Content uploaded by Richard Joffre
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Richard Joffre on Apr 18, 2023
Content may be subject to copyright.
Project Gallery
A pre-Hispanic religious landscape on the arid Andean
altiplano of Bolivia
Pablo Cruz1,
*
, Richard Joffre2& Jean J. Vacher3
1
National Scientific and Technical Research Council, UE CISOR CONICET UNJu, Jujuy, Argentina
2
French National Centre for Scientific Research, UMR 5175 CEFE, Montpellier, France
3
Institute of Research for Development, UMR 208 Paloc, Paris, France
* Author for correspondence ✉pablocruz@conicet.gov.ar
Research carried out in the Carangas region of highland Bolivia has identified a surprising concentration of pre-
Hispanic religious sites, which are linked both to ancient Andean cults of wak’a(sacred mountains, tutelary
hills and mummified ancestors) and to the Incan settlement of the region. Of these sites, one ceremonial centre
stands out for its unprecedented characteristics for the Andes.
Keywords: Andean Altiplano, Inca, pre-Hispanic sacred landscape, ceremonial centre
Introduction
Recent archaeological studies conducted in Carangas (Figure 1), a region of the central-
southern Andean Altiplano characterised by its extremely arid and cold climate, have revealed
many pre-Hispanic religious sites and structures that form a dense ritual landscape. In par-
ticular, we identified a noteworthy set of 135 sites located on hilltops, most of which are dir-
ectly associated with ancient agricultural production areas (Cruz & Joffre 2020). These can
be identified on the ground and in satellite images by their variable number of concentric
walls (between two and nine per site), each of which occupies a different level of terrace
around the hilltop (Figure 2).
Abundant quantities of pre-Hispanic ceramic fragments are found at all sites. These are
mostly of local styles typical of the Late Intermediate and Late Periods (AD 1250–1600)
(Villanueva Criales 2015), along with some regional styles linked to the southern expansion
of the Incas. Most of the ceramic fragments correspond to bowls, plates and small jars, indi-
cating their use in commensal and ritual practices (Bray 2003). Although these religious sites
possess some of the same defensive characteristics as the pre-Hispanic occupation sites known
as pukaras, we found no significant evidence that these were residential. These ceremonial
spaces emerged during the Late Intermediate Period, like the pukaras, and were later appro-
priated and resignified by the Incas. The characteristics of these ceremonial spaces correspond
with the information provided about wak’as and their shrines (Mannheim & Salas Carreño
2015) by Spanish clerics and chroniclers of the Colonial Period (AD 1535–1800), such as the
famous Guaman Poma de Ayala (1980 [1615]). The concentration of religious spaces in this
region of the Altiplano may be explained by the belief that the tutelary divinities could
Received: 26 November 2022; Revised: 28 February 2023; Accepted: 3 March 2023
© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Antiquity Publications Ltd.
Antiquity 2023 page 1 of 8
https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2023.44
1
https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2023.44 Published online by Cambridge University Press
regulate the already extreme climatic conditions, since a small variation in temperature or
rainfall could cause the loss of all crops or the death of livestock.
In addition to these concentric-walled sites, we identified a completely different site, Was-
kiri, near the Lauca River and the Bolivian-Chilean border. It is an impressive circular con-
struction, located on a small hill, which surprises both in its large dimensions (140m in
diameter) and its design and regularity (Figure 3). The site has a perimeter ring comprising
39 adjoining enclosures, each with a surface area between 106 and 144m
2
. These enclose a
plaza of approximately 1ha, which is scattered with abundant ceramic fragments ascribed to
the Late Intermediate and Late Periods—similar to those observed in the hilltop concentric-
circle sites. We found no structures or material remains that could be ascribed to either earlier
or more recent periods. Two other circular constructions, 24m and 23m in diameter, are
located respectively 40m and 255m outside the main site.
A ceremonial centre with unknown characteristics in the Andes
The pre-Hispanic ceremonial centre of Waskiri is not only a surprising discovery in this
sparsely populated desert region of the Andes, but also exhibits characteristics that are unpre-
cedented in the pre-Hispanic Andes. It is likely, however, that the first reference to the site is
Figure 1. Map showing the location of the Carangas region in Bolivia (credits: P. Cruz; map from Global
Multi-Resolution Topography).
Pablo Cruz et al.
© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Antiquity Publications Ltd.
2
https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2023.44 Published online by Cambridge University Press
Figure 2. Photographs of the walled concentric sites in the Rio Lauca area of Carangas (credits: P. Cruz; from GoogleEarth images).
Apre‐Hispanic religious landscape on the arid Andean altiplano of Bolivia
© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Antiquity Publications Ltd.
3
https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2023.44 Published online by Cambridge University Press
Figure 4. Top) view from Waskiri, showing the silhouettes of the main sacred mountains of the region; bottom)
distribution of sacred sites around Waskiri (credits: P. Cruz).
Apre‐Hispanic religious landscape on the arid Andean altiplano of Bolivia
© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Antiquity Publications Ltd.
5
https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2023.44 Published online by Cambridge University Press
found in the chronicle of the evangelising priest Bartolomé Álvarez (1998 [1588]: 111), who
travelled through the Carangas region during the 1580s. Álvarez received information about
the existence of a ‘large circular building’, in which the main Indigenous authorities of the
region, curacas and caciques, met to perform ceremonies for the Sun during the month of
June—the Inti Raymi, one of the most important annual Incan ceremonies also described
by Guaman Poma (1980 [1615]: 175)—as well as for other religious celebrations, including
animal sacrifices. The religious and political importance of these celebrations and sites was
highlighted in the words of Álvarez (1998 [1588]: 111) when he described the attendees
as entering a kind of “solemn drunkenness”in these highly particular buildings that he
considered to be the “house and business of hell”.
Various aspects of the site are particularly relevant in relation to Alvarez’s information.
First, the design of the site, housing 39 perimeter enclosures distributed around a large central
plaza, is consistent with the congregation of authorities and their retinues from different
localities. Also, the location of Waskiri in a desert area, separate from any pre-Hispanic settle-
ment or agricultural sector, may have factored into its use as a regional ceremonial centre,
located in a neutral or common space. Regardless, Waskiri is centrally located within the reli-
gious cartography of the region, connected visually and spatially with the principal sacred
mountains, numerous walled concentric sites, funerary towers ornamented with designs
that replicate Inca textiles (Gisbert 1994), and other geo-symbolic markers (Figures 4 &5).
In this sense, the radial design of the site and its linkage with the main religious landmarks
of the region—all considered to be wak’as—mirrors the Incan ceque system, the paths that
Figure 5. Funerary towers of the Rio Lauca (credit: P. Cruz).
Pablo Cruz et al.
© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Antiquity Publications Ltd.
6
https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2023.44 Published online by Cambridge University Press
ordered the sacred geography in Cuzco, the capital of theirempire (Zuidema 1964). In fact, the
radial walls that delimit the 39 enclosures around the perimeter of Waskiri reflect a structure
that is very much akin to that of the Incan ceque of Cuzco. By arranging these according to
the cardinal axes, four quadrants composed respectively by 9-9-9-8 walls or lines are observable,
which is similar to the quadrants of the Cuzco system that is integrated by 9-9-9-14 ritual paths
(Bauer 1992)(Figure 6). The intentionality of this arrangement is clearly expressed in wall 3
that delimits enclosures c and d of the south-west quadrant of Waskiri, which, unlike the
other 34 walls, doesnot have a corresponding wall on the opposite side ofthe site. If the divisor
walls of Waskiri did indeed represent a ceque system, this would be more explicit evidence that
the Incas replicated the symbolic structure of Cuzco in the regions they colonised.
Conclusion
This ceremonial centre and the ritual landscape in which Waskiri is situated provides rich
material for further study of the pre-Hispanic history of this part of the Andes—an area
that has been generally understudied. Further research will allow investigators to test these
initial hypotheses and interpretations.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Institute of Anthropologyand Archaeology of the UMSA (La Paz, Bolivia) and
the Redes Andinas project for their support and collaboration.
Funding statement
We thank the French National Research Institute for Sustainable Development (IRD) for
logistical support and funding.
Figure 6. Comparison between the Waskiri site structure and the Cuzco ceque system (based on Bauer 1992; credit:
Pablo Cruz).
Apre‐Hispanic religious landscape on the arid Andean altiplano of Bolivia
© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Antiquity Publications Ltd.
7
https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2023.44 Published online by Cambridge University Press
References
ÁLVAREZ,B.1998 [1588]. De las costumbres y
conversión de los indios del Perú: memorial a Felipe
II. Madrid: Polifemo.
BAUER,B.1992. Ritual pathways of the Inca: an
analysis of the Collasuyu Ceques in Cuzco. Latin
American Antiquity 3: 183–205.
https://doi.org/10.2307/971714
BRAY,T.2003. Inka pottery as culinary equipment:
food, feasting, and gender in imperial state design.
Latin American Antiquity 14: 3–28.
https://doi.org/10.2307/972233
CRUZ,P&R. JOFFRE. 2020. Pukara de los wak’a:
cerros, muros concéntricos y divinidades tutelares
en el altiplano centro-sur andino. Journal de la
Société des américanistes 106(2): 47–76.
https://doi.org/10.4000/jsa.18487
GISBERT,T.1994. El señorío de los Carangas y los
chullpares del río Lauca. Revista Andina 2:
427–85.
GUAMAN POMA DE AYALA,F.1980 [1615]. El primer
nueva corónica y buen gobierno. Translated by J.L.
Urioste. Mexico City: Siglo XXI.
MANNHEIM,B.&G. SALAS CARREÑO. 2015. Wak’as:
entifications of the Andean sacred, in T.L. Bray
(ed.) The archaeology of wak’as: explorations of the
sacred in the pre-Columbian Andes:47–72.
Boulder: University Press of Colorado.
https://doi.org/10.5876/9781607323181.c003
VILLANUEVA CRIALES,J.2015. Evaluando la frontera
Pacajes-Carangas para el Período Intermedio
tardío (1.100-1.450 D.C.) en el altiplano
boliviano central a partir del análisis de pastas
cerámicas. Chungara 47: 211–18.
https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-
73562015005000014
ZUIDEMA,T.1964. The ceque system of Cuzco: the social
organization of the capital of the Inca. (Archives
Internationales d’Ethnographie 50). Leiden: Brill.
Pablo Cruz et al.
© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Antiquity Publications Ltd.
8
https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2023.44 Published online by Cambridge University Press
