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RESEARCH ARTICLE
Prospects and challenges of achieving
sustainable urban green-spaces: A case study
of urban greening in Dhaka North City
Corporation (DNCC), Bangladesh
Mashura ShammiID
1
*, Farhadur Reza
2
, Aristol Chandra Sarker
1
, Abid Azad Sakib
1
1Department of Environmental Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh,
2Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh
*mashura926@juniv.edu
Abstract
Urban green spaces and urban forest covers are a significant component of urban planning
which is critically ignored in Bangladesh. This study aims to identify the prospects and chal-
lenges of achieving sustainable urban green spaces in Dhaka North City Corporation
(DNCC), Bangladesh which is a significant indicator of the sustainable development goal
(SDG11). We have analyzed the historical land use and land cover change (LULC) from
1992, 2002, 2012, and 2022 using Landsat 4–5 Thematic Mapper (TM), Landsat 7
Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+), and Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI)
images by ArcGIS 10.8 and Google Earth-pro software. The use of the Normalized Differ-
ence Vegetation Index (NDVI) primarily indicates vegetation greenness as well as determin-
ing other land uses such as waterbody, settlements and barren land. The calculated kappa
values varied from 80% to 86.7% for all the years and fit the current research. A strength-
weakness-opportunity-threat (SWOT) analysis reviewed and analyzed existing sectoral pol-
icy and plans to identify challenges to achieve sustainable urban forestry. Fifteen key infor-
mant interviews (KII) from Dhaka North City Corporation (DNCC), Department of
Environment (DOE), Bangladesh Forest Department (BFD), and Department of Social For-
estry Department (DSF) wing under BFD were taken to identify the status of urban forestry,
its problems, opportunities, and threats. The responses were drawn using a Driver-Pres-
sure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework. Of the total measurements of 194.2sq
km (2022), normal vegetation cover has decreased significantly from 1992 to 2022 by
approximately 65.9%, while urban areas increased by almost 95% simultaneously. From
1992 to 2022, areas of water bodies decreased by more than 32.4%. The vegetation cover-
age in DNCC is only 16.17%, inferior in meeting sustainable urban greening to fulfil the crite-
ria of sustainable cities and communities. From the KII, it is found that despite some
relevant forestry policy and plans, limited lands, institutional corruption, and weak gover-
nance are the major institutional drawbacks. In the DNCC, unplanned and rapid megacity
expansion, roads and utility service expansion weak institutional policy, plan, and program
implementation for urban green space protection are some of the driving forces of green
cover loss. Introducing strategic environmental assessment of urban forestry policy, plans,
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OPEN ACCESS
Citation: Shammi M, Reza F, Sarker AC, Sakib AA
(2023) Prospects and challenges of achieving
sustainable urban green-spaces: A case study of
urban greening in Dhaka North City Corporation
(DNCC), Bangladesh. PLOS Sustain Transform
2(5): e0000061. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.
pstr.0000061
Editor: Prajal Pradhan, Potsdam Institute for
Climate Impact Research (PIK), GERMANY
Received: January 10, 2022
Accepted: April 1, 2023
Published: May 9, 2023
Peer Review History: PLOS recognizes the
benefits of transparency in the peer review
process; therefore, we enable the publication of
all of the content of peer review and author
responses alongside final, published articles. The
editorial history of this article is available here:
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000061
Copyright: ©2023 Shammi et al. This is an open
access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original
author and source are credited.
Data Availability Statement: All data are within the
manuscript.
and programs, removing inter-institutional conflicts, strategic sectoral plans, and programs
for increased green spaces through the bioeconomy concept is required. In addition,
increased participation from urban stakeholders is some of the significant responses identi-
fied for strategic urban green space and forest cover improvement in DNCC.
Author summary
The concept of urban green infrastructure, urban green spaces and the urban forest is a
significant indicator of sustainable development goals (SDG 11.7.1). Analysing the histori-
cal changes in land use and land cover (LULC) throughout an area is critical for resource
management, sustainable development, and holistic planning and decision-making. The
LULC of Dhaka North City Corporation (DNCC), Bangladesh were analysed from 1992,
2002, 2012, and 2022. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was estimated to
identify vegetation greenness as well as to determine other land uses such as waterbody,
settlements and barren land. Of the total measurements of 194.2sq km (2022), normal veg-
etation cover has decreased significantly from 1992 to 2022 by approximately 65.9%,
while urban areas increased by almost 95% simultaneously. The vegetation coverage in
DNCC is only 16.17%, inferior in meeting sustainable urban greening to fulfil the criteria
of sustainable cities. Key informant interviews and policy and planning document analysis
suggests that a suitable strategy with good political will with the least influence must be
taken for a better urban environment. Introducing strategic environmental assessment of
urban policy, plans, and programs, removing inter-institutional conflicts, strategic sec-
toral plans, and programs for increased green spaces through the bioeconomy concept is
required.
1. Introduction
Urban green spaces are a significant part of urban planning. The terms such as ‘green space’,
‘public open space’, ‘open space’, and ‘park’ are used interchangeably and synonymously in
many kinds of literature [1–3]. Urban green space encompasses neighbourhood parks, play-
grounds, sports fields, recreational green areas, and urban forest covers [4]. On the other
hand, the urban forest consists of all urban plants, including street trees and patches of park
trees, and peri-urban woods extending to the outer metropolis. Land types include natural for-
est parks and urban forests >0.5 hectares, pocket parks and gardens, street or public squares
plants, and other open areas of trees, including pavements, corridors, rooftops, and nurseries
[5,6]. Urban forests offer necessary ecosystem services for aesthetics, and comforts in urban
heat, bad air quality, hydrologic regime and pollution control, and support social stability,
public health and well-being [7–9]. Urban vegetation can store a considerable amount of car-
bon, ensuring the long-term stability of carbon fluctuation in the environment and thus help-
ful for mitigating atmospheric CO
2
concentration [10].
However, many megacities worldwide have turned to impervious surfaces with less vegeta-
tion growing spaces [11]. Consequently, the urban vegetation covers face many challenges in a
stressful artificial, rapidly shifting urban environment [7]. It is noteworthy that different
forms, sizes, and tree covers influence urban climate and temperatures [12]. For example,
water bodies and urban forest covers influence moderating temperatures and function as ther-
mal buffers [3,4,12]. The latest nationwide forest inventory conducted from 2016 to 2019
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Funding: The authors received no specific funding
for this work.
Competing interests: The authors have declared
that no competing interests exist.
shows that the forest cover is 12.8% of Bangladesh which is 14.1% of the country’s total land
area [13,14]. Dhaka, Bangladesh’s capital, is one of the world’s top ten megacities, overgrowing
in population of 21 million, trailed by Asian megacities such as Tokyo, Delhi, Shanghai, São
Paulo, and Mexico City [15–17]. For 1528 km
2
of informal urbanization, climate change and
environmental pollution have affected 18.2 million inhabitants [18]. Therefore, in the urbani-
zation process, Dhaka city’s free spaces are being turned into affordable housing while the
open fields are turned into the car parking area for shopping malls, and lower lands such as
ponds and lakes are being turned into reclaimed build-up lands. However, the lack of open
spaces negatively affects the physical and mental health of the inhabitants. In previous studies,
it was reported that good quality blue-green infrastructures were associated with better adoles-
cent mental health, the well-being of migrant workers, reducing neighbourhood violence in
low-income areas etc. [4,19–21]. New research during the pandemic demonstrates the greater
importance of access to local parks and recreational activities. During the pandemic, parks,
gardens, and other local blue-green spaces have been identified as critical to people’s physical
and emotional well-being [22].
SDG 11 targets the cities and human settlements to be inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustain-
able. At the same time, its indicator 11.7.1 aims to monitor the amount of land and green
spaces that cities are dedicated to for public space [23,24]. This means achieving sustainable
development goals (SDG 11) for metropolitan areas that target sustainable, safe, resilient, and
inclusive cities by 2030. However, a traditional forest-based economy in urban areas cannot
respond to sociopolitical, environmental, and economic challenges [25]. Consequently, a for-
est-based bioeconomy can expand value-added products or implement the non-traditional use
of woods in urban areas to achieve SDG 11 [26]. Urban green spaces and infrastructure can
provide potential bioeconomic activities such as urban farming, gardening, and recreational
activities [26,27], ecosystem services, economic stimulation, biodiversity conservation, water
resource protection, microclimate improvement, carbon sequestration, and fresh food supply
[26,28,29]. Therefore, constructing a plan for multifunctional urban green infrastructure is
critical to achieving urban sustainability goals to improve city dwellers’ quality of life and the
environment [30]. Since urban green infrastructure encompasses urban green spaces and is a
part of the urban green infrastructure concept and the urban forest is also a part of urban
green space and therefore a significant component of SDG 11.7.1.
The open space area in Dhaka city, Bangladesh was only about 24.5% in 2005 compared to
44.8% in 1975 [31]. 88% of Dhaka city’s dynamic core area is built-up (78.56 km
2
), replacing
green zones or wetlands in the study in 2013 [32]. Due to insufficient vegetation cover and a
lack of diversified trees, Dhaka city’s carbon sequestration is unsatisfactory [9]. The average
cooling and humidifying effect of medium-sized green areas was most noticeable during high-
temperature days. Furthermore, the layout and amount of water basins within a green space
have a significant impact on local cooling and humidity [33]. Moreover, the loss of urban
green zones and wetlands can promote an urban heat island effect, a microclimatic event with
significant temperature rise and amplifying heat waves [34]. Although the exact human effect
is not identified yet, it is evident that microclimatic variation in terms of green space can,
therefore impact the human comfort zone which needs to be addressed in urban planning and
decision-making. Remote sensing and geospatial information system (GIS) along with land
use and land cover change (LULC) can identify trends with image categorization and an excel-
lent tools for decision-making. Availability of images, secondary data, classification technique,
and user experiences can accurately produce exact LULC with proper accuracy assessment
[35,36]. Increased urban expansion and sprawl may result in changes in land usage as well as
land alteration. Yet, reliable and current information regarding LULC is essential for a better
understanding and assessment of the environmental consequences of such changes [36].
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Changes in LULC throughout an area are critical for resource management, sustainable devel-
opment, and holistic planning to achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) 2030 takes a comprehensive methodology that recognizes all countries to turn to sus-
tainable growth with different targets and indicators in terms of land use.
Compared to all other megacities around the world, where urban forestry and urban green-
ing are highly valued as a means of achieving sustainable urban growth, Dhaka is less focused
and concerned, with little initiative in this region. The present study aims to determine the his-
torical LULC in Dhaka North City Corporation (DNCC) and how this scenario can be incor-
porated into future decision-making in terms of sustainable development goals 11. In
addition, it also explores the prospects and challenges for enhancing the urban forestry policy,
plans, and programs (PPPs) through key informant interviews to identify the challenges for
achieving sustainable urban green space.
2. Methodology
2.1. Study area, satellite data collection for land use and land cover (LULC)
analysis
The study area Dhaka North City Corporation (DNCC) (Fig 1) is an autonomous body estab-
lished in 2011, and it consists of 194.2 km
2
[37]. Administratively, DNCC is comprised of 54
wards and is roughly divided into 10 zones. For our study, 19 thanas, namely, Adabor, Badda,
Bimanbandar, Cantonment, Dakshin Khan, Darus Salam, Gulshan, Kafrul, Khilkhet, Mirpur,
Mohammadpur, Pallabi, Shah Ali, Sher-e-Bangla Nagar, Tejgaon, Tejgaon Industrial thana,
Uttara, Uttar Khan, and Turag. Total of 5,979,537 people live in DNCC [38]. It has 22 parks
and four playgrounds.
The data were analyzed with ArcGIS 10.8 and "Google Earth-pro" software. Reference data
for proper boundary delineation was taken, followed by a classification scheme designed for
Supervised-Maximum Likelihood Classification (SMLC) of image. Satellite image classifica-
tion was established by obtaining various sorts of Landsat image spectral signatures. Following
the acquisition of the images, the most important aspect for different land classes was the band
color composite selection. It can quickly identify various terrain observations. Once the classi-
fication was done, the raster images were converted into polygons, and the polygon features
dissolved into form a single category of land-use types. Accuracy assessment of the map and
production of the initial land cover map was produced. Finally, the map was designed to deter-
mine the area of vegetation cover, settlement (built-up urban areas), barren land, and water
bodies.
To find out the amount of vegetation cover of DNCC, satellite data was taken from The
United States Geological Survey (USGS) server (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/). The highest
resolution and visibly clear images were chosen to avoid cloud coverage, satellite sensor prob-
lem and other issues. Satellite images from 1992 to 2022 are taken for this study for clear image
resolution. All the images were selected for the pre-monsoon season in Bangladesh. There is
an interval of 10 years between each satellite image. The image for the study area is selected
using path 137 and row 044. ArcGIS software is used for pre-processing, classification, and
map generation. All other details of the satellite image data are shown in Table 1.
The images from the Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sen-
sor (TIRS) have a spatial resolution of 30 meters for Bands 1 to 7 and 9. Panchromatic Band 8
has a 15-meter resolution. Thermal bands 10 and 11 are effective for delivering more precise
surface temperatures and are collected at 100 meters [39]. Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Map-
per Plus (ETM+) images consist of eight spectral bands with a spatial resolution of 30 meters
for Bands 1 to 7. Panchromatic Band 8 has a 15-meter resolution. Band 6 collects both high
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and low gain for all scenes, while the other bands can only collect one of the two gain settings
(high or low) for greater radiometric sensitivity and dynamic range [40]. Landsat 4–5 The-
matic Mapper (TM) images are formed by seven spectral bands, each with a spatial resolution
of 30 meters for Bands 1–5 and 7. Thermal infrared Band 6 has a spatial resolution of 120
meters, but the resolution is resampled to 30-meter pixels (Table 2).
Fig 1. Study area-Dhaka North City Corporation (DNCC).
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2.2 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) analysis
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is used to quantify vegetation greenness and
is useful in understanding vegetation density and assessing changes in plant health. Using
spectral reflectance in the red and near infrared bands, this index is calculated. The range of
NDVI values is -1 to 1. Lower NDVI values (usually between 0 and 0.2) imply light or dark
soils, while higher NDVI values suggest dense vegetation [41]. NDVI is calculated using the
equation below:
NDVI ¼ðNIR RedÞ
ðNIR þRedÞ
Table 1. Specification of Satellite Data for the Study Area.
Data period Time frame Landsat Cloud Coverage
2022 29 April, 2022 Landsat 08 25%
2012 17 April, 2012 Landsat 07 25%
2002 6 April, 2002 Landsat 07 20%
1992 2 April,1992 Landsat 05 10%
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Table 2. Specification of Landsat Data.
Landsat Band Range Resolution
Landsat_8/9 Band 1 Visible 0.43–0.45 μm 30m
Band 2 Visible (Blue) 0.450–0.51 μm 30m
Band 3 Visible (Green) 0.53–0.59 μm 30m
Band 4 Red 0.64–0.67 μm 30m
Band 5 Near-Infrared 0.85–0.88 μm 30m
Band 6 SWIR 1 1.57–1.65 μm 30m
Band 7 SWIR 2 2.11–2.29 μm 30m
Band 8 Panchromatic 0.50–0.68 μm 15m
Band 9 Cirrus 1.36–1.38 μm 30m
Band 10—Thermal Infrared (TIRS) 1 10.6–11.19 μm 100m
Band 11—Thermal Infrared (TIRS) 2 11.50–12.51 μm 100m
Landsat_7 Band 1 Blue 0.45–0.52 μm 30m
Band 2 Green 0.52–0.60 μm 30m
Band 3 Red 0.63–0.69 μm 30m
Band 4 Near-Infrared 0.77–0.90 μm 30m
Band 5 Short-wave Infrared 1.55–1.75 μm 30m
Band 6 Thermal 10.40–12.50 μm 30m
Band 7 Mid-Infrared 2.08–2.35 μm 30m
Band 8 Panchromatic 0.52–0.90 μm 15m
Landsat_5 Band 1 Visible 0.45–0.52 μm 30m
Band 2 Visible 0.52–0.60 μm 30m
Band 3 Visible 0.63–0.69 μm 30m
Band 4 Near-Infrared 0.76–0.90 μm 30m
Band 5 Near-Infrared 1.55–1.75 μm 30m
Band 6 Thermal 10.40–12.50 μm 120m
Band 7 Mid-Infrared 2.08–2.35 μm 30m
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In Landsat 4–7,
NDVI ¼ðBand 4Band 3Þ
ðBand 4þBand 3Þ
In Landsat 8–9,
NDVI ¼ðBand 5Band 4Þ
ðBand 5þBand 4Þ
Suitable normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) ranges identified for the land
cover classes are given in Table 3 [42]:
2.3. Accuracy assessment
Accuracy assessment is an approach that shows the uniformity between a surface feature of the
earth and the classification’s outcomes. It is essential to determine changes in land use with
absolute precision by classifying satellite images from various years. The kappa statistic is
widely used to assess interdependence. The kappa values are a matrix that allows comparison
between actual and anticipated accuracy as well as random change. The significance of inter-
rater reliability depends on the fact that it accurately reflects the variables being measured in
the study’s data. The Kappa value range will always be between 0 and 1 [35]. A value of 1
implies perfect agreement and values less than 1 imply less-than-perfect agreement. The scale
of Kappa (k) value interpretation is presented in Table 4 [36].
Table 5 states the estimated Kappa coefficient (k) values for image analysis in different
years. The calculated Kappa coefficient (k) values indicate “Very Good Agreement” in 1992,
2002, and 2022; while “Substantial Agreement” in 2012. Therefore, image analysis for detecting
LULC changes exhibits top-level accuracy.
The overall scheme is shown in Fig 2.
2.4. Policy, plan, and program (PPP) Review and Key informant interviews
(KII)
Relevant forestry policies and development plans of Bangladesh considering urban forestry
were reviewed. Bangladesh forestry policy draft 2016 [43], national environmental policy 2018
[44], Bangladesh forestry master plan draft 2017–2036 [45], Urban and regional planning act
draft 2017 [46], 8
th
5-year plan of the Government of Bangladesh [14], forest investment plan
draft 2017 [47] were reviewed for content analysis that indicated on urban green space.
Fifteen KIIs with the Bangladesh Forest Department (BFD), social forestry wing (SFW)
under BFD, Department of Environment (DoE), Dhaka North-City Corporation (DNCC),
urban planners, university faculty members were done to identify the effectiveness of urban
forestry policy, plans, programs implementation for urban greening in terms of urban forest
cover. Key informants were contacted based on their expertise in the relevant field, particularly
Table 3. NDVI values for LULC Classes.
Sl. No Class NDVI Range
1 Water −0.28–0.015
2 Settlement 0.015–0.14
3 Barren Land 0.14–0.18
4 Vegetation 0.18–0.74
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in urban forestry, urban planning, and environmental expertise. We contacted key informants
by email or phone before taking their interviews for their consent. The KII questionnaire is
given in Box 1. During the questionnaire development, two strategic frameworks were consid-
ered: 1) strength-weakness-opportunity-threat (SWOT) analysis and 2)Driver-Pressure-State-
Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework analysis. The questionnaire was prepared and asked in
Bengali and translated into English. The comments from the respondents were also Bengali,
recorded and later transcribed and translated into English.
2.5. SWOT analysis
A strength-weakness-opportunity-threat (SWOT) analysis was prepared (Fig 3), which is an
applied analytical tool for strategic planning and analysis and modelling for the responsible
institutional capacity assessment [48–50]. Using SWOT analysis, strengths, opportunities,
weaknesses, and threats of the environment have been stated and grouped. Strength and
opportunity represent the positive impact, weakness and threats of SWOT show harmful sides.
Also, it recognizes internal and external factors.
2.6. DPSIR framework analysis
A Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework establishes a causal linkage for
representing societal and environmental interactions (Fig 4) [51]. It is a strategic and linear
Table 4. Kappa Coefficient Scale.
Sl. No K Value Strength of Agreement
1 0 No agreement
2 0.01–0.20 Slight agreement
3 0.20–0.40 Fair agreement
4 0.40–0.60 Moderate agreement
5 0.60–0.80 Substantial agreement
6 0.81–1.00 Very good agreement
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Box 1. KII questionnaire for urban forestry in DNCC
1. What are urban forestry status and urban greening policy, plans, and programs in
DNCC?
2. What are the strengths of urban greening in DNCC?
3. What are the problems/weaknesses of urban greening in DNCC? How can these
problems be solved?
4. What is the status of public participation in urban greening in DNCC?
5. What are the impacts/threats of urban greening in DNCC? How PPPs can mini-
mize these impacts?
6. What can be the PPP responses to protect urban greening in DNCC?
7. What are the opportunities for urban greening in DNCC?
Any other comments
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Fig 2. Study scheme of land use and land cover change.
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Table 5. Calculated Kappa Coefficient Values of Different Year.
Sl. no Year Calculated k values Strength of Agreement
1 1992 83.3% Very good agreement
2 2002 86.7% Very good agreement
3 2012 80% Substantial agreement
4 2022 83.3% Very good agreement
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Fig 3. SWOT analysis framework of institutional capacity assessment of the policy plans and programs involved
in sustainable urban forestry and green space management in Bangladesh.
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Fig 4. The DPSIR framework establishes a causal linkage for societal and environmental interactions.
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tool for assessing, analyzing, and reporting global, regional, national, and local environmental
problems at multiple spatial and temporal scales [52–55]. The framework attempts to encom-
pass various stakeholder perspectives conceptually [55]. The model has been widely used in
forest management for forest land protection, governance, management, and decision-making
to identify impacts and responses accordingly [56–59]. This framework was recently used in
the strategic environmental assessment of the South-West Region and the Sundarbans [60].
The DPSIR framework is a flexible and easy tool for qualitatively representing an overall sce-
nario, starting from the drivers and ending with identifying responses. The framework was
used for the representation of the KII responses. Moreover, this is a qualitative representation;
sometimes, a single item can be represented in multiple nodes, which is a limitation of the
framework.
3. Results and discussion
3.1 Historical LULC in DNCC from 1992–2022
The historical LULC status of the DNCC shows the area of water bodies, vegetation cover,
urban settlements, and barren land (Table 6 &Fig 5). Of the total measurements of 194.2 sq
km (2022), vegetation cover decreased significantly from 1992 to 2022 by approximately
65.9%, while urban settlement areas increased by almost 95% simultaneously. The vegetation
area has reduced by 33.9% between 1992 and 2002 due to rapid urban settlement expansion by
41.4%.
Between 1992 and 2022, the highest amount of water bodies was seen at 8.78% in 2012
(Fig 5). The main reason for this was the enactment of various policies and laws related to the
protection of water bodies, such as the "The Playground, Open Spaces, parks, and Water Bod-
ies Conservation Act 2000" and “The Public Water Body Management Policy 2009”. Further-
more, the government’s wetland restoration projects enabled many wetlands to restore their
natural position during that period. One of these initiatives is the Hatirjheel Area Develop-
ment Project, a wetland restoration endeavour that considers the prospect of returning water
edge features to the DNCC and a 302-acre region. Although the amount of barren land has
decreased, the change in barren land has not been as consistent. The main reason for this is
that water bodies and agricultural land turn into barren land within a short period and become
build-up areas for settlement and development purposes. The settlement of the DNCC area
increased from 77.82 sq km to 151.77 sq km during 1992 to 2022. Due to the augmented hous-
ing demand for the large population of the city, the vegetated area, agricultural land, and water
bodies are converted into build-up areas in this period. Uttara Model Town, Basundhara Resi-
dential Area, Purbachal New Town, and Jalshiri Abason are some mentionable residential
projects developed on the converted build-up areas.
In a previous study using LULC techniques, from 1989 to 2014, the total urban growth was
reported as 81.54%, resulting in a substantial decrease in natural vegetation cover and agricul-
tural land [61]. Incredible urban expansion and sustainable urban development are primary
Table 6. Amount of LULC component change (sq km) of DNCC from 1992–2022.
LULC Area (sq km), 1992 Area (sq km), 2002 Area (sq km), 2012 Area (sq km), 2022
Water body 13.14 16.62 17.05 8.88
Vegetation 92.21 60.97 34.73 31.40
Settlement 77.82 110.02 131.34 151.77
Barren land 11.05 6.63 11.10 2.18
Total 194.2 194.2 194.2 194.2
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concerns for many developing countries [62]. A 2021 study revealed that approximately 10%
of commercial buildings, 9% of industrial facilities, and 6% of residential buildings have
encroached upon conservation zones (such as open space, flood-prone zones, water bodies,
and proposed areas for future road extension) [63].
LULC map, 1992 indicates higher vegetation cover in Badda, Khilkhet, Turag, Uttar Khan,
and Shah Ali Thana. Some of the western parts of Darus Salam, Adabor, and Mohammadpur
Fig 5. LULC of DNCC in 1992; LULC of DNCC in 2002; LULC of DNCCin 2012; LULC of DNCC in 2022.
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Thana also possessed comparatively higher vegetation cover. However, higher vegetation areas
were found in Badda, Turag, and Khilkhet Thana in 2002. After 2002, vegetation area gradually
decreased in all Thanas of DNCC. Fewer vegetated areas were detected in Badda, Turag, and
Uttar Khan in 2022. Lowest vegetation covers have been observed in Mirpur, Pallabi, Kafrul,
and Tejgaon Thana throughout the years because of the higher concentration of urban devel-
opment activities such as new road construction, government and civil infrastructure, various
small garment industries, and other industries. Historically vegetative areas have been reduced
for urban settlement development in all Thanas of DNCC. The 1992 land use of the DNCC
thanas and the 2022 status of the DNCC thanas are shown in Fig 6 and Fig 7
3.2. Sectoral and relevant policy analysis in urban greening
Political changes had prejudiced the policies regarding forestry of Bangladesh for an extended
period since 1979 when the first forestry policy was formulated in independent Bangladesh,
later in 1994 and the latest policy draft in 2016. The earlier versions of forest policy were char-
acterized by the commercialization of forests used to maximize state revenue while clearing
forest cover for urbanization [64–69]. Draft forestry policy 2016 aims to increase tree cover
outside state forests by forming appropriate public-private partnerships, even in urban areas
by research and emerging context such as climate change (Table 7). In addition, in this paper,
we have reviewed the content of the draft Urban and Regional Planning Act 2017, which has a
significant role in strategically managing agricultural land, wetland, forest land, hill areas, and
coastal belts [46] (Table 7). These policies and plans have a significant section on improving
participatory forestry programs for livelihood improvement and others, which unfortunately
had no implications in the urban areas. Although reasonable, approaches carry no advantages
Fig 6. 1992 vegetation cover of DNCC Thanas.
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to networks except if they are correctly carried out. In developing nations like Bangladesh, pol-
icies are regularly all-around detailed–some of the time, with foreign help, it is not satisfacto-
rily carried out due to impedance by persuasive vested parties like local political leaders and
social elites [70]. Holistic strategies, juridical systems, program creation, adaptive administra-
tion, individual environmental control, and adequate finances are required for urban forestry
management [5].
The evolution of forest policy results from the continuous changing of people’s needs over
the year in different situations. Implementing those policies is hard in the social context of this
country because of the lack of adequate institutional capacity, proper backup of the legislative
point of view, and poor law enforcement. Despite all these obstacles, recently, there has been
some significant development in the forestry sector of Bangladesh since the 1994 forest policy
[69]. From the previous policy of forest exploitation, reforesting activities have been widely
developed in marginal, fallow, and unproductive lands to increase 20% forest cover horizon-
tally. Social forestry has evolved into realistic forest management brought under the afforesta-
tion scheme with people’s engagement and the benefit-sharing approach [43,45,47,69]. The
policymakers have gradually developed engaging local people as a top-down approach to
adjust to the changing circumstances to ensure sustainable development goals, and ecological,
and social benefits.
In the 8
th
-5-year plan, GoB [14] continued social forestry schemes to empower more than
half a million beneficiaries involved with the overall social forestry program. The benefits of
social forestry schemes usually go to the beneficiaries at the end of 10 years cycle. Encroached
forest lands, depleted forest areas, vacant marginal land, and roadside areas are reforested in
this scheme, which is highly significant in urban forestry improvement. As a result, the
Fig 7. 2022 vegetation cover of DNCC Thanas.
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necessary policy framework already exists, with several positive aspects. All that remains is to
be implemented effectively to increase urban forest cover and green spaces. In October 2020, a
landscape policy was drafted concerning roadside beautification and safety. This strategy
would allow Forest Department and the Local Government Engineering Department to
choose suitable plants for roadside plantations concerning traffic protection and embellish-
ment [47].
3.2.1 SWOT analysis. Here, based on the key informant interviews, we have done a
SWOT analysis of the existing policies. Seven items were identified as strengths and to counter
it 7 items were identified as weaknesses, Five items were identified as opportunities to improve
in the future, and five items were identified as threats for future implementation by the key
informants (Table 8). All the departments are shown higher expectations for the forestry pol-
icy 2016 [43] already, which has been drafted by the government of Bangladesh (GoB). If
approved, that will fulfil SDG goal indicator 11.7.1 (sustainable cities and communities in
terms of open/green spaces). Subsequently, another strength factor is the several bilateral and
multilateral development partners of GoB for developing urban forestry by taking on various
projects. These two vital factors also have afforestation programs like-road side plantation,
homestead, rooftop gardening, and nursery activities.
Table 7. Relevant forestry and sectoral policy analysis.
Policies Policy/plan features statements/outcomes for urban forestry/green spaces
Draft Forest Policy 2016 [43]➢Defence of current forests resources
➢Biodiversity and wildlife conservation
➢Raise participating forestry
➢Via appropriate mechanisms, increase tree cover outside of state forests,
on both public and private property, even in urban areas.
➢Valuation of ecosystem services and payment for ecosystem service
➢Climate change mitigation and adaptation
➢Increase research capacity in forest ecosystem management practices to
cope with the emerging challenges of climate change, population pressure,
and urbanization.
➢Promote urban forestry
National Environmental policy 2018
[44]
Section 3.9: Forest and wildlife
➢Research and development of forest and wildlife conservation for the
ecosystem and socioeconomic development
➢Tree plantation and social and participatory forestry program
➢Protection of wetlands
➢Development of alternative forest products to reduce extraction of forest
products
➢Import-prohibition of harmful and exotic species
➢Awareness-raising among people regarding forest and wildlife
conservation
Bangladesh forestry master plan
(FMP) 2017–2036
(Draft Final) [45]
➢Ecosystem products and services for the national economy,
➢The reforestation of vacant lands and increased forest cover outside
forests to improve ecosystem resources and forest-based employment.
➢Anthropogenic issues and climate change issues are considered.
Urban and Regional planning act
2022 [46]
➢Prevent unplanned urbanization, and prevent misuse of land
➢Clearance from the authority to develop arable land
➢Strategic plans for agricultural land, wetland, forest land, hill areas and
coastal belts
➢Develop coordination among the authorities
8
th
5-year plan [14]➢To prioritize the ongoing efforts to reduce air and water pollution,
strengthen forestry management and implement the BDP2100.
➢Commitment to increase social-forestry
Forest Investment Plan (FIP) draft
(2017) [47]
➢Identify future investment opportunities to increase the forest cover,
reducing deforestation and forest degradation
➢The investment plan is to improve the livelihoods of the forest-product-
dependent people by implementing participatory/social forestry.
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The top weakness factors expressed are informal and unplanned urbanization and
improper planning for the urban forest and land tenure problems, personnel shortage, and
lack of funds for forest investment. Furthermore, disintegrated management, improper plan-
ning, and difficulties in enforcing the law were also expressed. The other weaknesses are shift-
ing of existing green areas to other land use purposes, lack of proper tree species selection, lack
of tradition and expertise, lack of regulations adopted to protect the urban forest and trees, a
lack of tools for assessing and incorporating sustainable forest management into forest man-
agement plans.
Table 8. SWOT Analysis of the review of forestry, relevant policies and responses from the Key informant
interviews.
Strengths Weaknesses
1. The forestry and relevant policies recognize the
importance of people’s participation in green space
development and complement the targets of SDG
11.7.1 in Forestry policy 2016.
1. The policy was not formulated in the bottom-up
approach. Public participation is weak. This is why local
people’s views were not adequately reflected.
2. It has directives for extensive utilization of vacant
and bare land areas, roadsides and urban areas for
increased plantations with research in climate change.
2. The importance of blue-green spaces in urban areas are
not addressed at all.
3. It recognizes the significance of NGO associations
and private sectors in forestry supervision.
3. Weak monitoring and difficulties in law enforcement in
selection of tree species, and expertise in arboriculture.
4. Strong finance from the government and fund from
several bilateral and multilateral development partners
(WB, ADB, UNFCCC, USAID and other development
partners).
4. Lack of regulations and lack of cooperation with the
DNCC, Department of Environment, BFD and other
ministerial departments to protect urban green spaces and
forestry
5. It has strategic plans for the protection of land
conversion in urban land use plans for urban forest,
blue-green spaces in 2022.
5. However, from other development sectoral activities,
the existing green areas are usually shifted to other land
use purposes.
6. Employment of local population in forest works and
initiating afforestation and nursery activities.
6. Urban forest land tenure problems to protect the urban
blue-green forest covers and park spaces.
7. It acknowledges gender roles in forestry policy, plans,
and programs.
7. Lack of tools for evaluating and integrating sustainable
forest management into forest management plans.
Opportunities Threats
1. Extensive research on urban forestry focusing on
climate change, urbanization issues can be addressed.
Involvement of research organizations, and public and
private universities in urban forestry to increase urban
green cover and urban forestry.
1. A rapid increase in urban population, and informal and
unplanned urbanization to obtain a 20% of the green
cover with this workflow will be difficult for the forestry
department of Bangladesh.
2. Development of a technically sound workforce and
capacity building within the departments. Increase staff
training opportunities in new concepts /technologies
for sustainable forest management.
2. Institutional corruption of various government
authorities and departments in urban forestry and green-
space protection.
3. Collaboration with external NGOs, public-private
universities and increase of local public bodies and
institutional participation in forestry and greening
projects in the urban/peri-urban areas.Using schools and religious premises for tree plantation
3. Miscommunication and lack of collaborative mindset
among the government agencies such as city corporations,
ministries and departments at the field level of project
implementation. Cross-sectoral strategies are at odds.
4. Safeguard for biodiversity and wildlife conservation
and protection.
4. Plantation of fast-growing exotic species in the urban
areas and lack of monitoring by the authority
5. Environmental awareness on sustainable forest
management issues such as introduction and expansion
of forest-based bioeconomy, natural disaster prevention
by urban forests, climate change in the urban/peri-
urban areas, Strategic environmental assessment for
urban and other sectoral planning to achieve
sustainable development goals.
5. Lack of awareness among the people and unsustaining
urban plantation projects.
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These opportunity factors in the DNCC region are significant for urban sustainable forestry
management (SFM) and monitoring. The opportunity factors expressed as the response higher
percentage of the number of institutions members are shown in the updated forest manage-
ment plan, standards, environmental understanding of problems relating to sustainable forest
management, staff education in emerging technology, and sustainability concepts such as
urban-forest-based bioeconomy for long-term forest management, participation in projects,
urban forest recreation, biodiversity conservation/protection. These opportunity factors also
have some other expansion of forest lands, forest contribution to bioeconomy-based GDP,
natural disaster prevention, peri-urban forest and urban environmental sustainability.
The top threat factors are shown as the presence of conflicts between the BFD and DNCC, a
rapid increase in urban population, forest land encroachment, lack of awareness among the
people, not having district urban forest policy in Dhaka city like other cities in the world, lack
of monitoring after the plantation. Moreover, inter-departmental cooperation within the BFD,
DoE, and DNCC authorities was the top factor.
3.3. DPSIR framework analysis
From the DPSIR analysis, we frame the specific responses to promote and improve urban for-
estry for DNCC. A ‘driving force’ is the need to convert the city sustainable, livable city.
Improving urban forests is one way of achieving several other United Nations’ sustainability
targets, particularly SDG 3 (good health and wellbeing), SDG 13 (climate action), and SDG 15
(life on land), making cities healthier and more humane. Unfortunately, the increasing popula-
tion in the limited urban land areas of DNCC is the driving force behind unplanned, informal,
and rapid urbanization (Fgure 7). Moreover, existing institutional corruption is putting pres-
sure on land transformation, as identified in LULC of the DNCC area in the previous section.
The weak forestry governance and conflicting policy plans, programs, and projects from
other government ministries and departments are pressurizing urban land use and squeezing
green spaces. Furthermore, continuous roads and utility service expansions in the residential
areas have created a megacity with fewer blue-green spaces and recreational areas. These
human activities have further exerted enormous ‘pressures’ on land-use change, cutting down
old trees, roadside forestry, and shrinkage of park areas and forest covers. Many exotic and
fast-growing ornamental species were planted in the cities that do not support local biodiver-
sity. It further created habitat loss for much urban wildlife as we have seen in 2022 LULC
change in the individual Thanas (Fig 7). Forestry policies and plans, land-use policies, urban
development policies, environmental policies, and social factors significantly influence the spa-
tial distribution and concentration of a country’s urban vegetation cover and green spaces.
However, land distribution priorities for urban green cover in economic transition countries
are generally overlooked [71].
The linkage of unplanned and informal rapid urbanization is foreseeable in the impacts of
changing the urban area’s physical, chemical, or biological state that determines the quality of
ecosystems and human welfare. In other words, changes in the state may have environmental
or economic ’impacts’ on the functioning of ecosystems and their life-supporting abilities
(Fig 8). Changing urban green spaces into roads and highways have increased particulate mat-
ter pollution and increased pollution load on human health. Society’s economic and social per-
formance has been deteriorating by improving physical and mental health costs. The
shrinkage of green spaces and urban forest cover further deteriorated the ecosystem with less
carbon sequestration. Innovative community development puts enormous leverage on green
spaces and urban forest conservation. Urban forests, plantations, parks, and green spaces are
critical components of urban sustainability and resilience [72]. However, there are social and
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political problems and uncertainties related to greening [73] in DNCC that challenge the
development and support of urban green spaces, forestry, and human well-being [5].
A ‘response’ by society or policymakers results from an unfavourable impact on any link in
the chain between driving forces and effects. Responses like society and policymakers intro-
duce strategic urban forest policy and remove inter-institutional conflicts. Strategic planning
is required for increased green spaces through a sustainable forest-based bioeconomy concept.
In addition, strategic programs and projects can be introduced to increase participation from
the urban stakeholders to increase and improve green spaces. Plans should include involving
participants from retired members, schools, mosques, and local welfare societies to increase
green spaces (Fig 8). However, social and political questions and difficulties associated with
green space-making, monitoring and inspection in the DNCC need to be responded to by the
respective government departments. It is essential that public stakeholder groups and users of
urban forestry services are crucial when planning a forestry-based bioeconomy and that they
understand the ecosystem services provided by the urban spaces [74]. In addition, planting
decisions for urban parks, recreational spaces and forestry program ensures the public feel
engaged and that governmental decisions have longstanding support from the community
[74]. The urban population provides urban forests opportunities to grow and offers vital eco-
logical services to human well-being and biodiversity. Strategically expanding urban forests
can provide cleaner, more rewarding, and enriched lives for our global populations, especially
vulnerable people in developing countries [5]. Urban and peri-urban forests should be strategi-
cally included in city agendas and policy preparation to promote green and sustainable part-
nerships between urban and rural areas [75]. Urban forestry comprises the whole of society,
and its members and experiences help devise holistic strategies, research, and management for
sustainable communities [5].
Moreover, failing to consider the public health benefits of urban forest covers and green
spaces will contribute to underinvestment in the urban forestry sector [9]. Substantial public-
health benefits are likely to be produced by planting trees in high-air pollution suburban areas
and public spaces and parks [9]. In addition, decentralized green infrastructures such as
increased parks, open spaces, and urban forestry can leverage the capacity for infiltration, and
redistribution of stormwater volume in soil and vegetation that can support the climate,
Fig 8. DPSIR Framework analyzing the responses needed for urban forestry.
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society, and economy. As stormwater management in Dhaka is extremely poor, policymakers
must consider urban forestry programs and plans as critical solutions.
3.4. Discussion
The GoB is committed to protecting and increasing the forest cover in Bangladesh to 15.2% by
2025 and 20% by 2041. Social forestry has a significant role in this expansion [14]. Besides, to
achieve SDG 11 for DNCC, policy planning on urban forestry, specific information and
knowledge gaps should be addressed, and a standard research protocol should be imple-
mented. Tree coverage outside the forests program will have a significant role to play in
increasing urban forestry and vegetation cover. Institutions, roads and railway sides, embank-
ments, homesteads, fallow lands, and rooftops can be brought under plantations to expand
green coverage with a crucial role in carbon sequestration in urban areas.
According to the draft national forestry policy of Bangladesh, 2016 [43] to halt deforestation
and the degradation of forest resources, and to enrich and expand regions under tree cover, at
least 20% of the nation to be covered by trees by 2035, with a canopy density of 50%. The policy
also urged significantly increasing tree cover in urban areas through appropriate mechanisms
such as public and private land [45]. Visibly, Dhaka is far behind in achieving 20% tree cover.
Besides, the 7
th
five-year plan (2016–2020) also had targets to make 20% forest cover, which
failed to achieve in DNCC [65]. Regarding a healthy and sustainable urban environment,
urban green spaces and parks should be within 500 meters. Unfortunately, 22 parks and four
playfields are not enough for the 6.1 million population of DNCC, with an average population
density of 52920 per Km
2
[65,66]. Dhaka city’s land use patterns are diversified, with
unplanned residential, commercial, industrial, and mixed land use categories predominating,
with the same unit simultaneously serving residential, commercial, and even industrial uses
[67]. Furthermore, a recent study suggests that the built-up and sand fill barren lands have
increased by 67% and 679% due to the vast demand for accommodation. Mostly wetlands and
agricultural lands around the city were sand-filled to facilitate the building of new satellite
towns [68]. It is evident that DNCC lacks blue-green and open spaces, which is a significant
indicator to achieve SDG 11.
Consistent improvement in measurement approaches would include a more accurate
assessment of gains and costs and more economic assessment in the decision-making process,
given optimistic targets for raising urban vegetation cover [8]. Moreover, it is equally essential
to understand how urban green spaces contribute to sustainability considering the disservices.
The disservices of infrastructure conflicts, health and safety impacts, aesthetic issues, environ-
mental consequences, and management costs related to ecological disturbances and risk man-
agement [76,77]. Therefore, a policy mechanism should be adopted to resolve the existing
inter-institutional conflicts to promote and improve urban forests for existing resources and
the future. Inter-departmental collaboration among BFD, DNCC, DoE, and other ministries
and government bodies should be enhanced by developing co-ownership of urban-forestry
management. It is essential to establish the role of ecosystem services in any urban forestry pol-
icy plans and programs. National Environmental Policy 2018 and the draft forestry master
plan 2017–2036 have critical principles in implementing ecosystem services in forest resources
management. Forestry policy 2016 has many features to improve urban forestry and many
positive attributes. It’s a significant step toward people-centred urban forestry, demonstrating
the GoB’s commitment to protecting and developing forest resources in achieving SDG 11.7.1.
Moreover, in 2022 The Detailed Area Plan (DAP) 2016–2035 for Dhaka was published in 2022
by the Capital Development Authority (RAJUK) [78]. Among the four major goals of the mas-
terplan are to obtain universal freedom of investment, improved quality of life, a tolerant city
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and ecological conservation by augmenting blue-green infrastructure, and disaster resilience
development. However, it is equally necessary to integrate a strategic environmental assess-
ment of DAP to strengthen inter-institutional implementation of the plan, capacity build-up,
and remove inter-institutional conflicts.
4. Conclusion
Cities without urban green spaces can mentally, socially, and physically affect their inhabitants.
In Bangladesh, rapid informal urbanization has evolved the cities into unsustainable ones, yet
the chronological evolution of forestry policies, plans, and programs is inadequate for urban
forestry. Moreover, the urban forestry status in the DNCC area is deteriorating. Lack of proper
guidelines, existing institutional conflicts, informal city expansions, and utility services expan-
sion have created a mismanaged urban area. Between 1992 and 2022, vegetation coverage has
been declined by around 65.9% while the urban area rise by almost 95% simultaneously out of
the total DNCC area of 194.2 sq km (2022). The areas of the water body shrinked more than
32.4% during that period. The vegetation coverage in DNCC is merely 16.17%, inferior in
meeting sustainable urban greening to fulfil the criteria of sustainable cities and communities.
This indicates that we are far behind in making sustainable communities and cities SDG 11 by
2030. Effective urban forestry policies, plans, and programs are required to increase vegetation
cover and urban green spaces. Consequently, community-based participatory programs in
urban green space protection and introducing a forest-based bioeconomy can promote SDG
11.7.1. Furthermore, political will is one of the determinants of green space protection, which
is crucial for a developing country. As policies are often taken in top-down approaches in Ban-
gladesh, a suitable strategy with good political will with the least influence must be taken for a
better urban environment. Introducing strategic environmental assessment of urban policy,
plans, and programs, removing inter-institutional conflicts, strategic sectoral plans, and pro-
grams for increased green spaces through the bioeconomy concept is required. Predicting
future land use and change in land cover is essential in urban planning and managing green
spaces and forest covers. A significant limitation of this research was the prediction of future
change. It is recommended that research on future prediction of land use and land cover
change should be incorporated and increased.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Mashura Shammi, Aristol Chandra Sarker, Abid Azad Sakib.
Data curation: Mashura Shammi, Farhadur Reza, Aristol Chandra Sarker, Abid Azad Sakib.
Formal analysis: Mashura Shammi, Farhadur Reza, Aristol Chandra Sarker.
Investigation: Mashura Shammi, Aristol Chandra Sarker, Abid Azad Sakib.
Methodology: Mashura Shammi, Farhadur Reza.
Project administration: Mashura Shammi.
Resources: Mashura Shammi.
Supervision: Mashura Shammi.
Validation: Mashura Shammi, Farhadur Reza.
Visualization: Farhadur Reza.
Writing – original draft: Mashura Shammi, Aristol Chandra Sarker.
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Writing – review & editing: Mashura Shammi, Farhadur Reza, Aristol Chandra Sarker, Abid
Azad Sakib.
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