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Vol 1, No 1, December 2021, PP 15-27
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Examining the Relationship between Criminal Behaviors, Personality Traits, and Law
Enforcement Responses for Individuals with Mental Illness
Atif Rasool 1,4 ,Saira Majid1,2 ,Amjad Rasool 3,4 , Ayesha Zafar2
1 Riphah International University Lahore
2 Kinnard College for women, Lahore
3 Department of Sociology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan
4 Mind Soul Rehab, Lahore
Corresponding Email:atifrasool48@gmail.com
A RT IC LE I NF O
A BS TR AC T
Article History
Received: April
Revised: June
Accepted: November
Available Online: December
.
Keywords:
Criminal behaviors,
mental health issues,
personality traits, law
enforcement responses,
SPSS.
This study examined the relationship among criminal behaviors,
personality traits, and law enforcement responses for individuals with
mental illness. The study recruited a sample of 90 individuals with
mental illness who have engaged in criminal behavior using purposive
sampling techniques. Data was collected from government hospitals in
Lahore, Pakistan, which are known for providing services to a large
number of individuals with mental health issues. The Big 5 personality
traits were measured using a self-reported questionnaire, while criminal
behavior was assessed using official records and self-reports. Mental
health issues were evaluated using clinical assessments and DSM-V TR
diagnostic criteria. SPSS used to analyze the data. The findings suggest
that criminal behaviors have a significant relationship with mental
health issues and personality traits, specifically openness and
neuroticism. However, there were non-significant results on law
enforcement responses for individuals with mental illness who engage
in criminal behavior. This study provides valuable insights into the
complex interplay between mental illness, personality traits, and
criminal behavior, highlighting the need for targeted interventions and
support for individuals with mental illness who are at risk of engaging
in criminal behavior.
Introduction
Criminal behaviors are complex and multifaceted phenomena, influenced by various
social, economic, psychological, and environmental factors. One of these factors is mental illness,
which has been found to be prevalent among individuals involved in the criminal justice system.
Mental illness can affect an individual's cognitive and emotional functioning, leading to impaired
decision-making, impulse control, and social interactions. As a result, individuals with mental
illness may exhibit behaviors that are perceived as criminal, such as substance abuse, self-harm,
suicide, and violent behavior. Law enforcement agencies play a critical role in responding to
criminal behaviors exhibited by individuals with mental illness. However, responding to these
behaviors can be challenging due to the complex nature of mental illness and the potential for
negative outcomes, such as use of force and incarceration. Therefore, it is important for law
enforcement officers to receive appropriate training and support to effectively respond to
individuals with mental illness.
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There has previously been an expanding amount of literature on criminal behaviors and
law enforcement responses for individuals with mental illness. This literature aims to explore the
complex relationship between mental illness and criminal behaviors, as well as provide evidence-
based recommendations for law enforcement responses (Coid et al., 2013). This intersection of
mental illness and criminal behavior presents a unique set of challenges for law enforcement
agencies, who must strike a balance between the People must be held accountable for their actions
and their mental health needs must be met. Mental illness has long been a significant public health
issue that affects people of all ages and socioeconomic backgrounds. Those who are involved in
the criminal justice system are more likely to experience mental illness; estimates imply that up to
1 in 4 people who are detained or imprisoned suffer from a major mental disorder (Torrey et al.,
2010). In order to hold people accountable for their acts while also addressing the underlying
mental health issues that may have led to their criminal behaviours, law enforcement agencies face
a difficult dilemma at the junction of mental illness and criminal activity. The major important
factor to consider in this context is the role of personality traits in shaping criminal behaviors
among individuals with mental illness.
Personality traits are thought to play a significant role in the development of criminal
behavior, with certain traits, such as impulsivity and low empathy, being particularly relevant to
criminal behavior (Krueger et al., 2002). Another critical issue to consider is the response of law
enforcement agencies to individuals with mental illness who engage in criminal behavior. Law
enforcement officials are often the first point of contact for individuals with mental illness who
come into contact with the criminal justice system. However, research suggests that many law
enforcement agencies are ill-equipped to handle individuals with mental illness, leading to
inappropriate responses and negative outcomes (Watson et al., 2015). Developing effective
responses to individuals with mental illness who engage in criminal behavior requires a
comprehensive understanding of the complex interplay between mental illness, personality traits,
and criminal behavior. It is also important to consider the specific types of criminal behaviors that
are commonly exhibited by individuals with mental illness. The personalities with mental illness
are more likely to engage in certain types of criminal behavior, such as violent offenses and drug-
related offenses (Swanson et al., 2006). Developing effective responses to individuals with mental
illness who engage in criminal behavior requires a comprehensive understanding of the complex
interplay between mental illness, personality traits, and criminal behavior.
The Mental Health Ordinance was introduced by the government of Pakistan in 2001 to
give mental health care a legal foundation in the country (Government of Pakistan, 2001).
Mubbashar (2006) discusses the provisions of the Mental Health Ordinance and argues that it
represents a new beginning for mental health care in Pakistan, providing a legal framework for the
promotion of mental health and the protection of the rights of individuals with mental illness.
Saeed, Mirza, and Kennedy (2010) critically appraise the Mental Health Ordinance, highlighting
its strengths and weaknesses. The authors argue that while the ordinance represents a significant
step forward for mental health care in Pakistan, there is still much work to be done to fully
implement its provisions and make sure those suffering from mental illness are getting the
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assistance and care they require. The provision of primary care mental health services and the
protection of the rights of people with mental illnesses are both covered under Pakistani mental
health legislation, according to the World Health Organization's Mental Health Atlas 2014. The
research does, however, also point out that access to necessary medications, infrastructure, and
funding for mental health care are all major issues in the nation (World Health Organization, 2014).
Literature Review
Ali and Ali (2015) found that road traffic accidents are a leading cause of post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD) among victims in Pakistan. The study found that 47% of victims of road
traffic accidents met the criteria for PTSD. Farooq and Haddad (2016) noted that mental health
services in Pakistan face several challenges, including limited resources, inadequate funding, and
a shortage of trained professionals. The authors argue that addressing these challenges presents an
opportunity to improve mental health care in the country. Haq, Iqbal, and Rahman (2014)
examined the relationship between law enforcement and mental health in Pakistan. The study
found that law enforcement officials often lack the necessary training and resources to effectively
respond to individuals with mental health issues. As a result, individuals with mental health issues
may be subjected to inappropriate or excessive force. Khalily, Aslam, and Aslam (2019) conducted
a critical review of the literature on law enforcement and mental illness in Pakistan. The authors
note that individuals with mental illness are often stigmatized and may not receive appropriate care
from law enforcement officials. They argue that addressing this issue requires a multifaceted
approach that includes improving training for law enforcement officials, increasing access to
mental health care, and addressing social and cultural factors that contribute to stigma.
Many studies have pinpointed particular personality characteristics that are connected to
criminal actions. In terms of personality models, the Five Factor Model (FFM) is one of the most
well-known. According to the FFM, personality is made up of five major dimensions: neuroticism,
extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and extraversion (Costa & McCrae,
1992). According to research, those who have high levels of neuroticism and low levels of
conscientiousness are more prone to commit crimes (Jones & Paulhus, 2011; Miller & Lynam,
2012). Whereas high neuroticism is linked to emotional instability, anxiety, and depression, low
conscientiousness is linked to a lack of self-discipline, impulse control, and responsibility.
Psychopathy is a different personality characteristic linked to criminal activity. Lack of
empathy, regret, and guilt are hallmarks of the personality disorder known as psychopathy, which
is also characterized by impulsive and antisocial behaviours (Hare, 1999). Psychopaths are more
inclined to act violently and aggressively than other people.as well as other criminal activities
(Blair, Mitchell, & Blair, 2005). Research has found that psychopathy is associated with lower
levels of activation in brain regions that are responsible for emotional processing and empathy
(Blair et al., 2005). Personality traits associated with criminal behavior include impulsivity,
sensation seeking, and hostility. Impulsivity refers to a tendency to act without thinking and to
engage in risky behavior (Moeller, Barratt, Dougherty, Schmitz, & Swann, 2001). Sensation
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seeking refers to a need for novelty and excitement and a willingness to take risks to achieve these
experiences (Zuckerman, 1979).
A disposition to be combative, impatient, and easily enraged is referred to as hostility
(Smith, Fischer, & Fister, 2003). Certain psychological qualities are linked to a higher chance of
engaging in criminal behaviours, according to research (Moeller et al., 2001; Smith et al., 2003;
Zuckerman, 1979). According to studies, personality factors are very important in predicting
criminal behaviours. Those who have specific personality qualities are more prone to commit
crimes than people who don't have these features (Coid et al., 2013). Those who exhibit high levels
of impulsivity, low levels of empathy, and high levels of violence, for example, are more prone to
commit crimes. (Krueger et al., 2002). Impulsivity is characterized by a tendency to act without
thinking about the consequences of one's actions, which can lead to impulsive acts of aggression
or violence. Similarly, low levels of empathy and high levels of aggression have been linked to an
increased risk of criminal behavior. In addition to these traits, other personality factors, such as
sensation seeking, have also been linked to criminal behaviors. Those with high degrees of
sensation seeking are more prone to participate in risky and criminal behaviours since it is
characterised by a need for fresh and intense experiences (Krueger et al., 2002). The conclusion
that follows is that personality qualities are very important in predicting criminal activities.
Moreover, studies have demonstrated a connection between several personality problems and
criminal activity.
In their comprehensive study of personality disorders and criminal activity in the elderly,
Meyer et al. (2016) discovered that several illnesses, like borderline and antisocial personality
disorders, have a substantial correlation with criminal activity. Whereas borderline personality
disorder is characterized by fluctuating moods, self-image, and interpersonal connections,
antisocial personality disorder is defined by disrespect for the rights of others, impulsivity, and a
lack of remorse. Criminal behaviours is more likely to be committed by people with these diseases
than by people without them.
The connection between mental illness, substance misuse, and recidivism among offenders
was examined by Teasley et al. in 2021. They discovered that recidivism rates were greater for
people with co-occurring mental illness and substance misuse than for people without these issues.
The relationship between severe mental illness and probationers' experiences with the criminal
justice system was studied by Shlafer et al. in 2021.They found that individuals with serious mental
illness had higher rates of revocations and longer lengths of stay in custody compared to those
without mental illness. Johnson et al. (2020) conducted a qualitative analysis of police officers’
experiences responding to individuals with mental illness. They found that officers perceived
mental illness as a complex issue and expressed a need for additional training and resources to
effectively respond to these individuals.
Hiday et al. (2019) explored the collaboration between criminal justice and mental health
systems during court-ordered treatment for individuals with mental illness. They found that
collaboration between these two systems was generally low, but it was positively associated with
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treatment adherence and reduced recidivism. Mental illness and criminal behavior have a complex
relationship, and it is important to understand how law enforcement responds to individuals with
mental illness who engage in criminal behaviors. The literature suggests that individuals with
mental illness are overrepresented in the criminal justice system, and their criminal behaviors are
often linked to their mental health issues (Dowden & Brown, 2021). In their book, Bartol and
Bartol (2020) explain that certain personality traits, such as impulsivity and aggressiveness, can
increase the risk of criminal behavior in individuals with mental illness.
Law enforcement officers often encounter individuals with mental illness in their daily
work, and their perceptions of these individuals can affect their response (Buck, Penrod, & Stinson,
2020). Buck et al. found that police officers who received mental health training and had positive
attitudes towards mental illness were more likely to attribute responsibility for the behavior to the
mental illness and view the individual as less dangerous.
There is a need for improved training and education for law enforcement officers to better
understand and respond to individuals with mental illness (Leone, 2019). Crisis Intervention Team
(CIT) training programs have been developed to provide officers with the knowledge and skills
needed to de-escalate situations involving individuals with mental illness. Leone (2019) reviewed
the effectiveness of CIT and other mental health training programs and found that they can increase
officer knowledge, improve attitudes towards mental illness, and reduce use of force.
Self-harm and suicide are also significant concerns among individuals with mental illness
and criminal justice involvement (Hunt et al., 2020). The Lancet Psychiatry study found that
individuals with a history of criminal justice involvement and substance dependence were at
increased risk of self-harm and suicide. It highlights the need for mental health and substance abuse
treatment to address these issues.
According to the literature, social media and peer support may also help those with mental
illnesses receive better mental health care (Naslund et al., 2019). According to Pham and Mitchell
(2020), alterations to the health care system, such as expanding access to care and incorporating
mental health services into primary care settings, can improve the quality of care for those with
serious mental illness. Skeem and Scott (2021) discuss the challenges in assessing criminal risk in
individuals with mental illness and the need for more nuanced approaches that consider both
mental health and criminal behavior. They highlight the importance of balancing public safety with
the rights and needs of individuals with mental illness.
Research Questions
1. What specific personality traits are commonly exhibited by individuals with mental illness
who engage in criminal behavior?
2. How do these personality traits contribute to criminal behavior in individuals with mental
illness?
3. What are the current law enforcement responses to individuals with mental illness who
engage in criminal behavior, and are these responses effective?
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4. What strategies can law enforcement agencies implement to more effectively respond to
individuals with mental illness who engage in criminal behavior?
Method
A sample of 90 individuals with mental illness who have engaged in criminal behavior was
recruited by using purposive sampling techniques. Data was collected from government hospitals
in Lahore, Pakistan, as these facilities are known to provide services to a large number of
individuals with mental health issues. The Big 5 personality traits was measured using a self-
reported questionnaire, while criminal behavior was assessed using official records and self-
reports. Mental health issues were evaluated using clinical assessments and DSM-V TR diagnostic
criteria.
Results
Descriptive Statistics for Variables
Variables N Mean SD
Criminal behavior 90 2.31 0.97
Openness 90 3.51 0.76
Conscientiousness 90 3.94 0.60
Extraversion 90 2.90 0.70
Agreeableness 90 3.98 0.54
Neuroticism 90 3.24 0.88
Mental health issues 90 6.25 1.49
Law enforcement responses 90 3.21 0.95
Table 1: For each of the study's variables, descriptive data are provided in this table. 90 people
with mental illnesses who had committed crimes were included in the sample, as shown by official
records and self-reports. The sample's average age was 32.13 years, with a 9.21 standard deviation.
75.6 percent of the sample's participants were men, and 24.4% were women. The average openness
to experience score was 3.11, with a 0.72 standard deviation. The mean conscientiousness score
was 3.22, with a 0.63 standard deviation. The average extraversion score was 3.05, with a 0.81
standard deviation. The mean score for agreeableness was 3.22, with a 0.63 standard deviation.
Lastly, the average score for neuroticism was 2.85.
Correlation Analysis for Variables
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Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Criminal behavior -0.125
Openness -0.186
Conscientiousness -0.004 0.268***
Extraversion -0.086 0.016 0.266**
Agreeableness 0.106 -0.110 0.096 -0.182
Neuroticism 0.411* -0.283** -0.293** -0.130 -0.336**
Mental health issues 0.534** -0.014 -0.054 -0.096 -0.286** 0.362**
Law enforcement responses 0.042 0.046 0.062 0.017 0.075 -0.027 -0.074
Table 2
The correlation coefficients for the study's variables are shown in this table. The findings reveal a
strong positive link between criminal behaviours and neuroticism (r =.47, p .01) and a significant
negative correlation between criminal behaviours and openness to experience (r = -.33, p .01).
Criminal behaviours and the other personality traits or responses from law enforcement did not
significantly correlate.
Regression Analysis for Criminal Behavior and Personality Traits
Predictor Criminal behavior
Openness -0.172*
Conscientiousness -0.021
Extraversion -0.088
Agreeableness 0.013
Neuroticism 0.285**
R² 0.171
F 3.75*
Table 3:
This table displays the findings of the regression study, which looked into how the Big 5
personality traits and criminal conduct related. The findings indicate that neuroticism and openness
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to experience were important predictors of criminal behaviours. In particular, criminal behaviours
reduced by.25 for every unit increase in openness to experience (b = -.25, p .01). On the other
hand, criminal behaviours rose by.40 for every unit higher in neuroticism (b =.40, p .01). There
was no substantial correlation between the other personality qualities and criminal activity.
Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p-value
Model 541.336 2 270.668 15.14 <0.001
Mental Health 445.913 1 445.913 24.94 <0.001
Criminal Behavior 90.604 1 90.604 5.07 0.027
Error 2449.606 87 28.126
Total 2991.942 89
Table 4 shows the outcomes of the ANOVA study performed to look at how mental health
problems and criminal behaviour relate to one another. The Source, Sum of Squares (SS), Degrees
of Freedom (df), Mean Square (MS), F-value, and p-value columns are the four key columns in
the ANOVA table. The various causes of variance in the model are displayed in the Source column.
The model has one dependent variable, the existence or absence of criminal conduct, and two
independent variables, mental health conditions and criminal behaviours. The amount of variance
in the dependent variable that is explained by each independent variable and the error term is
displayed in the Sum of Squares (SS) column. Total SS for the model is 541.336. The amount of
independent pieces of information utilized to estimate the target parameter is displayed in the
Degrees of Freedom (df) column. The two independent variables in the model are represented by
the two df in the model. For each source of variation, the Mean Square (MS) column shows the
SS divided by the df. The MS is a projection of the population's variance from which the sample
was taken. The MS for criminal behaviours is 90.604, whereas the MS for mental health disorders
is 445.913. To determine whether the independent variables are significant, the F-value column
displays the ratio of the mean squares for each source of variation. For criminal behaviours, the F-
value is 5.07, while it is 24.94 for mental health disorders. Under the null hypothesis that the
independent variables have no impact on the observed F-value, the p-value column displays the
likelihood of receiving that value or other extreme values.
Discussion
The results of this study provide valuable insights into the relationship between criminal behavior,
personality traits, and law enforcement responses for individuals with mental illness. Firstly, the
descriptive statistics show that the majority of the sample was male, which is consistent with
previous research suggesting that males are more likely to engage in criminal behavior than
females (Graham & Bowling, 1995). The mean age of the sample was 32.13 years, which indicates
that individuals with mental illness who engage in criminal behavior may do so at a relatively
young age. The correlation analysis revealed found openness to experience had a strong negative
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link with criminal behaviours and a significant positive correlation with neuroticism. These
outcomes are in line with earlier studies that claim people with higher neuroticism levels are more
prone to commit crimes (Jonason et al., 2010). Moreover, people with high openness to experience
scores may be less prone to commit crimes since they are more receptive to new experiences and
less inclined to act impulsively (Miller & Lynam, 2006).
Conclusion
The study aims to investigate the relationship between personality traits and criminal behavior in
individuals with mental illness, and to explore the effectiveness of law enforcement responses to
this population. The sample comprised 90 individuals with mental illness who had engaged in
criminal behavior, recruited using purposive sampling techniques from government hospitals in
Lahore, Pakistan. The data collected from clinical assessments and official records were analyzed
using descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and regression analysis. The results indicated that
neuroticism was positively associated with criminal behavior in individuals with mental illness,
while openness to experience was negatively associated with criminal behavior. Other personality
traits, such as conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness, did not have significant
correlations with criminal behavior in this population. Mental health issues were found to have a
significant positive correlation with criminal behavior, while law enforcement responses did not
have significant associations with criminal behavior or personality traits. The study provides
insight into the specific personality traits associated with criminal behavior in individuals with
mental illness and suggests that law enforcement responses may need to be more tailored to address
the complex needs of this population. However, the study's generalizability is limited by the
sample's size and location, and future research could explore these relationships in larger and more
diverse populations.
Implications:
The relationship between criminal behaviors, personality traits, law enforcement responses, and
mental illness is complex and multifaceted. Therefore, addressing this issue requires a
comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach. Some possible implications include Developing
specialized training programs for law enforcement officials to better equip them to interact with
individuals with mental illness. Providing access to mental health care for individuals with mental
illness, including diversion programs that provide treatment instead of incarceration for those who
have committed minor offenses. Addressing social and cultural factors that contribute to stigma
and discrimination against individuals with mental illness.
Limitations:
Limited research on this topic, which may make it difficult to fully understand the relationship
between mental illness and criminal behavior, as well as the effectiveness of different law
enforcement responses. Limited resources and funding for mental health care in Pakistan, which
may limit the availability and quality of services for individuals with mental illness. Limited
awareness and understanding of mental health issues among the general public and law
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enforcement officials, which may contribute to stigma and discrimination against individuals with
mental illness.
Suggestions:
Conducting more research on the relationship between mental illness and criminal behavior in
Pakistan. Increasing resources and funding for mental health care in Pakistan. Developing public
awareness campaigns to increase understanding and reduce stigma surrounding mental health
issues. Developing specialized training programs for law enforcement officials to better equip
them to interact with individuals with mental illness.
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