Exploring innovation for sustainable agriculture: A systematic case study of permaculture in Nepal

Abstract

As the adverse consequences of the industrial/modern agricultural framework, which encompasses high-input agrarian production and intensive cultivation, are increasing, an alternative is essential. Permaculture is a bunch of sustainable practices that incorporate an assortment of components and promote comprehensive and multi-polycultures including perennial plants, high degrees of biodiversity, crop-animal integration, whole watershed management, and self-sustaining on-site energy production, all of which straightforwardly affect the sustainable
approach and promote ecological parameters. This case study attempts to better comprehend the local knowledge in terms of planning and fostering a permaculture system that considers their
work, culture, and environmental concerns. In particular, this research focuses on the combined ideology, actual practices, and co-opting nature of three Nepalese permaculturists. The current
study employs the notion of imaginaries to comprehend how permaculture may supplant the present agricultural system. Therefore, the study promotes and urges agricultural actioners to
create profound and emotional associations with the planet, as well as their creativity and imagination, to impact good natural change.

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Case report
Exploring innovation for sustainable agriculture: A systematic case
study of permaculture in Nepal
Shubh Pravat Singh Yadav
*
, Vivek Lahutiya, Netra Prasad Ghimire, Bishnu Yadav,
Prava Paudel
G. P. Koirala College of Agriculture and Research Center, Purbanchal University, Gothgaun, Morang, Nepal
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Permaculture
Nepal
Sustainable
Modern/industrial agricultural system
Ecological impacts
Ethics
Principles
Agriculture
ABSTRACT
As the adverse consequences of the industrial/modern agricultural framework, which encom-
passes high-input agrarian production and intensive cultivation, are increasing, an alternative is
essential. Permaculture is a bunch of sustainable practices that incorporate an assortment of
components and promote comprehensive and multi-polycultures including perennial plants, high
degrees of biodiversity, crop-animal integration, whole watershed management, and self-
sustaining on-site energy production, all of which straightforwardly affect the sustainable
approach and promote ecological parameters. This case study attempts to better comprehend the
local knowledge in terms of planning and fostering a permaculture system that considers their
work, culture, and environmental concerns. In particular, this research focuses on the combined
ideology, actual practices, and co-opting nature of three Nepalese permaculturists. The current
study employs the notion of imaginaries to comprehend how permaculture may supplant the
present agricultural system. Therefore, the study promotes and urges agricultural actioners to
create profound and emotional associations with the planet, as well as their creativity and
imagination, to impact good natural change.
1. Introduction
Amongst human endeavours, the most fundamental and essential is agriculture. Agricultural frameworks that have been intensied
can produce vast amounts of food, but their long-term viability is in doubt [1–3]. The idea that agricultural systems would need to
adapt is widely acknowledged as climate change continues to dominate the scientic debate. Intensive farming techniques have
grievous ramications for the environment and society overall [1,4]. Permaculture, as an alternative to large-scale agriculture
techniques, furnishes an international network with a solutions-oriented approach to sustainability, with the goal of “designing and
developing sustainable communities in harmony with natural ecosystems” [3,5]. Permaculture has been acknowledged as a new
ecological paradigm of sustainable practices in an assortment of elds, including environment, organic farming, forestry, agriculture,
landscape, engineering, and city planning [6]. Permaculture is a term formed from the words “permanent” and “agriculture”, coined
by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren in the 1970s and 1980s [6–10], is acquiring ubiquity as a natural resource management strategy
[6,11]. Permaculture is the product of an innovative amalgamation of frameworks thinking and planning based on a knowledge of
natural ecosystem processes, conventional small-scale mixed agriculture, low-inuence innovation, and redistributive civil rights into
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sushantpy8500@gmail.com (S.P.S. Yadav).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15899
Received 13 May 2022; Received in revised form 18 February 2023; Accepted 25 April 2023

Heliyon 9 (2023) e15899
2
a versatile, interlinked dynamic design system for designing and implementing a self-sustaining human network [6,10,12]. Its ideas
and strategies are fundamentally casual, different, and unregulated, and they are disseminated through networks of practitioners [9].
Permaculture has historically demonstrated the most effective on small, local, and individual levels, which is both a strength and a
shortcoming. While local activity is critical to sustainable progress, it cannot be the exclusive domain of impact. To develop sustainable
prospects, more foundational types of plans and associations, from provincial to public to worldwide, are required [10].
The core principle of permaculture is that humans can diminish or supplant energy and pollution-intensive industrial technology,
especially in agriculture, via careful, employment of biological resources, and holistic design modelled after natural ecosystems [9,13].
Permaculture sees nature in an inventive manner and then applies it functionally. Therefore, it has the effect that it depicts. Perma-
culture assemblages most evidently foster this image of nature in the manner they socially organize themselves, purposefully and
reluctantly fabricating social congurations that resemble natural environments, which can be termed eco-mimicking [14]. It is a
coherent and explicit set of designs that supports the abstraction of “the Spiral of Intervention”. This philosophy is based on the idea
that nature ought to sprint its course with the least amount of human interference possible. It’s a dynamic mindset that goes beyond
“less work, more prominent outcome” [15].
The permaculture approach to production accentuates variety and multifunctionality, through the execution of polycultures and
perennial crops, land use expansion, and whole-agroecosystem integrated water management [16]. It is a normally exploratory
endeavour in manners that propose close connections to formal review. Its interventions are experimental at all levels; each design
instance is distinct [17]. Managing a permaculture system, on the other hand, entails constantly watching and settling the
ever-changing interactions between the natural entities that make up the system [9]. For instance, If Asian wasps kill bees, it is
desirable to over acquaint chickens to hunt the wasps, thereby providing the hens’ protein needs, then apply synthetic chemical
pesticides. Similarly, each of the plants in the association corn/bean/squash has at least one purpose: to provide food. When grown
together, however, each provides a benecial presence for the other two: bean roots supply nitrogen, corn gives an accommodating tail
to the bean to develop and obtain daylight, and squash leaves, which form a canopy over the ground, assist with directing soil moisture
and slow the growth of contender plants. This is a brilliant illustration of alternative instructions for replacing today’s industrial
agriculture [9].
In 1986, the Institute for Sustainable Agriculture Nepal (INSAN) collaborated with Agricultural Project Services (APROSC) and Win
rock International to organize the rst permaculture design course training facilitated by Bill Mollison in Kathmandu. Subsequently,
numerous permaculture workshops have been held, and permaculture has become a common term for various sustainable farming
activities in Nepal [18,19]. These advancements are part of an information cycle that continuously seeks to improve itself and provide
better service to user groups. After encountering difculties with a top-down approach for a few years, the rst real farmers’ design
course was held in 1995, where farmers collaborated with other farmers on permaculture design [20]. The Nepal Permaculture Group
(NPG) was established in 1992 to bring together NGOs and individuals who are independently engaged in sustainable agriculture,
organic agriculture, and permaculture. Although the NPG is a signicant milestone in the organic agriculture movement in Nepal,
there are only a few organizations/individuals explicitly working with permaculture models [19]. Table 1 illustrates some of those
instances of permaculture implementation in Nepal.
In Nepal, the dominant development industry advocates for chemical-intensive farming using the approach of ‘industrial agri-
culture’, which has several drawbacks in terms of diminishing the biophysical system’s ability to manage various risks and
Table 1
List of some organizations and farmers utilizing permaculture in Nepal.
Practitioners location Initiation
date
Size Model Design elements
Individuals
Tulsi Prasad Baral Malepatan,
Pokhara
1970 0.15 ha Integration model Kitchen garden, Vegetable farming
K⋅B. Gurung Damauli, Tanahu – – Agroforestry model Fruit production, Fodder production
Khadga Regmi Bhantanpur,
Nepalgung
– – Integration model Fishery, Vegetable farming, Livestock production,
Agroforestry
Brinda Rai Sankhuwasabha – – Sustainable farming
practice
–
Organizations
Jajarkot
Permaculture
Programme (JPP)
Mid−West Nepal 1988 Employed in
150 villages
Community training-
based model
Fruit & vegetable production, Kitchen Garden,
Beekeeping, Weaving, Drinking water systems,
Agroforestry, Local culture, Leather cottage
industry
Himalayan
Permaculture
Center (HPC)
Surkhet & Humla 2010 Works with 850
households
Households &
Community training-
based model
Fruit nursery, Beekeeping, Cash crops,
Composting, Tree planting, Covering food, House
cleaning, Hygiene
Hasera Agriculture
Farm
Kavrepalanchowk – Works with 20
households
Community
development model
–
Namuna Prangarik
Krishi Sahakari
Sanstha
Arba, Pokhara 2010 Works with 60
households
Inclusive farming
model
Vegetable production
References: [18,20,21,23,24].
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uncertainties. Farmers are not receiving protable prices for their products and are compelled to incur high expenses for fertilizers and
pesticides [21]. Hence, there is enormous potential for implementing permaculture in Nepal. The country possesses abundant re-
sources that can be integrated into the permaculture model on farms. However, these resources frequently go unnoticed or unused due
to the orientation towards commercial agriculture or the shift from subsistence to modern industrial agriculture [19,22]. The
implementation of permaculture techniques enhances farmers’ capacity to grow organic crops to meet their food and nutritional
requirements and access local markets to sell surplus produce. This approach can also improve crop yields while promoting social,
environmental, and economic advantages [19,20]. Additionally, a farmer who has adopted permaculture practices noted that “I use less
fuel, have better meals, few pests in the garden, visit the forest less because more fodder and fuel is coming from my land and best of all, my rice
production has increased from ten to twelve hundred KGs without any extra costs” [20]. Overall, the image suggests that permaculture can
be a relevant alternative for Nepalese farmers compared to the current industrial agriculture practices.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to unpack the general structure of permaculture and explores the function of its elementals,
such as ecological insights, design principles, exercises, and morals. Additionally, to illustrate the three instances that depict per-
maculture as a characteristic afnity with applied versatility research. This paper portrays the permaculture development in Nepal, a
predominantly agrarian nation. It imparts the state of permaculture at a local level in three different geographical areas in Nepal,
which is presented through the voices and perspectives of the permaculturists in contextualized format.
2. Permaculture ethics and principles
Permaculture activists invest energy in another’s locales, sharing seeds as well as experience-based information about how to try
the development’s thoughts and morals [25]. Ethics and principles can be blended in a variety of ways and under a variety of cir-
cumstances [26].
2.1. Permaculture ethics
Permaculture provides a reasonable ethical framework for all of its designs, which is the foundation of the permaculture paradigm
[2,17]. They essentially depict the accompanying three gist: every part of the framework performs various obligations. Second, the
system’s preferred functions are maintained by many components. Third, everything in the framework is connected to all the other
things [8]. Permaculture is a utilitarian ethic and value-based system that gives an eco-driven redenition of the expression “sus-
tainable management,” as well as afrmation of the socio-biological and nancial ethos [27]. It is based on regenerating environments
and their constituent living things, addressing individuals’ requirements, and decently and evenhandedly disseminating permaculture
framework results [28]. Permaculture means to re-interface individuals with nature to create positive changes through regenerative
techniques [29], guided by three principal ethics often described.
2.1.1. Earth care
The rst ethical principle, “earth care,” will undoubtedly evolve and pervade all elements of permaculture. It centers around
making courses of action for all ecosystems to persist and develop since people can’t ourish without a healthy planet [15,26]. It
underlines the signicance of a healthy planet as the foundation for human prosperity and healthy human habitats [26,30]. To
enhance sustainability and respectful utilization of natural resources, including the sustaining of soil, woods, and water, working with
nature and forestalling environmental damage [2,31,32]. It addresses Mollison and Holmgren’s mentality of " working with nature
rather than against it " [33].
2.1.2. People care
The second ethical guideline, “people care” alludes to meeting people’s basic and existential needs so that they can live a decent life
without causing harm to the environment [15,30,33]. Dealing with oneself, one’s family, and one’s local area: helping out others,
supporting individuals who need admittance to good food and clean water, and building sustainable frameworks that create life’s
necessities are only a couple of models [2,31]. It underscores the signicance of people approaching the assets they expect for their
prosperity and fundamental necessities. It features the worth of collaboration and kinship in having a cheerful and healthy existence
[26].
2.1.3. Fair share
The initial two ethical standards are combined in the “fair share” ethic. It all boils down to accepting that natural resources are
nite and must be shared equally among humans, animals, and plants, as well as between present and future generations [2,15,26,30].
The idea of “putting limits to consumption and reproduction and dispersing excess” was initially associated with the concept of fair
shares within a worldview in which nature is abundant yet additionally restricts [26,33]. Fair share depicts itself through an insightful
proverb i.e., “A man, who has vanquished himself might behave appropriately at any opportunity in an acceptable manner”. A man like
this is appropriately considered “a living artist” [32].
2.2. Permaculture principles
Permaculture is an assortment of twelve principles that serve as a design framework while allowing for a variety of solutions to be
utilized in different circumstances [2,33]. These principles provide us with the tools which would permit us to redesign our
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surroundings and discover answers to a range of challenges. Each of these principles has its distinct viewpoint, and the combination of
all principles is intended to accomplish overall system balance [12,26]. These standards aid in the development of agricultural and
social systems that replicate the diversity, multi-usefulness, and self-guideline of natural ecosystems and harmonize more intimately
with ecological systems to enhance sustainability [28,30,32]. The twelve principles of permaculture design as shown in Fig. 1, are
outlined as.
2.2.1. Observe and interact
Conguration starts with the careful and sustained study of the environment [2]. It takes account of different seasons, times of day,
and civilizations. Ways of drawing in and creating with natural patterns are addressed [26,34,35].
2.2.2. Catch and store energy, nutrients, and water
This principle urges people to make maximum use of the environment’s energy [35]. Solar panels and wind turbines are ideal
instances of this hypothesis since they capture energy and water while they are abundant and store them for critical crossroads [2,31,
35]. Renewable methods of generating energy and utilizing ought to be focused on. Energy, which permits us to work, should never be
squandered [26,34].
2.2.3. Obtain a yield
This concept ensures that the system is as self-sufcient as feasible in producing essentials [2]. Agricultural production is expected
for freedom and continuation. Yields are positive and form positive feedback loops [34]. An attitude shift happens when there is a yield
since individuals are more propelled to give when there is an overow since the concern of scarcity is lifted [35].
2.2.4. Apply self-regulation and accept feedback
Addressing the idea implies creating sufcient negative feedback loops to maintain a healthy system equilibrium [2,35].
2.2.5. Use and value renewable resources
A diverse utilization of renewable assets at an acceptable degree of usage can help us restrict our consumption [34]; such as
sunlight, rainwater, and strategies that recover soil and minimize foreign inputs [2,31].
2.2.6. Produce no waste
As the population grows, recycling, composting, and trash reduction become more crucial [2,31]. For example, the process of
photosynthesis creates no waste in nature. This is the gist of this philosophy, which is to make zero waste and use it as much as feasible
[34,35].
2.2.7. Design from patterns to details
For effective design, identify the patterns that naturally occur and ll in the specics later [2,35]. For instance; A fruit tree, should
be surrounded by other plants in the garden. Such as green beans or squash crawling up the pine tree. Herbs, spices, and other owers
might be planted at the foot of the tree to attract benecial insects or supply nutrients to the soil (forming a symbiotic relationship) [26,
Fig. 1. Illustrative representation of permaculture ethics and principles (Modied from [36]).
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35].
2.2.8. Integrate rather than segregate
This necessitates the comprehension of intricate natural linkages and the viable exploitation of such interactions [33,34]. Rather
than implementing monocultures, design with synergistic interactions in mind, such as mutually benecial polycultures ought to be
considered [2].
2.2.9. Use small and slow solutions
More modest frameworks are simpler to oversee than bigger ones, permitting them to properly utilization of local resources and
produce more long-haul results [2,34]. It likewise empowers genuine criticism and discretion [26,35].
2.2.10. Use and value diversity
Monoculture-based societies are vulnerable to unforeseen change. Permaculture aims to comprehend the past, present, and future
potentials of biological and cultural diversity [34]. A few plants, for instance, promote the supply of nitrogen, a fundamental part of
rich soil, while others attract pollinating insects [35]. Since diversity enhances resilience, the system is less prone to failure [2].
2.2.11. Use edges and value the marginal
The area where multiple zones meet is frequently the most intriguing and innovative (6). As opposed to excusing the negligible, we
ought to look to utilize its diversity and production [34].
2.2.12. Creatively use and respond to change
There is an evolutionary component to all ecological systems. Notice changes in the climate and mediate at the proper overall
setting [2,31,34].
3. Ecological impacts of industrial/modern agriculture
Agriculture, in many respects, may be considered the last outskirts of modern upheaval in numerous ways [2]. While the current
farming system has been demonstrated to be exceptionally useful, it has additionally had overall natural and social consequences [37].
For example, industrialized agricultural systems are annihilating biodiverse conditions, contaminating water, forming dead zones in
oceans, gambling with human wellbeing through pesticide exposures and disease outbreaks, delivering toxins into the food cycle, and
contributing to global warming [38]. The industrial agriculture system utilizes unsustainable amounts of water, fossil fuels, and topsoil
[39,40]. Signicant greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity loss, broad manure, and pesticide contamination, soil loss and degradation,
dwindling pollinators, and human health hazards are a couple of the ecological impacts of current farming [2,37]; which are further
illustrated briey.
3.1. Monoculture, chemical usage, and loss of diversity
To ease mechanized farming, huge elds of just a single crop variety are cultivated which is tend to be a monoculture. External
inputs, including notably chemical fertilizers and pesticides, are signicantly required in these articially simplied ecosystems.
Chemical fertilizers high in NPK fertilizers deplete the soil of key micronutrients over the long haul and wipe out valuable soil living
beings that guide in supplement move to plants [2]. Similarly, pesticides, while initially enhancing yields, become less effective over
time as pests develop resistance to them, and they frequently kill soil microbes and fungi, as well as benecial species that help control
destructive creatures [2,39]. It takes longer to measure and results in the extinction of animals, sheries, pollinators, and human
ailments [2].
3.2. Greenhouse gas emissions and climate change
Climate change and agriculture are two interconnected peculiarities that happen on a worldwide scale. Global warming initiatives
have a substantial inuence on agricultural circumstances, such as temperature, precipitation, and glacier runoff [41]. The world
population is expected to reach 9 billion by 2050, with food consumption expected to quadruple from present levels [38]. Agronomic
operations in general contribute to the phenomena of global warming by releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and changing
land cover, both of which alter the surface’s albedo and the radiation balance [2,41]. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, agriculture is directly responsible for around 20% of human-generated greenhouse gas emissions [39]. Land-use
changes account for around 14% of absolute human-caused greenhouse gas emissions, and quite a bit of this land advancement is
for agricultural purposes [2,39]. Methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide gases are produced by farming activities, such as livestock
management, rice paddies creation and maintenance, sugar cane burning, and soil bacterial nitrication-denitrication [41,42]. As a
result, the expected perils of climate change have expanded, and the natural equilibrium has been disturbed [15,43].
3.3. Water consumption
Agriculture consumes 85% of the freshwater on the planet. A single kilogram of wheat requires around 1300 gallons of water,
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whereas rice requires 3000 L, beef requires 15,500 L, and a single 50g bag of salad requires approximately 50 L. Green revolution
hybrids perform poorly than many traditional cultivars in the absence of extra water and chemical fertilizers. The viability of these
crops will become increasingly doubtful as freshwater grows scarcer [2].
3.4. Deforestation
The explanations behind eliminating forest areas are numerous. Conversion of forest land to agriculture and ranches, as well as
urban areas and hydrocarbon exploitation, are only a few of the reasons [41]. When forests are replaced by agricultural land for crops
or animals, atmospheric carbon sequestration is reduced [41,44]. The environmental services provided by forests, such as biodiversity,
soil protection, and subsurface water recharge, are difcult to compare to the monetary return derived from agriculture due to the
differing value systems [38,39,41].
3.5. Soil degradation
Soil quality is dynamic, and it might change rapidly relying on soil features, climate conditions, land use, and agricultural tech-
niques. Overgrazing, cover removal, topsoil loss, salinization, and nutrient depletion are all processes that kill plants and degrade soil
[41]. Currently, modern agriculture practices are adding to the debasement of basic ecological processes that support life on earth, for
example, environmental change, biosphere integrity loss, damaging land system alterations, and phosphorus and nitrogen manure
eutrophication of oceans [37,41].
3.6. Eutrophication
When surplus runoff of nutrients is leached into water bodies, algae quickly proliferate. Algae devour all of the nutrients needed by
other aquatic organisms. When an algal population reaches its pinnacle, it begins to die, forming a layer of anoxic conditions known as
the ‘death zone, which is harmful to aquatic life [41,43]. The deterioration of water bodies is also caused by the quality of industrial
wastewater efuents [45].
Fig. 2. Above depicts the geographical location of the case study sites, namely the Gandaki trout sh Farm (GTF), Sotang organic farm (SOF), and
Organic Ghar (OG).
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3.7. Soil erosion
Because growing grain for this business takes so much acreage, feedlot cattle, and industrial animal agriculture, in general, deplete
topsoil [39], overgrazed and nutrient-depleted elds expose the surface to erosion by preventing the proper growth of vegetation [41].
3.8. Water-logging and salinity
Many low-rainfall places have been transformed into agricultural wonderlands, at least in the short term, thanks to irrigation [42].
Excessive irrigation, on the other hand, might have an environmental cost in the form of waterlogging and salinization. Irrigation
water contains salts that deplete the soil’s productivity over time [39]. Similarly, rice elds’ saturated soil is ideal for methanogenesis,
which releases methane into the atmosphere [41].
To limit those ecological impacts (above-mentioned) of the industrial agricultural system, a pioneering concept is introduced also
known as the alternative agricultural system i.e., permaculture.
4. Materials and methods
4.1. Study areas
This study was carried out at three different geographical locations throughout Nepal. The rst study was carried out near the
village Basantar (Dharan, Nepal; 26.821024, 87.300660), which experiences a sub-tropical climate with an average annual rainfall of
39.74 in. The second study was carried out near the village Sripur (Bharatpur, Nepal; 27.640319, 84.371023), which also experiences a
sub-tropical climate with a mean annual rainfall of 114.2 in. Likewise, the third study was carried out near Sardikhola (Puranchour,
Nepal; 28.329634, 83.978499), which experiences a temperate climate with an average rainfall of 39.37 in. Under these locations, the
general permaculture practices and descriptions in those farms were addressed and uniformly examined. The geographical positions
and general description of the study sites are presented in Fig. 2.
4.2. Study methodology
The idea of permaculture was created by Ref. [46] as an integrated, dynamic system of perennial or self-perpetuating plant and
animal species benecial to man. According to Ref. [47], permaculture has evolved to the point that it is now dened as “consciously
Fig. 3. Orthophotoplan of the studied site (Sotang organic farm).
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built landscapes that imitate the pattern and connections seen in nature while generating an abundance of food, bre, and energy for
meeting local requirements.” The research began with assessments of the literature on the theoretical background as well as the current
state of the permaculture network in Nepal. The research methodology used in this study includes the selection of an area with an
agricultural land use environment, observation and analysis of land use, crops, and settlement, using the conceptual content analysis
method [48,49]. This research primarily focuses on the personal motivations, knowledge exchange, and experiences of permaculture
practitioners. Three case studies were selected as an appropriate analytical approach to collect the necessary in-depth information
[12]. The study is based on permaculture experts who have been working for over a biennium in Nepal. To assess each practitioner’s
designs and social interventions in the Nepalese agricultural sector, case studies for each one were created by looking at relevant
papers, conducting in-depth interviews, and visiting farms. Three ethical criteria—earth care, people care, and fair share—were used
to evaluate their accomplishments [50]. The practitioners’ social and design initiatives in their different communities serve as our
observational variables. In addition to the observational technique, we also conducted in-depth interviews with the practitioners to
gather primary data. To further investigate the similarities between the design procedures, social interventions, and their results, we
gathered secondary data from journals, books, and blogs and used conceptual and relational content analysis.
5. Permaculture in Nepal
5.1. Sotang Organic Farm (SOF)
The Sotang organic farm was created in 1998 by Mr. Krishna Rai. The cultural practices are directly based on the permaculture
model. They produce multiple products, use only organic amendments and no pesticides or mineral fertilizers, and achieve high yields.
The total farm size is about 2.032 ha and only 40% of the land is used for cultivation area. The other 60% is occupied by animal farms,
as shown in Fig. 3.
Initially, he was encouraged to utilize agrochemicals, such as chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, herbicides, vitamins, and
hormones, due to a long-held belief that these chemicals would increase crop yield and productivity. The initial results appeared to
support this belief, as productivity increased substantially after the implementation of these chemicals. However, this increase was not
sustainable, and crop yields began to decline rapidly. Additionally, the cost of producing farm products increased, resulting in a smaller
prot margin. Furthermore, the use of agrochemicals had adverse effects on consumer health due to the consumption of contaminated
farm products, ultimately leading to economic losses for the farm. In light of these challenges, he sought guidance from agricultural
experts and researchers, who recommended the adoption of permaculture as a potential solution. In 2005, he began implementing
permaculture techniques on their farm, which were later adopted by 150 other farmers. The implementation involved the production
and use of vermicompost, composted manure, liquid manure, and integrated pest management tools to control and manage pests and
diseases.
As they continued to implement permaculture techniques, they recognized that soil health is a key factor in the agricultural sector,
impacting crop health and productivity. They subsequently focused on improving the soil’s health through the use of organic materials
produced on the farm, which fostered soil health and microbial activity while enhancing soil biodiversity. He also realized that human
activities have been disrupting the ecosystem’s balance, resulting in adverse effects on human health. As a result, the farm now
produces 100% certied organic products and engages in hydroponics, cattle farming, pig and sh farming, vertical farming, poultry
rearing, and oriculture, among other practices, as shown in Figs. 4–7. His success in producing his basic needs and marketable surplus
from an average-sized farm is based on his observation of nature, emphasis on self-reliance, and analysis of markets and consumers.
Continuing the very trend, the farm has the potential to achieve massive social and economic success. The farm can improve the
livelihood of a large number of people via employment. Farm activities over a long period can also improve the surrounding envi-
ronmental conditions. The farm has an excellent layout, which can be very helpful for someone willing to start or set up a permaculture
farm. Soon, the farm has the potential to not only meet the domestic demand for organic produce but also export its products to foreign
Fig. 4. Illustrates the hydroponic cultivation method employed at the farm.
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countries.
5.2. Organic Ghar (OG)
Chandra Prasad Adhikari is an owner of Organic Ghar known for its organic farming/permaculture. But it was not the scenario
some years ago. His fathers and grandfather analyzed the demand for agro-products and in contrast to that, the decline in production of
Fig. 5. Depicts the vertical farming method used at the farm.
Fig. 6. Displays the practice of animal husbandry specically cattle rearing on the farm.
Fig. 7. Showcases aquaculture or sh farming as a major activity carried out on the farm.
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the farm output started using chemical fertilizers to boost the yield and productivity of the farm. Although they found a signicant rise
in the yield and productivity, soon after the application of chemicals the tenure didn’t last for long. The yield reduced massively. This
led the farm to critical situations and eventually they realize that the usage of chemicals to foster productivity is the lone reason for the
decline of production. Therefore, the revolutionary concept of permaculture was introduced on the farm in the year 2020, to sort out
their miserable phase, as shown in Fig. 8.
After the introduction of the permaculture system in the farm activities, the yield didn’t rise as much as they would have expected
as soil condition was brought to its worst due to excessive use of chemicals but they knew they must stick with the system for a longer
period to get a better result and they did so. They stopped using the chemical fertilizer ever since they came to know its hazardous
effect on soil and the ecosystem. They formed a group of 80 families and started the concept of permaculture within the community
practically. Overall, an area of 2.02 ha was added to the production area, as shown in Figs. 9 and 10. They started using organic
manures like vermicompost, bi-products of livestock, crop residue, Farmyard manure, etc to raise crops. The farm itself produces
enough amount of vermicompost that can be used throughout the community. Vermicompost is extracted after sorting out the worms
out of the compost using nets, as shown in Fig. 11. Earthworms are also reared in good quantity.
They have managed beehives on their farm which not only support better pollination of the crops or plants but also marketing of
honey (about 550–1000 lbs.) quantity annually provided as an extra income source for the farm. Furthermore, the rearing of black
soldier ies for research and development is also carried out by the farm aided by National Innovation Center (NIC) and supported by
Agriculture and Forestry University (AFU), as shown in Fig. 12. The grown larvae are utilized to feed the indigenous chicken that
effectually supports the nutritional intake and gives better carcass results. Eventually as “the fruits of patience are sweet” all the hard
work and patience of sticking to the permaculture concept paid off sweetly for the farm. The productivity of this farm has gone higher
to meet its own as well as marketing demand too.
The farm is wasting no expenses on any agrochemicals to control diseases or pests because of the matter of “Back to nature, the
nature itself balances the pest and natural enemies to prevent loss of crops due to diseases and pest outbreaks- Chandra Prasad
Adhikari”.
Following the ongoing trend of permaculture, the upcoming days or years for this farm will certainly be much brighter. The soil
health will reach its peak tness, resulting in the production of much healthier corn at a signicantly reduced cost, which will invite
more benets from the farm business. Due to sound agricultural practices, the environmental conditions will also improve. The
expanding area under cultivation will tend to employ a large number of people, and hence their livelihoods will improve along with the
farm’s social and economic status. Raising black soldier ies and feeding them to indigenous chicken breeds to improve carcass-related
traits can be benecial to other poultry farms. Therefore, other farmers can learn something new along with permaculture practices.
Fig. 8. Orthophotoplan of the studied site (Organic Ghar/Prangarik Sikai Kendra).
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5.3. Gandaki Trout Farm (GTF)
Being situated in the Kaski district Gandaki trout farm is one of the provenances with an area of 4 ha, as shown in Fig. 13. The most
popular trout farm is well known for its culture and production of rainbow trout (Onchorhynchus mykiss). It was established in the year
2010 by Lachhin Gurung. He was motivated by the growing demand for trout in the market but not so appreciable production to meet
Fig. 9. Illustrates a substantial acreage exclusively allocated for the cultivation of rice.
Fig. 10. Showcases an extensive area covered with paddies.
Fig. 11. Illustrates the process of vermicompost production on the farm, wherein shes raised in the surrounding pool are utilized to generate
nutrient-rich compost.
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this rising demand. He along with his workers started the farm with a very small investment of 1–2 lakhs. They excavated two ponds
initially for the production which later grew in number and size as the farm ourished. They designed and constructed the farm in such
a way that it not only has higher production of trout sh but also utilizes the prospect of agritourism and agriproduct production in
Kaski, as shown in Figs. 14–17. The feed for sh has been formulated here itself but the raw materials are imported from India. It
includes sh meal, brown soybean (30%), wheat (17%), and Rice husk (14%). Out of which almost 30% of the feed constitutes are
produced on the farm.
The necessary crops are raised on the farm utilizing the water coming out of the sh pool as it contains nitrogenous byproducts from
sh. This helps in better production of the crops to be utilized in the feed formulation and the cycle goes on. This helps in the pro-
duction of organic crops and further minimizes the expenditure of the farm. The seeds of the sh are produced on the farm in the
breeding house. They have managed separate structures and pools for various stages of sh for better handling and production.
Freshwater keeps circulating in the ponds structures which is a basis of raceway culture.
Eventually, all the efforts and patience to stick with their farm strategies/permaculture led them to their success. Now, they have an
Fig. 12. Portrays the breeding of black soldier ies for potential applications in sustainable waste management.
Fig. 13. Orthophotoplan of the studied site (Gandaki trout sh farm).
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income of 2–3 lakhs per month and a team of 22–23 workers who handle the farm brilliantly making the farm well known not only in
the Kaski district but also all around the globe. His farm is one of the pioneer farms which is capable to promote agritourism. With the
arrival of international and national tourists, albeit in higher numbers, as well as the increased demand from customers in Pokhara
itself for trout, the business is picking up smoothly.
The Gandaki trout farm shows a promising potential to be one of the most visited tourism sites for domestic as well as international
explorers because of the eye-catching elements employed in its establishment, operation, and management. The farm will have an
Fig. 14. Provides a visual representation of the aesthetically pleasing landscape and comprehensive perspective of the study site.
Fig. 15. Showcases the stunning scenery and holistic viewpoint of the farm, as captured through the lens of the observer.
Fig. 16. Displays the utilization of closed raceway culture for the purposeful cultivation of trout.
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extended prot margin because of its systematic raising practices and additional services for the customers. The farm can add addi-
tional subcenters for marketing purposes, which will increase the number of people employed and prot. Very soon, the farm will
occupy a major share in trout sh production and marketing, following the same trend.
6. Discussion
Utilizing conceptual content analysis, our study revealed some shared themes and issues among the three permaculture practi-
tioners [51], including enhancing biodiversity, reducing crop losses, producing multiple crops, improving food security, developing
ecological balance, enhancing living conditions of neighbours farmers, and decreasing reliance on external supplies. Analysis of
permaculture ethical principles of earth care, people care, and fair share demonstrated that Organic Ghar (OG) most effectively
implemented design principles (91.67%), followed by Sotang Organic Farm (SOF) (83.33%) and Gandaki Trout Farm (GTF) (47.22%),
as depicted in Table 2. Our results indicated that OG and SOF were able to promote both the quantitative and qualitative growth of
other farmers in their community. These ndings are consistent with previous studies [12,21,48,52–56]. Likewise, GTF seems to
adhere its primary competence as a tourism operator and utilizes sustainable practices as a point of differentiation in commercial
business. GTF also demonstrated that environmentally-conscious tourists are willing to seek out agricultural sustainability [57]. When
considered in light of the agrarian crisis and the relational content analysis of the three permaculturists [58], our results suggest that
permaculture design interventions offer viable solutions to address farmers’ crises in Nepal against industrial agriculture. Our study
highlights the success of permaculture design in promoting food security, access to clean food, income generation, and local diver-
sication. Despite this, permaculture design has yet to be integrated into agricultural education in Nepal. Therefore, we advocate
including permaculture education in the current agricultural educational domain in Nepal. Although permaculture is still in its infancy
in Nepal, numerous international examples illustrate its application and relative benets which are listed below.
1. Kuala Ping serves as a clear example of successful permaculture design principles being implemented to achieve sustainable
agricultural practices through the integration of local people, environment, and technologies, resulting in the proper preservation
and protection of ecosystem resources in Malaysia [48].
2. Similarly, an international permaculture site in rural Bulgaria (Sing) demonstrated a model based on social and ecological re-
lationships, which transformed rural livelihoods and beneted the local community [31].
3. Soneva, an eco-tourism service provider in Maldives and Thailand, implemented environmentally and socially conscious practices,
such as composting leftover foods and wastes and eliminating chemical inputs, resulting in the production of a diverse range of
fruits and vegetables [52].
4. Landscape redesigning and interventions utilizing permaculture principles in Odisha, India, improved the food supply, access to
clean and healthy food, economic upliftment, and diversication of local commodities for 13 primitive tribes and 62 tribal com-
munities [55].
5. The application of permaculture procedures in Le Bec-Hellouin, Normandie, France, led to improved nutrient availability and
balanced reserves of soil organic carbon in the cultivated lands’ uppermost soil [40].
6. Permaculture design played a signicant role in conservation of soil and water resources contributing to ecosystem diversity in the
management of reservoirs serving natural habitats for wildlife in Gibraleon, Tamera, and Vivencia Dehesa, Spain [59].
7. Rural tourism in Brasov, Romania, promoted the conservation of nature and environment along with agricultural systems through
sustainable practices in the tourism sector of rural regions [30].
8. The residential area at Denai Alam, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia, provides an opportunity for the local community to participate
in permaculture design principles, with plans to incorporate aspects such as greywater treatment and various gardens (e.g., spiral
herb and vegetable gardens) in urban permaculture [56].
Fig. 17. Portrays the use of a closed raceway culture technique to rear trout in a controlled aquatic environment.
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These examples provide evidence of the potential benets of permaculture design principles in various settings and highlight the
need for greater focus on permaculture education, research, and practice in agriculture, landscaping, healthcare, and product design to
address societal issues and create job opportunities in this era of climate crisis.
7. Conclusion
Designing and planning with nature is an ecosystem-based approach that demonstrates sustainable practices in diverse aspects.
This permaculture system is involved in planning and fabricating by following the natural patterns of permaculture locales.
Table 2
Evaluation of ecological well-being of the farms.
S⋅N. Design principles Farms that have implemented the
preceding principles
Earth care
1. Observe and interact Farm’s design and management are based on careful observation and
interaction with nature
SOF, OG, GTF
2. Catch and store energy Farm’s energy requirements are met through on-site capture and storage OG
3. Obtain a Yield Food produced on the farm meets the farm’s dietary needs SOF, OG, GTF
4. Apply self-regulation and accept
feedback
Farm’s practices are shaped by natural feedback OG, SOF
5. Use and value renewable
resources and services
Renewable resources and services are employed with an eye toward their
long-term impact
SOF, OG, GTF
6. Produce no waste Waste is reused OG, SOF
7. Design from pattern to details Design and management of the farm take natural patterns into account SOF, OG, GTF
8. - Integrate rather than segregate Farm’s elements and functions are carefully integrated SOF, OG, GTF
9. Use small and slow solutions Small, and slow solutions are employed when making changes to the
landscape design
OG, SOF
10. - Use and value diversity Farm is designed to increase and value species diversity SOF, OG, GTF
11. Use edges and value the marginal Landscape is designed to maximize edges and margins, where different
types of land meet
SOF
12. Creatively use and respond to
change
Landscape design also allows for exibility and adaptability OG, GTF
People care
1. Observe and interact Farm seeks to foster good relationships with its neighbours SOF, OG
2. Catch and store energy Inputs for the farm are produced locally SOF, OG
3. Obtain a yield Farm’s food is grown without chemical inputs SOF, OG, GTF
4. Apply self-regulation and accept
feedback
Social and community feedback prompts changes in behaviour SOF, OG, GTF
5. Use and value renewable
resources and services
Renewable community resources and services are used with an eye toward
their long-term impact
SOF, OG
6. Produce no waste Waste is not sent to landlls SOF, OG
7. Design from patterns to details Farm seeks broader community input in making design decisions SOF, OG
8. Integrate rather than segregate Farm is open to the public, and partnerships are sought with other
organizations
SOF, OG, GTF
9. Use small and slow solutions Community works collectively to resolve local issues SOF, OG
10. Use and value diversity Respect is shown for people’s choices related to ethnicity, sexual
orientation, gender, age, religion, and culture
SOF, OG, GTF
11. Use edges and value the marginal Socially progressive marginalized movements are valued SOF, OG, GTF
12. Creatively use and respond to
change
Action is taken to address social crises and solve problems in the
community.
OG
Fair share
1. Observe and interact Recognizing and responding to limits on production and consumption –
2. Catch and store energy Farm inputs are generated on-site OG, SOF
3. Obtain a yield Income is generated through on-site activities SOF, OG, GTF
4. Apply self-regulation and accept
feedback
Fair share is employed in the consumption and distribution of resources OG
5. Use and value renewable
resources and services
Money is not spent on non-renewable resources OG, SOF
6. Produce no waste Waste is viewed as a resource OG, SOF
7. Design from patterns to details Integrated systems are used to optimize productivity and efciency SOF, OG, GTF
8. Integrate rather than segregate Farm seeks to integrate its production with other local farms OG
9. Use small and slow solutions Ecological management is employed to solve production problems rather
than resorting to the use of chemicals
OG, SOF
10. Use and value diversity Diversity of income streams is generated on the farm SOF, OG, GTF
11. Use edges and value the marginal Gaps in the market are considered when deciding which product streams
to invest in
SOF, GTF
12. Creatively use and respond to
change
Creative problem-solving is employed to address production ow issues SOF, OG, GTF
SOF: Sotang Organic Farm; OG: Organic Ghar; GTF: Gandaki Trout Farm.
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Subsequently, permaculturists should have a careful comprehension of the concepts of permaculture as well as the capacity to
recognize the appropriate permaculture design pattern. Through this permaculture methods might be utilized to accomplish various
objectives. As revealed in this study, permaculture can assist farmers to maintain livelihood activities and increase their ability to deal
with environmental issues. It’s likewise the key to boosting social and environmental resilience. Furthermore, by properly integrating a
diverse range of aspects, the present agrarian framework might be uprooted and replaced with a more methodical, dynamic, and
environmentally friendly system. Therefore, this case study entails a strong emphasis on adhering to the ethical angles and codes of
permaculture to accomplish sustainability and supplant the modern/industrial agricultural system.
Author contribution statement
Shubh Pravat Singh Yadav: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the
data; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper. Vivek Lahutiya: Conceived and designed the experi-
ments; Performed the experiments; Wrote the paper. Netra Prasad Ghimire, Bishnu Yadav, and Prava Paudel: Performed the experi-
ments; Wrote the paper.
Data availability statement
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Additional information
No additional information is available for this paper.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
inuence the work reported in this paper.
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