, midges (Chironomus dilutes), daphnids
(Ceriodaphnia dubia) with different of ion concentra-
tion. The result explained that lower nitrate toxicity
associated with higher concentrations of major ions
in water. C. dubia was found to be the most sensi-
tive species, with IC25 values ranging from 13.8 to
47.5 mg/l NO3-N, as the increase of water hardness.
IC25 values of C. dilutus and H. azteca, were from
48.8 -178 mg/l NO3-N and 12.2 - 181 mg/l NO3-N
respectively, as the water hardness increases. Further,
Soucek and Dickinson (2016) have reported a chronic
nitrate toxicity test results in various chloride concen-
trations of water for two crustaceans Hyalella azteca
and Ceriodaphnia dubia. H. azteca appeared to be
very sensitive to nitrate exposure and C. dubia was
not being as sensitive. There was a clear relationship
between chloride concentration in water and chronic
nitrate toxicity in the case of H. Azteca, but this rela-
tionship was not established for C. dubia.
To understand the toxic impact of nitrate on marine
and freshwater invertebrates and to provide a gen-
eral nitrate sensitivity order, we have generated a spe-
cies sensitivity distribution (SSD) curve by consider-
ing available 96h LC50 values. SSD is a bell-shaped
distribution curve represents the species sensitivity
distribution to a particular environmental stressor (Post-
huma & de Zwart,2012). Among the aquatic inverte-
brate species taken, the sensitivity order for nitrate is
Hydropsyche occidentalis, Cheumatopsyche pettiti,
Lampsilis siliquoidea, Sphaerium simile, Amphine-
mura delosa, Potamopyrgus antipodarum, Hyalella
azteca, Allocapnia vivipara, Megalonaias nervosa,
Penaeus monodon and Crassostrea virginica respec-
tively (Fig.1). This SSD curve agreeing the nitrate sen-
sitivity data with higher ion concentration and showed
that freshwater invertebrates are more sensitive towards
nitrate exposure than marine invertebrates.
In addition to acute and chronic toxicity, the
question of whether nitrate accumulates in body
tissue arises. Cheng et al. (2002) investigated
nitrate build-up in different tissues of the penaeid
shrimp Penaeus monodon. After 24 h of expo-
sure to 3.646, 21.234 and 36.079 mM of nitrate,
the accumulation was measured in muscle (0.202,
0.854 and 0.980 μmol/g), hepatopancreas (0.330,
1.139 and 1.552 μmol/g), heart (0.527, 1.468 and
1.879 μmol/g), foregut (0.632, 2.195 and 3.341
μmol/g), gills (0.927, 2.398 and 3.325 μmol/g),
hemolymph (0.946, 3.327 and 3.948 μmol/g), eye-
stalk (1.214, 3.461 and 4.264 μmol/g) and mid-
gut (1.529, 3.343 and 5.239 μmol/g) respectively.
The concentration of nitrate in muscle was lowest,
and the midgut was highest among different tis-
sues tested. Taken together the accumulation was
increased directly with nitrate concentration in the
surroundings and the exposure time, except for
muscle. The investigation by Garai et al. (2022)
elucidated that the combined effect of physiologi-
cal stress biomarkers gradually increased with
increasing exposure time and nitrate in Tubifex
tubifex. The increased level of stress biomarker
during chronic exposure of nitrate indicates higher
oxidative stress response in T. tubifex.
4 Toxicity tofish
Nitrite toxicity to fish also varies with different exter-
nal and internal factors i.e. water quality, fish spe-
cies, body size, and individual fish susceptibility
(Kroupova etal.,2005).
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Table 1. Comparative toxicity of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) to aquatic invertebrates
Species Developmental stage Aquatic medium Toxicological parameter (mg
NO3-N/l)
References
Hydropsyche occidentalis Early instar larvae
Early instar larvae
Early instar larvae
Late instar larvae
Late instar larvae
Late instar larvae
Freshwater
Freshwater
Freshwater
Freshwater
Freshwater
Freshwater
148.5 (72 h LC50)
97.3 (96 h LC50)
65.5 (120 h LC50)
183.5(72 h LC50)
109.0 (96 h LC50)
77.2(120 h LC50)
Camargo & Ward (1992)
Cheumatopsyche pettiti Early instar larvae
Early instar larvae
Early instar larvae
Late instar larvae
Late instar larvae
Late instar larvae
Freshwater 191.0 (72 h LC50)
113.5 (96 h LC50)
106.5 (120 h LC50)
210.0 (72 h LC50)
165.5 (96 h LC50)
119.0 (120 h LC50)
Camargo & Ward (1992)
Paracentrotus lividus Juveniles (2.7–5.9 g) Seawater 100 (15 days safe level) Basuyaux & Mathieu (1999)
Haliotis tuberculata Juveniles (12–14.4 g) Seawater 250 (15 days safe level) Basuyaux & Mathieu (1999)
Ceriodaphnia dubia Neonates (<24 h) Freshwater 374 (48 h LC50)
21.3(48 h NOEC)
42.6(48 h LOEC)
Scott & Crunkilton (2000)
Daphnia magna Neonates (<48 h) Freshwater 462(48 h LC50)
358 (48 h NOEC)
717 (48 h LOEC)
Scott & Crunkilton (2000)
Potamopyrgus antipodarum Adults (2.6–3.8 mm) Freshwater 535(96 h LC50) Alonso & Camargo (2003)
Lampsilis siliquoidea Juveniles (5 days old) Freshwater 357 (96 h LC50) Soucek & Dickinson (2012)
Megalonaias nervosa Juveniles (5 days old) Freshwater 937 (96 h LC50) Soucek & Dickinson (2012)
Sphaerium simile Juveniles (14 days old) Freshwater 371 (96 h LC50) Soucek & Dickinson (2012)
Allocapnia vivipara Late-instar nymphs. Terrestrial 836 (96 h LC50) Soucek & Dickinson (2012)
Amphinemura delosa Late-instar nymphs. Terrestrial 456 (96 h LC50) Soucek & Dickinson (2012)
Hyalella azteca Adults Freshwater 667 (96 h LC50) Soucek & Dickinson (2012)
Hyalella azteca Adults (7-9 days old) Freshwater 210 (96 h LC50 at chloride conc.
9.9 mg/l)
516 (96 h LC50 at chloride conc.
24.6 mg/l)
736 (96 h LC50 at chloride conc.
97.6 mg/l)
Soucek & Dickinson (2016)
Ceriodaphnia dubia Neonates (< 24 h old) Freshwater 665 (48 h LC50 at chloride conc.
10.1 mg/l)
671 (48 h LC50 at chloride conc.
24.9 mg/l)
502 (48 h LC50 at chloride conc.
48.7 mg/l)
453 (48 h LC50 at chloride conc.
96.6 mg/l)
Soucek & Dickinson (2016)
Hyalella azteca 6-8 days old amphipods Freshwater 124-622 (14 days LC50 with the
increase of water hardness)
Baker etal.(2017)
Chironomus dilutes Third-instar larvae Freshwater 114-342 (10 days LC50 as the
water hardness increases)
Baker etal.(2017)
Ceriodaphnia dubia < 24 h old daphnia Freshwater 62-127 (7 days LC50 as the water
hardness increases)
Baker etal.(2017)
Lampsilis siliquoidea Juveniles (6 days) Freshwater 665 (Acute EC50) Wang etal.(2020)
Chironomus dilutus Larvae (7 days) Freshwater 189 (Acute EC50) Wang etal.(2020)
Tubifex tubifex Adults Freshwater 664.381(96h LC50) Garai etal.(2022)
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Kincheloe et al. (1979) showed species-specific
early fry mortality at increasing nitrate concentra-
tion. At 20 mg/l of nitrate exposure, chinook salmon
egg and fry showed a significant increase in mortality
rate. Rainbow trout fry showed increased mortality at
10 mg/l of nitrate exposure. Early fry of coho salmon
and steelhead trout had no significant alteration in
mortality rate after increasing the dose of nitrate. The
early fry stage of lahontan cutthroat trout showed
significantly high mortality at 30 mg/l of nitrate con-
centration. LC50 values obtained due to exposure
of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) to fishes are listed in
Table2.
In order to compare nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) to
different freshwater and marine fishes, we have gen-
erated a species sensitivity distribution (SSD) curve
by considering available 96 h LC50 values. Among
the freshwater and marine fish species taken, the
order of sensitivity for nitrate is Poecilia reticulates,
Monocanthus hispidus, Litopenaeus vannamei,
Raja eglanteria, Trachinotus carolinus, Micropterus
treculi, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, Pimephales
promelas, Ictalurus punctatus, Rachycentron cana-
dum, Lepomis macrochirus, Centropristis striata
and Pomacentrus leucostritus respectively (Fig. 2).
Poecilia reticulates is a freshwater fish is the most
sensitive fish to nitrate. On another hand, Centro-
pristis striata and Pomacentrus leucostritus are two
marine fish species have very high LC50 value as
compared to other freshwater fish. So overall, this
SSD curve also explains that marine fish species
are generally less sensitive towards nitrate toxic-
ity than freshwater fish species. Yildiz etal.(2006)
reported that nitrite exposure in the range of 0.50
and 1.38 mg/l caused a rise in methemoglobin lev-
els in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), however,
methemoglobin percentages ranging from 16% to
42% represented a mild methemoglobinemia. Yildiz
etal.(2006) also observed considerable lowering of
hematocrit and haemoglobin levels in Nile tilapia
after exposure to nitrite.
Freshwater fishes take up nitrite through gills,
which leads to a high rate of accumulation. Sea-
water fishes take nitrite through both gills and
intestines (Jensen,2003). Histopathological altera-
tion of gills, esophagus, and brain was observed
in acute exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of
nitrate. Gill revealed lamellar fusion and hyperpla-
sia of epithelium and lamellar shortening induced
by necrosis. The esophagus showed hyperplasia
of mucus cells and epithelium. The proliferation
of glial cells and satellitosis (microglial cells sur-
rounding neurons with swollen and prenecrotic
neurons) were observed in the brain (Rodrigues
et al., 2011). Davidson et al. (2014) observed
slow growth and decreased survival rate in juve-
nile rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss at high
nitrate (80-100 mg/l) exposure. Luo etal.(2016)
also observed decreased growth rate, develop-
mental retardation and increased mortality rate in
rare minnow Gobiocypris rarus to a high dose of
nitrate exposure.
Fig. 1 Species sensitiv-
ity distribution curve
for aquatic invertebrates
to nitrate toxicity. The
black line denotes central
tendency and blue lines
denotes 95% confidence
intervals
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Nitrate transfer across erythrocytes membrane
causes oxidation of hemoglobin to methemoglobin
(metHb) which impairs the blood oxygen trans-
port (Cameron, 1971). Smith and Williams (1974)
reported methemoglobinemia and a 40% mortal-
ity rate after nitrite exposure in Rainbow Trout and
Chinook Salmon. Gisbert etal. (2004) reported acute
nitrite toxicity in Siberian sturgeon yearlings which
caused severe methemoglobinemia, change in plasma
electrolyte imbalance, and kidney Na+–K+ ATPase
activities. At acidic pH, chronic exposure to nitrate
(50 mg/l and 100 mg/l) in juvenile spangled perch,
reduced the functional performance and compro-
mised the blood oxygen-carrying capacity due to the
Table 2. Comparative toxicity of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) to fishes
Species Developmental stage Aquatic medium Toxicological parameter (mg
NO3-N/l) References
Poecilia reticulatus Fry Freshwater 267 (24 h LC50)
219 (48 h LC50)
199 (72 h LC50)
191 (96 h LC50)
Rubin & Elmaraghy (1977)
Lithognathus mormyrus Fingerlings Seawater 3450 (24 h LC50) Brownell (1980)
Diplodus sargus Fingerlings Seawater 3560 (24 h LC50) Brownell (1980)
Heteromycteris capensis Fingerlings Seawater 5050 (24 h LC50) Brownell (1980)
Micropterus treculi Fingerlings Freshwater 1261 (96 h LC50) Tomasso & Carmichael (1986)
Pimephales promelas Larvae Freshwater 1341 (96 h LC50) Scott & Crunkilton (2000)
Catla catla Freshwater 1565.43 (24 h LC50) in static
system
1484.08 (24 h LC50) in con-
tinuous flow-through system
Tilak etal. (2021)
Rachycentron canadum Juvenile Seawater 2407 (24 h LC50)
1829 (96 h LC50)Rodrigues etal.(2011)
Cyprinus carpio Juvenile Freshwater 1075.10 (24 h LC50) in static
system
967.63 (24 h LC50) in continu-
ous flow-through system
Rodrigues etal.(2011)
Litopenaeus vannamei Juvenile Seawater 900 (96 h LC50) at a salinity
concentration 3 g/l. Valencia-Castañeda etal.(2019)
Fig. 2 Species sensitivity
distribution curve for fishes
to nitrate toxicity. The
black line denotes central
tendency and orange lines
denotes 95% confidence
intervals
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reduction of hematocrit value, hemoglobin content,
an increase of methemoglobin concentration (Isazaet
al., 2020a). Nitrate accumulation in the blood plasma
lead to depletion of chloride ions and caused potas-
sium ion loss from skeletal muscle and erythrocytes,
resulted in a reduction in cell volume and extracellu-
lar hyperkalemia (Knudsen & Jensen,1997).
Aggergaard and Jensen (2001) reported that nitrite
exposure to rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss,
increased the heart rate and influenced the cardio-
respiratory function. Fish exposed to increased nitrate
concentration showed higher creatinine levels in
serum and lower chloride levels compared to the con-
trol fish (Hrubec etal.,1997). Nitrite can mimic nitric
oxide and thereby inhibit the processes regulated by
local hormones (Jensen, 2003). Nitrate exposure to
zebrafish embryos showed neurotoxicity and acted as
an endocrine disruptor possibly by the conversion to
nitric oxide to downregulate the activity of dopamin-
ergic neurons (Jannat etal.,2014).
5 Nitrate toxicity anddisease progression
The use of high nitrate-containing drinking water
is a very common risk factor for methemoglobine-
mia from fishes to human. Fish gills actively carry
nitrates, which easily oxidise haemoglobin to produce
methemoglobin. The detailed molecular mechanism
of methemoglobinemia studied in human. The hemo-
globin (Fe2+) of the affected individuals transforms
to methemoglobin (Fe3+). 1.8 Å crystal structure of
human hemoglobin (PDB: 3D7O) shows the nitrite
anion binds at the sixth coordination position at the
ferric (Fe3+) moity of heme, hence become unable
to transform oxygen (Fig.3a-b). It causes ‘blue-baby
syndrome’ to the affected infants. The principal char-
acteristics of this syndrome are cyanosis (blue-grey
skin colour) and become irritable or lethargic. If not
treated properly; this condition can progress to some
other severe symptoms like loss of consciousness, sei-
zures, and ultimately death (Knobeloch etal.,2000).
Infants with the age group of < 3 months are most
susceptible to methemoglobinemia than adults
because of less synthesis of NADH-cytochrome b5
reductase, which is the key enzyme to convert meth-
emoglobin back to haemoglobin (Savino etal.,2006).
Methemoglobinemia causes severe hypoxia in fishes
that can result in abrupt death. Fish blood with high
methemoglobin levels appears is brown in color, also
refers to "brown blood illness" (Chong,2022).
In addition to methemoglobinemia, nitrate expo-
sure also causes cancer in various organs like the
oesophagus, bladder, stomach, and colon (Ward
et al., 2018). Nitrate possibly converts to nitrite
under the condition of gastric achlorhydria and sub-
sequently transforms into nitrosamines-substances,
which is known for causing cancer in animals (Magee
& Barnes,1967). Morales-Suarez-Varela etal.(1995)
Fig. 3 Structure of methemoglobin. aStructure of hemoglobin
protein shown in surface. Structure of heme bind with ortho-
nitrito (ONO) shown in steak. bZoomed in view of structure
of ferric- heme- (ONO). (PDB ID: 3D7O)
Water Air Soil Pollut (2023) 234:333
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reported a relationship between nitrate exposure and
mortality rate in cancer of different age groups of peo-
ples in the province of Valencia, Spain. They observed
an increased mortality rate due to the relatively high
risk of gastric and prostate cancer at the nitrate con-
centration > 50 mg/l in the drinking water. The per-
son of age group 55-75 years, showed relative gastric
cancer risk 1.91 for males and 1.81 for females. In the
case of prostate cancer, the elevated relative risk was
1.86 and 1.80 for the age group of 55-75 and > 75
years respectively. Taneja etal.(2017) studied the case
of gastrointestinal cancer (GI) in a population of 234
individuals from a rural area of Nagpur and Bhandara
district of India. They reported 78 cases of GI cancer
in 2 years period due to nitrate exposure from drink-
ing water at the concentration of > 45 mg/l. Espejo-
Herrera etal. (2015) reported a high risk of bladder
cancer in Spain due to long-term exposure to nitrate-
contaminated drinking water.
Ingestion of nitrate from contaminated drinking
water, also affects the function of the thyroid gland,
leading to the alteration of thyroid hormone concen-
tration. Nitrate competitively inhibits the sodium-
iodine symporter of thyroid follicles and thereby
blocks the iodine intake by the thyroid gland. There-
fore, ingestion of nitrate compromises the thyroid
hormone synthesis, causes thyrotropin elevation.
Ward etal.(2010) reported an increased risk of thy-
roid cancer in the population taking high concentra-
tions of nitrate (>5 mg/L nitrate-N) through public
water supply for a longer duration. Consumption of
drinking water with high nitrate contamination (> 50
mg/l) caused the development of hypertrophy (van
Maanen etal.,1994). Tajtáková etal.(2006) reported
increased thyroid volume and a higher frequency of
thyroid disorder in schoolchildren from high nitrate
contaminated areas compared to low nitrate contami-
nated areas. Aschebrook-Kilfoy etal.(2012) observed
that the exposure to nitrate at the concentration > 6.5
mg/l caused a high risk in subclinical hypothyroid-
ism for women. An increased risk of type 1 diabetes
mellitus was also found in people exposed to a high
nitrate concentration of > 40-80 mg/l (Bahadoran
etal.,2016).
Cedergren etal. (2002)reported an increased risk
for a congenital cardiac defect in a population after
exposure to nitrate contaminated drinking water.
They have collected data from 58,669 women, who
have taken nitrate-contaminated drinking water from
the public water supply. Among the infants born, 753
showed cardiac defects.
Bukowski et al. (2001) investigated a major
impact of groundwater nitrate concentration on
intrauterine growth retardation and prematurity on
Prince Edward Island. Among 4098 controls from
the database, 210 cases showed intrauterine growth
retardation and 336 cases showed premature birth.
Maternal exposure to nitrate through drinking
water during pregnancy reduced the weight and
length of offspring which are the markers of intra-
uterine growth (Coffman et al., 2021). Tabacova
etal.(1997) investigated the pregnant women, who
have taken drinking water from an area contami-
nated by oxidized nitrogen compounds, showed
complications in pregnancy. Among them, 67% of
cases showed anaemia, 33% of cases had premature
labour, and 23% of cases showed preeclampsia.
Tabacova etal.(1998) showed that exposure to oxi-
dized nitrogen compounds is linked with increased
risk in neonatal health and more lipid peroxidation
in both maternal and cord blood. A risk in central
nervous system malformation due to nitrate expo-
sure in drinking water was reported in New Brun-
swick, Canada by Arbuckle etal.(1988).
6 Concluding remarks
The data presented in this present review suggest
that nitrate toxicity due to natural and anthropo-
genic sources may seriously affect both aquatic ani-
mals and human health. Nitrate concentrations in
the water resources are increasing due to the use of
nitrogen fertilizer and animal agriculture. Therefore,
a safe level of nitrate as recommended by WHO
guidelines should be maintained in the environment
to protect living organisms. National and global
efforts are needed to mitigate the nitrate concentra-
tion in water resources. Some of such water quality
protection agencies which prevent nitrate pollution
in surface and groundwater are International Nitro-
gen Initiative and EU Nitrates Directive (Musac-
chio etal.,2020; Bowen etal., 2005). Efforts of the
EU Nitrates Directive include identification of most
exposed areas, the establishment of good agricul-
tural practices, crop rotation, national observation,
and reporting that decrease the nitrate concentration
in groundwater in some European countries (Hansen
Water Air Soil Pollut (2023) 234:333
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etal.,2011). Although in the U.S., the application of
nitrogen fertilizer in the crop field is not regulated and
efforts to maintain the nitrate concentration in surface
and groundwater are voluntary (Dinnes etal.,2002).
Long-term studies are necessary to verify and
enhance the suggested safe amount of nitrate for
aquatic species notwithstanding the endorsement of
this level. Further research is required into the effects
of water parameters such as pH, temperature, hard-
ness, salinity, dissolved oxygen content, and other
chemical components on the toxicity of nitrate for
aquatic species. In addition, aquatic species engage
in a variety of biotic interactions, including as com-
petition, parasitism, and predation. In order to com-
prehend how nitrate contamination affects biotic
interactions and natural selection for aquatic organ-
isms, field and laboratory investigations are required.
For the human population, the most adverse health
effect occurs due to the intake of nitrate-contaminated
drinking water and an increase of endogenous nitro-
sation. Some recent studies have identified subgroups
of the population with the increased potentiality of
endogenous nitrosation. However, a direct method
is needed to assess the individuals. New tools are
now available for epidemiologic studies to quantify
the bacterial DNA, the relative abundance of oral
microbiomes, and to characterize them (Vogtmann
etal.,2017; Sinha etal.,2017). More studies are also
needed to understand the nitrate-reducing capacity of
oral microbiomes and to determine the factors that
can modify their capacities like oral hygiene, food,
and periodontal disease.
Most countries throughout the world, including
the United States, South Korea, Europe, and India,
are considered nitrate contaminated as the concentra-
tions detected there exceed the allowed and accept-
able limits set by environmental agencies such as the
USEPA, WHO, and others. Several studies have been
undertaken in India to determine the extent of nitrate
contamination in ground and surface water habitats.
As a result, the only way to lessen the related health
risks is to remediate nitrate-contaminated soil and
water. Reverse osmosis, chemical denitrification, bio-
logical denitrification, electro dialysis and adsorption
are some of the processes that have proved effective
and are now in use. The employment of greener and
newer ways to remove nitrate, such as various nano-
composites, halloysite nanotubes, and nanorods, may
improve nitrate removal efficiency. The limitations of
recycling and separation from water can be overcome
by immobilising these nanocomposites or nanotubes
on a membrane. Sensing approaches might appear to
be a more suitable and reliable tool for quantifying
and estimating nitrate ions in soil and water. How-
ever, further studies are needed to develop advanced
systems for removing nitrate from the environment
and sensing its presence when it exceeds permissible
levels.
Acknowledgments We are thankful to the Department of
Zoology, The University of Burdwan for providing the labora-
tory facilities.
Data Availability The datasets generated during and/or
analysed during the current study are available from the cor-
responding author on reasonable request.
Declaration
Conflict of Interest The authors declare no competing inter-
ests.
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