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Vol. 19(3), pp. 321-336, March, 2023
DOI: 10.5897/AJAR2022.16265
Article Number: E72E0CF70523
ISSN: 1991-637X
Copyright ©2023
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJAR
African Journal of Agricultural
Research
Full Length Research Paper
Coping with catastrophe: Crop diversity and crop
production in Tigray National Regional State in
Northern Ethiopia
R. Trevor Wilson
Bartridge House, Umberleigh, Ex37 9AS, United Kingdom.
Received 25 October, 2022; Accepted 20 January, 2023
Tigray, the most northern of Ethiopia’s ethnically based regional states, covers an area of 53 386 km2
and has a population exceeding 5.17 million of whom some 24.3% are urban dwellers. Wide
agroclimatic variations result from altitudinal differences (600 to 3000 m) and rainfall patterns. The area
is a center of origin of many cultivated and wild plants. The mainly agricultural rural population, farming
small areas of non-contiguous plots, makes wide use of these conditions to ensure its livelihood. Crops
grown include ten species of cereals, seven pulses (legumes), six oilseeds, and numerous fruits,
vegetables and spices. Within these groups and species several varieties or landraces are recognized
and used to advantage. Wild species are exploited for food, especially at times of crop failure, and for
medicines. Crop production is beset by many biotic (weeds, pests, diseases), abiotic (infertile soils) and
anthropic (government policy, civil strife, military actions) constraints. Drought is a frequent
occurrence and leads to crop failure and famine. In normal times crop yields are low but some of the
production is marketed to provide cash for other necessities. Tigray’s population is poverty stricken
and often in need of food aid.
Key words: Genetic resources, biodiversity, poverty, drought, food security, famine foods.
INTRODUCTION
Tigray National Regional State is the most northern first-
order administrative entity of the Federal Democratic
Republic of Ethiopia. The state has an area of 53 386
km2. In 2016 the human population exceeded 5.17 million
of which about 24.3% lived in urban areas (CSA, 2018).
Urbanization is proceeding apace as illustrated by the
state capital, Mekelle, whose population expanded from
about 5000 inhabitants in 1935, to 45000 in 1975, when
the current study started, and then to 310000 in 2016 and
an estimated 543000 in 2021 (Figure 1) (UN, 2018). More
than 97% of the population is ethnic Tigrean. Almost 50%
of the population is aged 15 or under.
A traditional ecological classification of the country was
brought to the attention of the Western intelligentsia
towards the end of the Eighteenth Century (Bruce, 1790)
and formalized about 100 years later (Dove, 1890). The
E-mail: trevorbart@aol.com.
Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
322 Afr. J. Agric. Res.
Figure 1. Human population growth of Mekelle, capital city of Tigray, 1935-2021.
Figure 1. Human population growth of Mekelle, capital city of Tigray, 1935-2021.
Source: Compiled from original data by the author.
main recognized zones are: kolla comprising the hot
lowlands below 1500 m above sea level with average
annual temperatures in excess of 20°C; the woyna dega
at 1500 to 2500 m with temperatures of 16 to 20°C; and
the dega or mountainous areas extending up to 3800 m
with temperatures below 16°C (Huffnagel, 1961). It is to
be noted that this traditional classification is temperature-
based and takes no account of rainfall which historically
has been rather low and in recent years has been subject
to recurring droughts (Gebrehiwot and Fekedu, 2012).
Such rain that falls is irregular in both time and space.
Consequent on thousands of years of cultivation soils are
degraded, infertile and highly susceptible to erosion.
Various anti-erosion methods have been implemented in
recent years leading to some success in slowing run-off
and soil loss (Munro et al., 2019). Cultivable land
remains, nonetheless, at a premium and the steepest
slopes continue to be sown to crops by use of terracing
that is maintained by hand labor (Figure 2). Over multiple
generations the land has become fragmented. Individual
holdings are small and usually comprise several small
non-contiguous parcels. Crop yields are low with average
household production providing food for only 4.5 months
of the year (CSA, 2018). Some 1.08 million ha (about
20% of the land area) is considered suitable for
agriculture of which about 1.00 million ha (almost 93% of
potential arable land) is regularly cultivated. About
300000 ha is suitable for irrigation (WFP, 2009) but not
exploited. The huge domestic animal population greatly
exceeds the carrying capacity based on the small amount
and poor quality of feed resources. Cattle mostly
comprise oxen used for plowing and for transport, but
these are productively employed for very few days in the
year (Wilson, 2003). Continuing degradation of the
vegetation is a major problem, much of the original plant
cover has disappeared, and remnants remain only in
Wilson 323
Figure 2. Cultivation on steep slopes at 3000 m near Maychew; 18 June 1974 and 44 years later on 3 November 2018.
Source: Both photos by the author.
church compounds (Wilson, 1977).
Much of the small crop output is lost to pathogens and
pests, or by contamination at planting, during growth, at
harvesting, and during storage. Weeds are a universal
problem. Rodents consume or destroy up to 20% of the
cereal crop in non-outbreak years (Afework and Leirs,
1997). It was already observed in the eighteenth century
that “the deficiency of the crop is not from the barrenness
of the soils but from the immense quantity of field rats
and mice that overrun the whole country and hide in the
fissures of the earth” (Bruce, 1790). Crops are regularly
attacked by passerine birds, notably the red-billed quelea
Quelia quelia. In addition to mammals and birds, insects
are major pests. The desert locust Schistocerca gregaria
and caterpillars of the moth genus Spodoptera, known as
army worms, are sporadic in habit but in swarming stages
devastate all kinds of vegetation but many insects are
crop-specific or limited to a crop group. Shoot flies, stalk
borers, midges, crickets and aphids are major pests of
cereals (Bijlmakers, 1989). Bollworms cause severe
losses in cotton. Fungi are a problem on all types of
crops and include rusts, smuts, blights, and mildews.
Crops are not only confronted by biological challenges,
but also by physical and anthropic ones which, singly and
in combination, contribute to catastrophic consequences.
Almost 250 years ago, Bruce (1790) wrote “to these
plagues may be added still one, the greatest of them all,
bad government, which speedily destroys all the
advantages they reap from nature, climate and situation”.
Government, vis-à-vis Tigray, continues to be bad in
August 2021, with numerous media reports that federal
troops are preventing farmers from plowing and sowing
and destroying crops in situ. The Ethiopian Tewadeho
Orthodox Church undoubtedly contributes to poverty and
food insecurity, insisting on fasting in order that the
faithful shall obtain forgiveness for sins. Fasting, on an
average of 180 days a year, is required by all the faithful
and includes every Wednesday and Friday. During
fasting, all animal products are forbidden and no food or
drink is allowed before noon. No heavy labor (including
plowing, harvesting and threshing) is allowed. Lost days
of work and near-starvation induced weakness clearly
have negative effects on food production.
The specter of drought is never far away. There was
severe drought in 1973, since then the country has been
depicted as a food deficit country whose people and
animals suffer from almost constant drought and famine.
Droughts of 12 months duration were recorded in 1983 to
1985, 1990 to 1991, 1997 to 1998, 2002 to 2005, and
2009 to 2013 (Amare et al., 2019). In January 2002, the
over 5 million food insecure people had become around
14 million by the end of the year. Drought has another
insidious effect, animals die or is sold to raise cash to buy
staple foods. The loss of livestock, and particularly draft
oxen, results in the enlistment for work of other livestock
species unused to and inefficient in the provision of
energy for cultivation (Figure 3).
Cereal and pulse production in 1984/1985 was only
33% of previous years and only 61% in 1985/1986. Poor
performance was related to drought, a policy of
controlling prices and of denying free movement of
agricultural products from surplus to deficit areas, the
unstable political climate, dislocation of the rural
community by resettlement, villagization, and conscription
to meet military obligations, land tenure problems, further
land fragmentation, failure to distribute farm equipment,
and fertilizers, and limited access to extension advice
(Matouš et al., 2013). In response to malnutrition and
famine people migrate from rural to urban areas: during
the 1983 to 1985 famine, Mekelle had seven "hunger
camps" with 75 000 refugees and a further 20 000 people
awaiting admittance. In February 2016 approximately
10.22 million people in Ethiopia were listed as “food
insecure” (FAO, 2016).
The cumulative results of the foregoing biological and
non-biological constraints are a pervading poverty and an
324 Afr. J. Agric. Res.
Figure 3. Abnormal use of animals for land preparation near highland Mekelle after drought-related livestock deaths (Ox in
left hand picture is from Ethiopian lowlands and not highlands and note in right hand picture horse and mule having to be
led).
Source: Both photos by the author taken in 1975.
almost constant state of malnutrition and starvation.
Tigrayan farmers attempt to mitigate these problems
through their indigenous knowledge and maximum use of
the plant genetic resources available to them.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This paper is based on empirical observations, detailed field
studies, interviews and discussions with farmers (many of them
women), market buyers and sellers (many of them women). During
this exercise, meetings with administrators, crop scientists,
extension workers, key informants and with colleagues on a
development study contributed to an understanding of the
production problems and possibilities of the Tigray agricultural
environment. An in-depth review of the literature was also
undertaken.
THE TIGRAY AGRICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
From a practical perspective Tigray can be best divided into two
major agroecological zones. One is a lowland plain at 1500 to 2000
m altitude in the east which is largely in a rain shadow. The other is
an upland plateau and hilly area to the west at 1500 to 3000 meters
in altitude. The total rainfall amount is misleading, because it
obscures the fact that there are two distinct rainy seasons (CSA,
2021) in Tigray, one or other of which, or both, regularly fail. In the
meher or main rainy period precipitation falls in June to August and
crops are harvested from September to February. Lower rainfall
occurs in the belg season of March to May with crops harvested
from March to August. Frosts occur at higher altitudes in December
through February. Precipitation may occur as hail at any time of
year.
In the lowlands, potential evapo-transpiration exceeds rainfall in
most years and renders the area marginal for rainfed cropping. In
spite of this, there is extensive dry land cropping. The main crops
are sorghum (mainly Sorghum bicolor although other “sorghums”
are grown), tef, and barley. Wheat, maize, linseed, and pulses are
minor crops in the lowlands. Sorghum, tef and maize are usually
sown in the short rains in April. Tef is harvested in late June
whereas sorghum and maize are slower maturing, completing
ripening on residual soil moisture and are generally harvested in
September or October. Short season barley and wheat is sown
during the main rains of July and a second crop of tef may be
grown. Chickpeas are sown in late August and mature on soil
moisture.
Rainfall is more reliable and more regular in the highlands and is
generally in the range of 500 to 1000 mm per annum. This and
lower temperatures allow a wider range of crops. Tef and wheat are
co-equal main crops. Barley is of considerable importance. Various
“millets” (Panicum, Eleusine, Digitaria, Setaria species) are grown
as is a range of pulses. Linseed is the main oil crop although neug
is preferred on black cotton soils. The cropping pattern is not,
however, uniform over the highlands and tends to vary with rainfall
which is somewhat higher and more regular in the southwest and
diminishes and becomes more irregular to the northeast. Thus,
some sorghum and maize is grown in the southeast but barley,
wheat, tef and finger millet dominate the north. Similarly, linseed is
more common in the south whereas neug is more common in the
north.
CROP DIVERSITY AND PRODUCTION
Overview
In 1920, Vavilov postulated that the region of greatest diversity of a
plant species is its center of origin (Vavilov, 1935, 1951). Ethiopia
is the center of origin of at least 38 plants. Tigrayan farmers
maximize this natural capital, cultivating at least ten species (one
not indigenous) of cereals, seven pulses, six oilseeds, and
numerous fruits and vegetables and spices (Table 1). Several crops
can be classified under two or more main groups where different
parts of the plant have different uses.
Farmers plant different crops to ensure there will be something to
harvest and help to stabilize production, to reduce the risk of total
crop failure, to mitigate insect and disease damage, and to use
labor more efficiently. If all household needs are fulfilled (and even
if they are not) there will be some sales at local markets.
Cereals
Estimates of the number of households growing cereals in
2019/2020 were 1.24 million, the area cultivated being 779519 ha
at 0.63 ha per household and a total production of 1 860528
tonnes, equivalent to 2.39 tonnes/ha (Table 2). Cereals (Figure 4)
are by far the major crop grown for food and occupy as much as
Wilson 325
Table 1. Partial catalogue of food groups and foods within groups made use of in Tigrayan agriculture.
English name
Latin binomial
Tigrinya name
Amharic name
Crop use and notes
Cereals
Tef (white)
Eragrostis tef
Tenda Teff
Ketch Teff
Preferred cereal for ‘njera’
Tef (red)
Eragrostis tef
Kayih Teff
Kay Teff
Preferred cereal for ‘njera’
Wheat (hard)
Triticum durum
Sengye
Sindie
Flour for ‘ambasha’ and pasta
Wheat (soft)
T. aestivum (T. vulgare)
Kollo
Flour for bread; roast grain (‘kollo’) as snack
Wheat (emmer)
T. dicoccum abyssinicum
Ares
Aja
Local porridge ‘g’at’; traditional bread ‘kita’; ‘kollo’; food for lactating mothers and babies
Barley
Hordeum sativum
Segem
Gebs
Malted for local beer ‘tella’; ‘g’at’
Finger millet
Eleusine coracana
Dagusha
Dagusa
‘tella’; flour mixed with wheat flour for ‘ambasha’
Sorghum (white)
Sorghum bicolor
Mashilla
Mashilla
‘tella’; mixed with tef for ‘njera’
Sorghum (red)
Lequa
Zengada
‘tella’; mixed with tef for ‘njera’
Maize (yellow)
Zea mays
Mashilla Bahri
Bokollo
flour mixed with wheat flour for baking ‘hanza’; cobs and seeds roasted and boiled
Pulses
Bean (field, horse)
Vicia faba var. abyssinica
Alkuay; Atabahri
Bakella
Split beans in ‘kiki wot’; paste for ‘shira (= fasting) wot’; roasted
Field pea
Pisum sativum
Ini Ater
Ater
Flour in ‘shira wot’
Chickpea
Cicer arietinum
Ater
Chimbra
Pounded to flour; whole grain in ‘wot’; roasted
Grass pea
Lathyrus sativus
Asebere; Sebere
Enguaya
Ground with pepper for ‘shira wot’
Lentil
Lens esculenta
Burshin
Mesir
Split grain in ‘wot’
Fenugreek
Trigonella foenum-graecum
Abaeke
Abish
Medicine, soft drink, ‘wot’; also used as a spice
Bean (haricot)
Phaseolus vulgaris
Adengura
Adenguare
Little local use; export market
Oilseeds
Sesame
Sesamum indicum
Selit
Selete
Oil for cooking; soft drink; flavouring ‘wot’; mainly marketed for export
Neug; niger seed
Guizotia abyssinica
Neug
Neug
Oil extraction; cake as livestock feed
Linseed
Linum usitatissimum
Ent’ate
Telba
Oil; pounded and mixed with water as drink; pounded and mixed in ‘wot’; flax
Castor
Ricinus communis
Guli
Gulo
Oil used to lubricate cooking plate for ‘njera’
Mustard
Brassica carinata
Hamli (Leaf); Hadri (Grain)
Gomen-Zur
Leaf vegetable; oil for cooking; preparation of ‘njera’
Safflower
Carthamus tinctorius
Shuf
Suf
Oil for cooking; whole grain roasted
Spices
Pepper (red)
Capsicum sp.
Berbere
Berbere
Whole dark red/black pod ground to powder with other spices; flavouring for ‘wot’
Pepper (black)
Piper nigrum
Selim Berbere
Tikur Berbere
Whole pod ground to powder; flavouring for ‘wot’; spice in tea
Clove
Syzygium aromaticum
Kinfer
Kinfer
Ground flower buds added to tea
Ginger
Zingiber officinale
Dendabile
Zingible
Pounded dried rhizomes for flavouring ‘wot’
Coriander
Coriandrum sativum
Tsagha
Dembilal
Seed pounded and mixed with peppers for ‘dura wot’
Cumin
Cuminum cyminum
Commun
Camon; Azimudi
Pounded seed for flavouring ‘wot’
Black cumin
Nigella sativa
Azmud
Tikur Azmud
Ground seed mixed with other peppers and added to ‘wot’
326 Afr. J. Agric. Res.
Table 1. Contd.
Ethiopian caraway
Trachyspermum ammi
Azmud
Netch Azmud
Ground seed mixed with other peppers and added to ‘wot’
Turmeric
Curcuma longa
irdi
ird
Powdered root added to ‘wot’ for yellow colouring
Rue
Ruta chalepensis
chena adam
tena adam
Pounded capsule mixed with vetch and added to ‘wot’; also medicinal plant for stomach ache
Neug
Guizotia abyssinica
awesda
tikur azmud
Ground seed mixed with peppers and added to ‘wot;
Ethiopian mustard
Brassica carinata
senafetch
senafetch
Ground seed with peppers and used as sauce for ‘njera’
Long pepper
Piper longum
tinzez
timiz
Ground fruit mixed with peppers and added to ‘wot’
African cardamom
Aframomum corrorima
korerima
korerima
Ground nut mixed with peppers and added to ‘wot’; flavouring for coffee; Ethiopian endemic
Basil
Ocimum ?gratissimum
seseg
basobila
Fruit husks ground with vetch and added to ‘shura wot’
Fruits and vegetables
Prickly pear
Opuntia ficus-indica
beles, gelhi
beles
Fresh fruit
Guava
Psidium sp.
zeitun
zeitun
Fresh fruit
Bekuro lemon
Citrus sp.
bekuro lomin
bekuro lemon
Fresh fruit
Banana
Musa sp.
muz
muz
Fresh fruit
Mandarin
Citrus nobilis
manderini
manderini
Fresh fruit
Peach
Prunus persica
kuk
kuk
Fresh fruit
Onion
Allium spp.
shinkurti
shinkurt
Boiled and added to ‘wot’
Garlic
Allium sp.
tsads shinkurti
nech shinkurt
Boiled and added to ‘wot’
Tomato
Lycopersicon esculentum
pomidoro
timatim
Fresh vegetable; added to ‘wot
“Irish” potato
Solanum tuberosum
dinish
denich
Cooked and sliced for ‘wot’
Spinach beet
Beta cicla
kosta
kosta
Boiled leaf, shredded and added to ‘wot’
Cabbage
Brassica sp.
tiklul-hamli
tiklegomen
Boiled leaf, shredded and added to ‘wot’
Mustard
Brassica sp.
hamli
Boiled leaf, shredded and added to ‘wot’
Miscellaneous
Cotton
Gossypium sp.
tut
tut
Local spinning and weaving as cottage industry
Coffee
Coffea arabica
bun
bunna
Beans roasted and pounded for drink
Buckthorn
Rhamnus prinoides
gesho
gesho
Pounded dried leaves and malted barley for ‘tella’; mixed with honey to ferment ‘tej’
(“Busy Lizzie”)
Impatiens tinctoria
sasila
insosila
Ground roots used as colouring cosmetic
Christthorn
Ziziphus spina-christi
gaba
Raw berry eaten as fruit
Soapberry
Phytolacca dodecandra
shebti
endod
Pounded fruit capsule used as washing soap
African redwood
Hagenia abyssinica
habi
kosso
Therapeutic for tapeworm infestation
Embelia
Embelia schimperi
enkoko
enkoko
Therapeutic for tapeworm infestation
(“Dock”)
Rumex abyssinicus
mekmoko
Red dye from roots used fas a cosmetic: decoction of roots for a drink
kuni
Ground woody rhizomes used to perfume hair
Phonetic spelling of Tigrinya and Amharic words is not definitive!.
Source: Original Table from Vogt (1975) greatly expanded by the present Author.
Wilson 327
Table 2. Basic data for Tigray Region on number of households, area planted and yields of principal cereal, pulse and oil seed crops in
meher season 2019/2020.
Crop
Households cultivating (no)
Area planted (ha)
Area per household (ha)
Yield per ha (tonnes)
Cereals
Tef
633 525
188 392
0.297
1.655
Wheata
386 778
102 258
0.264
2.190
Barley
419 786
85 431
0.203
1.881
Finger millet
369 685
90 199
0.243
2.392
Sorghum
558 917
232 636
0.416
3.013
Maize
835 782
80 151
0.095
3.075
Pulses
Field beans
214 391
11 868
0.055
1.661
Field peas
94 466
7 741
0.082
1.459
Chickpea
35 361
7 566
0.214
1.561
Grass pea
39 081
7 174
0.184
1.705
Lentil
59 064
6 930
0.117
1.115
Fenugreek
13 199
603
0.046
?
Haricot beanb
33 903
3 516
0.104
1.661
Oilseeds
Sesame
145 151
108 291
0.746
0.749
Neug
30 675
5 598
0.182
1.510
Linseed
48 592
4 138
0.085
1.033
a- Three species combined. b- White variety only; red variety 1968 farmers growing but no other data.
Source: Adapted from CSA (2021).
Figure 4. Cereal biodiversity in Tigray (A - Crop and ears of tef; B - Crop and ears of Emmer wheat; C - Crop
and ears of barley (this variety for local beer); D - Finger millet crop and ears; E - Panicles of two of the three
varieties of sorghum commonly grown).
Source: All photographs by the author.
328 Afr. J. Agric. Res.
90% of the cultivated area and are grown by more than 90% of farm
households in both the highlands and lowlands. Cereals account for
more than 60% of rural employment and provide more than 60% of
total caloric intake. They mainly provide staple foods but some
species are used in brewing alcoholic beverages and preparing
specialty ethnic foods (Nigussie et al., 2020). Approximately 45% of
production is consumed by the household, the remainder being
saved for replanting, sold, fed to livestock or used to pay hired
labor. Oats, Avena species, are not a crop in Tigray but are a
common weed, especially in wheat, at 2200 to 2800 m altitude
(Ladizinsky, 1975).
Tef
Tef, both white and red varieties, is the iconic and preferred
Tigrayan cereal for making the traditional unleavened bread njera
(njera is Amharic, the Tigrinya name being taita although the
Amharic designation is commonly used throughout Tigray). Tef has
an extremely small gluten free grain. It is used mainly by the
household thus it is expensive and sometimes elusive in markets.
The flour is often mixed with other cereal flours that may also be
used alone. The spongy bread, smooth below and bubbly above is
made from a slightly fermented batter baked on a large round
surface, is the basis of many meals. Tef is a preferred crop in other
ways as it can be sown later than other cereals and different
varieties are grown at different altitudes. The straw is fed to
livestock or used as binding in the mud plaster of house walls.
Mineral fertilizer and insecticides are occasionally applied. A Bush
Cricket and the Black Tef Beetle are major insect pests.
Wheat
The area cultivated to wheat in Tigray in 2019/2020 was the third
largest cereal crop after sorghum and tef. The three species grown
in Tigray are planted over approximately the same area as tef.
Durum wheat Triticum durum is the most widespread and its
genetic and morphologic diversities are widely exploited (Lijalem et
al., 2021) although the traditional shahan variety is often preferred.
The flour is mainly made into ambasha or dabo which is a round,
somewhat flattened, leavened bread, but, in part as a relic of the
Italian occupation of the 1930s, there is some small scale
commercial production of pasta.
Common wheat Triticum aestivum is the most widely grown
cereal in the world. It has never been quite so common as durum in
Ethiopia, but consequent on varietal improvement and extension
pressure it has become more popular throughout most of the
country. A variety released in 2011 by the Mekelle Agricultural
Research Centre, suitable to rainfall of 300 to 500 mm at altitudes
of 2000 to 2500 m and maturing in 90 to 95 days was a semi-dwarf
type with good resistance to water stress (Hintsa et al., 2011): in
2018, discussions with farmers showed that they were largely
unaware of this cultivar.
Emmer wheat Triticum turgidum, sometimes known as hulled
wheat, is an awned relict type in most areas but is still popular in
Tigray. Emmer, introduced to Ethiopia about 5000 years ago, has
cultural and sociological importance, and occupies 7 to 10% of the
total area of the wheat crop (D’Andrea and Mitiku, 2002). Because
the grain is hulled, threshing is a heavy and labor-intensive process
invariably undertaken by women, but this is considered worthwhile
due to the taste and texture of the grain’s processed products. This
traditional plant is lauded as being good for lactating mothers and
farmers believe that it helps to set broken bones (Bethlehem et al.,
2019).
Purple grains, caused by anthocyanins in the pericarp, occur in
tetraploid wheats from Ethiopia (whence they were first introduced
to Europe in the early twentieth century): anthocyanins have
potential health benefits as antioxidants (Zeven, 1991). Stem
borers, shoot flies and aphids are important insect pests (Abebaw,
2018). Rusts are a major fungal problem of wheat in Tigray (Tesfay
et al., 2016). Local wheat varieties vary in their susceptibility to rust
but as the fungus is so labile new varieties very quickly become
infected. A recent study found ergot Claviceps purpurea, which has
caused outbreaks of human ergotism over the years, to be present
in Ethiopia only on wild oats Avena abyssinica at altitudes of 2300
to 3000 m (Dawit, 2017). Ergot is known to infect other cereals
including wheat and barley: the author of this paper identified
typical sclerotia of ergot on a wheat crop near Mekelle in 1974. As
a major staple crop, wheat benefits more than most other crops
from mineral fertilization and insecticide application, and
occasionally from the use of fungicides.
Barley
Barley was fifth in the area of cereals cultivated in Tigray in
2019/2020. Ethiopian barley is mainly a 2-row type, which is
preferred for its low protein and better malting qualities and may
account for it not receiving much fertilizer. Cultivation over millennia
has resulted in development of many ecotypes including burguda
and saessea (D’Andrea and Mitiku, 2002). At least 15 landraces
are recognized by farmers on the basis of quantitative and
qualitative traits (Hailemichael and Sopade, 2011). The higher
elevations and impoverished soils of Tigray are ideal for barley
production. Barley is highly nutritious and is the basic ingredient in
many solid and liquid foods. It is important in the socioeconomic
and cultural life of Ethiopians (Jemal et al., 2016). Roasted whole
grain, raw and roasted milled grain, and cracked grain are used in
main, side, ceremonial, and restorative dishes. An important use is
providing the substrate for brewing tella (siwa in Tigrinya but the
Amharic appellation is in common use). Tella is the commonest of
several traditional alcoholic drinks, it is mildly acidic in taste and
contains 2 to 6%, and occasionally up to 7% alcohol (Mooha et al.,
2015).
Barley shoot flies and aphids are the main insect pests. Fungal
infections include scald, net blotch, rusts, smuts, mildews, wilts, and
blights. Barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDB), transmitted by aphids is
widespread in all cereal crops and can reduce yields by as much as
50% (Jansen, 1981). Fertilizers and crop protection products are
rarely applied to barley in Tigray.
Finger millet
Finger millet occupied fourth position in area among cereals
cultivated in Tigray in 2019/2020. Its adaptability in a wide range of
environments with minimal input, a short growing season, tolerance
of acid soils, tolerance of drought, and overall production on
marginal land where other crops fail, meaning it is a critical all-
round crop for food security and human welfare. The high calcium
content makes it important as a food for children, and for pregnant
and lactating women (Hailu et al., 2021). Local farmers carry out
pre- and post-harvest selection and have knowledge of at least 37
landraces or varieties (Yemane et al., 2006).
Sorghum
Sorghum is the most widespread cereal in Tigray, grown mostly in
the lowlands and the southwest highlands. Sorghum is the principal
food crop in the lowland area of eastern Tigray and in the
neighboring Afar Region, not only of farmers but also of families
that are mainly livestock owners rather than cultivators. Ethiopia is a
center of origin for sorghum (Firew, 2008). At least 60 landraces are
recognized, in part based on farmers’ knowledge of performance
Wilson 329
Figure 5. Pulse biodiversity in Tigray (A - Harvested and standing crop of field beans; B - Harvested lentils; C - Growing
grass pea; D - Growing chickpea).
Source: All photographs by the author.
during storage (Awegechew et al., 1997, 1999). Farmers also grow
several varieties at the same time to reduce risk, and hasten
maturity in time for, short season varieties (60 to 75 days) being
preferred if there is a perception of a poor rainy season and long
season ones (90 to 120 days) if conditions are considered to be
better (Nega and Sanders, 2006). It is used to make bread as well
as its main culinary use as a stiff porridge. Haulms are fed to
livestock and provide structural and roofing materials for houses
and fences.
A major production constraint is the obligate root parasitic witch
weed, Striga hermonthica, which can reduce yields by up to 70% or
even destroy the plant altogether. Sorghum, however, is prey to a
broad range of insect and fungal pests. Insects include stalk borer,
shootfly, midge, and rice weevil during storage. Among fungi are
anthracnose, grain mold, gray leaf spot, rust, smut, ergot (Claviceps
sorghi, also known as Sphacelia sorghi), downy mildew, and leaf
blight.
Maize
Maize occupied the smallest area of Tigray’s cereal crops in
2019/2020. Maize arrived in Ethiopia in the late seventeenth
century and was mainly grown as a subsistence crop in the mid-
altitudes (1500-2000 m) in the south of the country (Huffnagel,
1961). The production system up to the 1970s was truly
subsistence, yields barely exceeding 1 tonne/ha. Maize in Tigray is
produced mainly in the northwest lowlands and in the center of the
region where climate and soils are more suited to it. Maize was a
little-known crop in Tigray before the drought and famine of 1984 to
1985 but became popularized through free distribution of seeds and
as a by product of famine relief operations. Early nondescript
varieties have recently been largely replaced by higher producing
ones.
Much of the crop is sold green on the cob in local markets or as
slightly more mature cobs which are eaten roasted. Mature seed is
also sold or roasted at home and converted into porridge. The
haulm, as for sorghum, is used as animal feed and as a building
material.
Maize output is reduced by a plethora of pests and diseases.
Stalk borers, termites, weevils and the large grain borer are
common insect pests. Leaf blight, gray leaf spot, and common leaf
rust are fungal pathogens. Enormous damage is caused by Maize
Streak Virus (MSV) and Maize Lethal Necrosis Disease (MLND).
Pulses
Pulse crops (Figure 5), grown more extensively in Tigray than in
most other parts of the country are cultivated from sea level to 3000
330 Afr. J. Agric. Res.
m. The total pulse area in 2019/2020 at 46577 ha was, nonetheless,
only 5.9% of the area of cereals. Pulses were grown by 405006
household, on an average area of 0.12 ha, producing a total yield of
70216 tonnes equivalent to 1.51 tonnes/ha (CSA, 2021). Pulses are
eaten boiled or roasted or as an ingredient in a stewed dish known
as wot, that is often a main plate or taken as a secondary food.
Pulses are the most important element in the national diet after
cereals and are the main protein source for most people. They are
especially important on fasting days when meat is forbidden and
misir wot (lentil), kik wot (pea), or shiro wot (bean and chickpeas)
are substituted for meat stews.
Horse, field or faba beans occupied just over 25% of the area
sown to pulses in 2019/2020. Beans are critical to household
nutrition as they are high in protein and contribute to a diversified
diet. In the field, the crop improves soil fertility through nitrogen
fixation and helps to reduce pest and weed infestation. Landrace
varieties are, however, extremely susceptible to broomrape, a root
parasite that regularly reduces crop yields by up to 80%.
Broomrape (Orobanche crenata) is widespread in Ethiopia, is
continuing to spread very rapidly, and afflicts all pulse species.
Conventional control methods are ineffective so the approach is to
breed resistant or tolerant varieties and attempt to persuade
farmers to exchange these for their own native types (Birhanu and
Tsehaye, 2020). Other economically important diseases of beans
(and of other pulses) are chocolate spot, bean rust, aschochyta
blight, black root rot and various viruses and nematodes (Addis
Tegegn et al., 2019).
Field peas were the second most popular pulse grown in
2019/2020, occupying 16.6% of the pulse area. Uses for food and
in the farming system are similar to those of field beans. There is
great genetic diversity in field peas in Ethiopia which local farmers
have made good use of (Gemechu et al., 2005).
A little known subspecies of Pisum sativum restricted to the
highlands of South Tigray and North Wello (and to Southern
Yemen) is P. s. abyssinicum, known in Tigrinya as dekoko (=
minute seeded). It differs from the standard pea in having leaves
with serrated edges (Haddis and Dargie, 2013). This subspecies
exhibits high genetic diversity related mainly to altitude, it is
considered a highly nutritious ingredient of wot and soups, and sells
for twice as much as common pea in local markets (Berhane and
Berhanu, 2016).
Third place in area was chickpea, planted on 16.2% of the pulse
area. Ethiopia is a secondary center of genetic diversity for
chickpea and its wild relative Cicer cuneatum. As for other pulses it
is an important fasting food. Mainly consumed by rural households
in the past, an urban market has been developed as people
become more aware of the health benefits of a varied diet. A major
advantage of chickpea is its drought resistance. It is almost always
grown on residual soil moisture after other crops have been
harvested (Yadeta and Geletu, 2002). It is therefore “free” and does
not occupy land on which less drought resistant crops must rely.
Farmers widely exploit the characteristics of the hundreds of
landraces of this crop. Local types are generally low yielding
(although once again they are not in competition with other crops
for land and other resources). Research interest concentrates on
higher yields and better seed quality with a view to building an
export market (which may possibly serve to supplement farmer
income).
The grass pea was the fourth most important pulse in terms of
area occupying 15.4% in 2019/2020. Northern Ethiopia is probably
a primary center of origin for this species. It is resistant to drought,
to salinity, and to waterlogging and is tolerant of low soil fertility. A
major negative is its content of Oxalyldiaminopropionic acid (ODAP)
which, when ingested, can cause neurolathyrism in humans, a
motor neuron degenerative disease that results in lower-body
paralysis (Dejene and Korbu, 2012). As with other food crops there
is considerable variation in the species related mainly to geography
and altitude (Wuletaw and Endashaw, 2003).
Research efforts to reduce the ODAP content have not been very
successful; this does not prevent its use as a food in a manner
analogous to other pulses.
Lentils occupied 14.9% of the pulse area in 2019/2020. Lentils
are grown as a protein rich (23-24%) nutritious food crop, as a
marketable product locally which commands a high price and as an
export crop. The seed, mostly splits before further processing, is
higher in protein, carbohydrate and calories than other legumes. It
is used as main and side dishes, and in salads. Ground seeds are
used in soups and wot and mixed with cereals in bread and cakes.
Lentils are an excellent infant food (Matny, 2015). Grown in rotation
with cereals its nitrogen-fixing properties add to soil fertility and help
to break cereal disease cycles (Edossa et al., 2007).
Fenugreek is a very minor crop in Tigray, grown in very small
plots on only 603 ha, almost all in the south of the state, in
2019/2020, despite the fact that several local cultivars are
recognized by Tigrayan farmers. Its use as a food is similar to that
of other pulses but the leaves are also used as a green vegetable.
Fenugreek is moderately resistant to Cercospera leaf spot (Kassa
et al., 2020). Fenugreek seeds are a good source of essential
metals, but also contain large amounts of toxic cadmium and lead
(Mebrahtu and Chandravanshi, 2016).
Haricot beans are not a traditional crop in Tigray. Many people
will not eat them in the belief that they cause stomach upsets, and
particularly flatulence. In spite of this, there has been some uptake
of haricot cultivation due to government pressure to increase
exports of pulses (Tadesse, 2019).
Oil seeds
In 2019/2020, oilseeds (Figure 6) were sown in Tigray on 119570
ha, equivalent to 15.3% of the cereal area, grown by 216195
families with an average oilseed area of 0.55 ha. The total output
of 96121 tonnes resulted from an area yield of 0.80 tonnes/ha.
Sesame, grown on 108291 ha in 2019/2020, was by far the major
oilseed crop in Tigray but yielded only 0.75 tonnes/ha of seed
(CSA, 2021). This crop is largely confined to the lowland west and
northwest of the state centered on the town of Humera close to the
borders with Sudan and Eritrea, at an altitude of 600 to 900 m.
Sesame is produced by both smallholder farmers and small scale
commercial farmers. Producers sell small quantities locally on the
nearest market or through various kinds of associations. Some
sesame is milled locally but most seed is exported, sesame is
second only to coffee in Ethiopian export revenue. Ethiopian
sesame is of renowned quality and commands a premium price in
Israel and the United Arab Emirates where it is converted to tahini
(Terefe, 2016). Sales of sesame provide much needed cash for
poor farmers with which they can buy food and other necessities
but it is certain that they do not receive the share of the final price to
which they are entitled. More than 80 weed species have been
identified as pests of sesame in western Tigray with Commelina
foecunda being the most troublesome. Blight, powdery mildew,
fusarium wilt, and leaf spot are major bacterial and fungal pests and
may be transmitted by a leafhopper (Yirga et al., 2018).
Niger seed, Guizotia abyssinica, more commonly referred to in
Ethiopia by its demotic name of neug, is native to Ethiopia. The
crop occupies about 40% of all oilseeds nationwide but is grown on
less than 5% of the oil seed area in Tigray where its average yield
in 2019/2021 was about 1.5 tonnes/ha (CSA, 2021). The seed
contains about 40% oil and 20% protein. Niger oil is highly prized
on account of its light color and nutty taste. After pressing the
residual cake, with up to 30% protein, is a valuable livestock feed
that is reserved mainly for work oxen. Yield losses due to various
diseases and insect pests can be considerable. Leaf spots, stem
and root rots, and mildews are the major pathogens. Insect pests
include Lepidopteran larvae, stem borers and aphids. The niger
capsule fly Dioxyna sororcula is an important pest of neug
Wilson 331
Figure 6. Oil seed biodiversity in Tigray (A - Neug (Niger Seed), Guizotia abyssinica ripening on
black cotton soil; B - Seeds of Castor Ricinis communis on sale at a local market; C and D - Linseed
Linum usitatissimum on shallow soil and seed head of almost ripe plant near Maychew, southern
Tigray).
Source: All photographs by the author.
throughout its range (Schmutterer, 1971).
At the national level, linseed is grown on about 10% of the total
oil seed area but in Tigray it is less than 4% of that of oil seeds as a
whole. Linseed crops yielded just about 1.0 tonne/ha in 2019/2020.
Ethiopia is a secondary center of diversity for this crop where at
least 203 landraces have been identified (Worku and Heslop-
Harrison, 2018). It is possible that Ethiopia’s wide agroclimatic
range has contributed to diversification in this oil crop (Birhanu et
al., 2020). In southern Tigray significant differences were observed
among 12 genotypes in plant height, seed size, and days to
maturity. The seed is used for oil whereas the stem converts to flax
fiber. The oil content, which has drying properties, is in the range of
35 to 44%. Extracted oil is mostly for home use but some is
marketed. The seed is roasted, ground and mixed with spices for
eating with local bread, is used in soups, is an ingredient of wot and
soft drinks, and is a constituent in porridges.
Castor, common mustard and safflower are very minor oilseed
crops in Tigray. There is virtually no production of soybeans nor of
peanuts. Oil extracted from minor crops is used locally for cooking.
Spices
Most of the world’s known spices, many imported, are used in
Ethiopian culinary practice. Those cultivated in the country are
grown in small plots or intercropped with other food plants. In
addition to cultivation, some are collected in the wild (Jansen,
1981). Use of these plants, many used in the traditional
pharmacopeia (Meaza et al., 2015), and others that could produce
essential oils, is not confined to Tigray but is similar throughout
Ethiopia (Zuberi et al., 2014). The use and value of spices in
Ethiopian cuisine cannot be overestimated as they are a part of
most dishes and especially important in wot. Spices are also
important items in local trade, providing diversified income,
especially for women (Figure 7).
The most widely grown and used spice in Ethiopia is the
ubiquitous berbere, one or more species of Capsicum, usually
known as chili in English, each of which may comprise several
varieties. Mixed with other spices, it is the basic hot ingredient of
most wot dishes and can be found in every local market (Figure 7).
The crop is widely gown in small plots close to the house where it
can be protected against theft and fertilized with the manure of the
work oxen and other domestic stock. It has been said of chili that “it
requires such intensive care, that it dominates the farmer’s life,
especially at the seedling production stage” (Tewolde and Gebre,
1984). A very pungent variant is known as mitmita. Several
concoctions are used to cure real or assumed illnesses. Various
fungi can cause considerable reduction in yield, including leaf spots
Cercospera species, powdery mildew and root rot.
Small scale cultivation of coriander, Coriandrum sativum,
provides a typical example of traditional production. Its planting is
widespread and it is almost universal in local markets. Several
varieties are distinguished based on life cycle (long or short growing
season), disease resistance, yield, color and oil content. Leaves
332 Afr. J. Agric. Res.
Figure 7. Miscellaneous crops (A - Local market, southern Tigray; B -Berbere seed cases on sale; C - various spices
displayed for sale; D - Bark chips of Juniperus procera for cooking and aromatic plants for perfuming of houses; E - Root
tubers of Impatiens tinctoria for processing into a dye).
Source: All photographs by the Author at a local market near Debub, southern Tigray, November 3, 2018.
are used as an aromatic herb in bread, tea and wot, whereas the
fruits have a wide range of uses including as an indispensable
ingredient of berbere. As for coriander, cumin (Cuminum cyminum)
and black cumin (Nigella sativa) are widely cultivated and are
omnipresent in markets. Ethiopian mustard used for oil has high
levels of undesirable glucosinolates and erucic acid (Getinet et al.,
1997). The use and presence of other spices are listed in Table 1.
Heavy losses of fruit for most spices can be caused by dipterous
flies and most plants are susceptible to Fusarium wilts, mildews and
root rots.
Fruits and vegetables
Official data for 2019/2020 indicate that just over 56 000
households (4.5% of all households) grew fruit crops on 937 ha
(0.1% of all cultivated land) in Tigray. In the same year 327700
households (26%), including those growing chili peppers, grew
vegetables and root crops on 6060 ha (0.64% of cultivated land)
(CSA, 2021). Fruits and vegetables are important sources of
vitamins (especially Vitamin C), minerals and fiber and thus
contribute health benefits. They also complement other food
production in that fruits are perennial crops requiring little input and
vegetables are short season crops that do not compete for labor
and other inputs with the main cereal, pulse and oilseed crops.
These products are grown for home consumption and for local
sales. Women and children are the main beneficiaries of the output
(physical and monetary) of these minor crops. Food value and
income are both negatively affected by poor cultural practices and
incorrect handling both in storage and in transport to markets
(Hagos et al., 2018).
The fruits of prickly pear Opuntia ficus-indica, a species
introduced to Eritrea by the Italian administration but now an
invasive alien, are eaten by children at all times and generally by
adults during famines. They are also a source of income and are
sold in many Tigrayan markets. Among the cultivated fruits, guava
and lemons are most common both for home consumption and for
sales. Other fruits (Table 1) are less commonly grown.
Onions and garlic, universal basic ingredients in wot, are the
most cultivated and most productive of all vegetables. Tomatoes,
widely used in wot and other dishes, and Irish potatoes, spinach
beet and cabbage are other main vegetables.
Miscellaneous
In addition to food crops, Tigrayan farmers grow cotton and coffee
as minor crops. Indigenous knowledge handed down generation
after generation for hundreds of years is drawn on in times of need
to use the non-cultivated natural resources of the region as famine
food, as medicine and as a marketable product. Leaves, twigs,
flowers, fruits and roots of many species are used in various ways
for these purposes.
Cotton production is confined to the northwestern lowlands which
are also the site of Sesame production. Yields are low due to poor
agronomic practices and poor quality seed (Zenawi et al., 2020).
Raw cotton is the basis of cottage weaving which adds a diversified
source of income to poor households: modern commercial cotton
weaving enterprises in Mekelle provide employment opportunities
for urbanites. Coffee is another very minor crop, grown in the
southern and eastern lowlands of the Region. A local landrace is
the principal genetic resource. In spite of low yields and poor
practice, such as mixing unripe and ripe berries for drying and
improper storage, “it is possible to produce high quality Tigray
coffee for global market and enable the region to diversify foreign
earnings largely to improve the livelihood of rural people in the
region” (Abrar and Negussie, 2013).
Buckthorn, Rhamnus prinoides, is predominately a wild shrub
that grows at altitudes of 1500 to 2500 m, but because of its many
qualities and uses, trees may be planted close to the homestead. It
flowers and fruits all year round. The leaves and woody parts are
used in brewing of tella and tej, and in the distillation of araki from
either of these. Buckthorn, like hops in western brewing, imparts a
slightly bitter flavor to the drink (Nigussie et al., 2020).
Impatiens tinctoria is commonly harvested from the wild although
it is also grown as a cash crop in parts of Tigray (Cronin et al.,
2013). It is a popular dye plant that is also used medicinally.
Women mash the tuberous roots (Figure 7) into a paste that is left
to steep for 12 h. The mash is then heated and the paste applied to
the palms and nails of the hands (for young girls) or to the hands
Wilson 333
and feet (adult women) to dye them in intricate patterns in a dark
reddish color. This beauty treatment also helps to control fungal
infections and toughen the skin. The product is used to dye cloth
and is an ingredient of a red ink (Sileshi et al., 2020).
Christ thorn (or Christ thorn jujube) Ziziphus spina-christi is a
widespread species across northern Africa. It is truly a multipurpose
wild tree and is sometimes considered an invasive alien. Best
known for its edible fruits, which are high in Vitamin C and are
eaten raw, it is also a useful firewood tree, makes excellent
charcoal and has medicinal uses mainly as a cure for dandruff
(Fitsumbirhan, 2018).
Sometimes known as the soapberry, the most common use of
Phytolacca dodecandra is as a soap and a shampoo. The dried and
powdered berries are also used to stun fish, to kill snails, and are
possibly effective in controlling schistosomiasis (Kebede and Abd
El-Aty, 2021). An extract is also effective in controlling chocolate
spot on pulses (Addisu et al., 2019). It is widespread in the wild
and is preserved in churchyards (Wilson, 1977).
Tapeworm infestation in humans was very common in the past
and persists to some extent to the present and results from eating
raw beef. Many plants are believed to be curative for this problem.
The dried flowers of Hagenia abyssinica are, however, the most
widely used of all tapeworm expellants (Edilu et al., 2020). The
monthly cure is a strong purgative and often causes a strong
debilitating reaction. The second most common wild plant treatment
for tapeworms is Embelia schimperi, whose dried fruits are the main
active ingredient (Yared et al., 2015). The use of Embelia as a
tapeworm cure is not confined to Ethiopia as it is also found in
Tanzania and Kenya (Bøgh et al., 1996).
Various parts of Rumex abyssinicus are used for a variety of
reasons. As for the two previous plants it is considered to be a
vermicide and is also a cure for headaches (Fitsumbirhan, 2018). It
has been recorded as reducing hypertension (Yirga, 2010), a dried
preparation of the root has antibacterial properties (Zelalem and
Dula, 2019), and preparations of the root are used in a drink and to
prepare a cosmetic dye as for Impatiens tinctoria
DISCUSSION
Tigray is home to more than 5.7 million people, about
75% of whom are rural small scale farmers. Much of the
area has low and erratic rainfall and soil nutrients have
been depleted over many hundreds of years of
agricultural exploitation. The varied agroclimatic
conditions nonetheless support a rich diversity of wild and
cultivated plants (Harlan, 1969). Biodiversity contributes
to food, medicine, textile, fiber, fuelwood, and other
resources essential to human survival.
Ethiopia (including especially Tigray) is an important
center of origin of biodiversity. Farmers are well aware of
and make use of these resources by selecting and using
the several species and possibly hundreds of landraces
in what is, essentially, their struggle for survival. Diversity
allows farmers to garner over an extended period within
the year, a range of varied and valuable food and non-
food products. Loss of diversity reduces food choices
and affects food and nutrition security in addition to
resilience to change (Elisabetta et al., 2013). Biodiversity
has, however, been declining in recent years. This
decline is attributed to both natural and anthropogenic
pressures. These pressures can be categorized as: (i)
environmental (climate change, land use and cover
334 Afr. J. Agric. Res.
changes, invasive and alien species; (ii) social
(demographic change, urbanization, rural development;
(iii) economic (replacement of traditional crops and
varieties with higher yielding ones, commercialization,
global markets, consumer food preferences, government
policy, labor shortages); (iv) cultural (modernization,
taboos, loss of traditional knowledge, customary
practices; and (v) governance and institutions (poverty,
civil strife, military operations).
Tigrayan farmers have proved to be very adaptable and
resilient to continually changing contexts. The mining of
the limited areas of land suitable for agriculture coupled
to a population constantly on the increase do, however,
make it more and more difficult to provide enough food
for their families and produce a surplus for sale.
Urbanization will exacerbate food insecurity and increase
poverty as fewer farmers produce less food. Urban
immigrants rarely find remunerative employment and “idle
hands are the devil’s workshop”, contributing to civil
unrest and antagonism between town and country.
Modern research tends to diminish biodiversity as it
often ignores indigenous knowledge and strives for
higher yields, which may mean more expensive inputs, in
a few selected crops. More effort is needed in the areas
of research, development, and policy. Political
commitment, policy development and enforcement, and a
participatory approach are critical for long-term
production increases whilst ensuring that the region’s
unique natural resources are not diminished. Tigray’s
farmers are making the best use they can of these
resources but would be helped to improve their welfare
and livelihoods
Varietal diversity in crops increases crop production
and food security (Elisabetta et al., 2013). Government
policy and the extension services should encourage
diversity in addition to promoting increased production.
Constraints to higher output include irrelevant research,
limited availability of improved varieties, lack of a formal
seed delivery system, and reluctance of farmers to adopt
improved genetics and new technology. Tigray’s farmers
struggle to survive but in feeding themselves and
contributing to the national food bank they deserve more
support than they are given.
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The author has not declared any conflict of interests.
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