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Xochimilco Lake, Mexico. The importance of its
preservation: challenges and opportunities
n. n. doMínguez AlFAro1, d. guerrA rAMírez2,
M. c. rodríguez pAlAcio3, p. cAStillA hernÁndez4
Abstract
At present-day Xochimilco Lake is the habitat of multiple species, a source
of oxygen and natural resources for Mexico City, and an important tourism
and cultural center. is work presents a review of the historical, socioeco-
nomic, environmental, and ecological aspects concerning Xochimilco Lake
with the purpose of knowing the problematic surrounding the gradual loss
of this space and identifying the challenges and opportunities for its rescue
and preservation. It was found that the lacustrine area has become a eutro-
phic wetland, due to diverse land-use practices, urbanization, and the qual-
ity of the treated water supplied to the system. It is estimated that 55% of
the endemic species are found established in some state of conservation.
Among the main challenges and opportunities for political, social, and sci-
entic actors, we nd the following: improving the quality of the water
through particular strategies, such as the bioremediation of the lacustrine
1 Programa de Posgrado Doctorado en Ciencias Biológicas y de la Salud, División de Ciencias
Biológicas y de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, CMexico City, Mexico.
2 Laboratorio de Productos Naturales, Departamento de Preparatoria Agrícola, Universidad
Autónoma de Chapingo, Chapingo, Estado de México, Mexico.
3 Departamento de Hidrobiología, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Mexico
City, Mexico.
4 Departamento El Hombre y su Ambiente, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana–Xochimil-
co, Mexico City, Mexico.
THE PRACTICE OF MANAGING WATER RESOURCES
560
system, continuing with the protection of endemic species, preserving the
chinampera culture, and incentivizing sustainability in tourism and the use
of the resources, with the aid of the circular economy.
Keywords: Xochimilco Lake, wetland, chinampas, state or status of conserva-
tion, circular economy
1. Introduction
Xochimilco, located in Mexico City, dubbed as the Venice of Mexico, com-
prises a network of canals, chinampas (oating island gardens), and small
lakes, of approximately 203 km [1, 2, 3]. e canals and lagoons, variable in
depth, are fed by the treated water of the “Cerro de la Estrella” “San Luis
Tlaxialtemalco” water-treatment plants, which supply 1 m³/s and 0.225 m³/s,
respectively [1, 4]. e lacustrine plane presents altitudes of less than 2,240
meters above sea level (masl) [5]. e climate is temperate–sub-humid, with
rainfall during the summer [6]. Annual precipitation ranges between 200
and 900 mm of water, and the mean annual temperature is 15.9 °C [2].
In the region of Lake Xochimilco, interest in conserving the ecosystem
and the cultural richness has led to the participation of native peoples, civic
organizations, academic institutions, and independent citizens, in carrying
out works in diverse aspects such as socioecological studies, the analysis of
environmental contamination, the preservation of diverse native endemic
and migratory species, conservation of the chinampas, restoration practic-
es, the adaptation of environmental remediation technologies, the uses and
applications of the environmental services of the zone, etcetera [1, 4, 7, 8, 9,
10, 11].
In this review, information is gathered on the environmental, cultural,
touristic, and socioeconomic importance of Lake Xochimilco. Likewise, one
becomes aware of its deterioration and the eorts channeled to conserve it,
with the purpose of identifying the current challenges and opportunities in
order to contribute to its preservation, because the Lake is of great cultural,
environmental, and touristic value in Mexico City.
XOCHIMILCO LAKE, MEXICO. THE IMPORTANCE OF ITS PRESERVATION: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 561
2. Macrobiodiversity
2.1 Vegetation
Among the plant species found in Xochimilco, 220 are terrestrial and 34 are
aquatic; among these, 18 are endemic (see Table 1). e vegetation is main-
ly composed of native as Salix bonplandiana [6], and some bryophytes have
been observed, including the following: Bryum argenteum; Fabronia ciliar-
is; Syntrichia pagorum, and Tortula pagorum, which together with the veg-
etation, co-exist with the following species of fungi: Xeromphalina sp.; As-
cobolus michaudii; Saccobolus depauperatus; Saccobolus truncatus, and
Ductifera pululahuana [11, 13]. In the chinampas horticultural crops are
produced [10] and, in hot houses, ornamental plants [16]. It is noteworthy
that among the reported species, there are 77 terrestrial and 20 aquatic that
are considered invasive and that could displace the native species and be, in
part, the causes of the extinction of the endemic species; thus, their popu-
lation should be controlled.
THE PRACTICE OF MANAGING WATER RESOURCES
562
2.2 Fauna
ere have been reported 47 endemic species in Xochimilco area (see Table
2). Xochimilco Lake, in addition to constituting an important sanctuary for
local species, also receives 140 species of migratory birds, which arrive at
the park during the winter [16]. is lacustrine system has encountered
problems as the invasion of exotic species, for example, carp (Cyprinus
carpio) and tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), which compete with the native
species for food [9, 20]. However, these are only two of the 23 invasive fau-
nistic species that should be monitored in order to maintain the ecological
equilibrium of the zone.
3. Microbiodiversity
3.1 Phytoplankton
With the aim of knowing the trophic status of the lacustrine system, diverse
studies have been conducted on the ourishing of alga [8, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25].
e diversity of microalgae and cyanobacteria is extensive (see Table 3): at
least 53 species are employed for valuable applications. In this eld there is
the opportunity to study those with potential for the production of metab-
olites-of-interest in the areas of foods, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, biore-
mediation, and bioenergetics, to mention only a few.
3.2 Zooplankton
Among the scarce studies on zooplankton, a wide diversity has been found
in Lake Xochimilco (Table 4). Some species, such as Brachionus angularis,
are of importance for the aquiculture of sh, crustaceans, and amphibians
[1]. e majority of these have been employed as indicators of contamina-
tion. e presence of Brachionus plicatilis, Brachionus leydigi, Brachionus
quadridentatus, and Alona sp. (copepod) in the Santa Cruz canal and in
Lake Xaltocan is associated with spilled treated water [45, 46].
XOCHIMILCO LAKE, MEXICO. THE IMPORTANCE OF ITS PRESERVATION: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 563
4. The importance of the lacustrine zone
4.1 Environmental
Among the main ecosystemic services that supply Xochimilco Lake [47],
including the recharging of subterranean aquifers, regulation of the local
and regional water ow, and the maintenance of biodiversity [16], likewise,
the chinampas, which are small islands that are built with lake-bottom sed-
iments, branches, and decomposing vegetation, bordered by willow trees
(S. bonplandiana) [7, 16], result in a system for watering and in ecient
agricultural production [4, 7, 16, 46]. anks to the physical and biological
processes of Xochimilco Lake, there is ood control, a supply of oxygen,
and the regulation of the local climate [48]; thus, the lacustrine zone func-
tions ecologically as a spacious wetland, in the middle of an urban zone,
which should be preserved due to its great benets.
4.2 Cultural
Mexico City was founded on a system comprising ve lakes. In the southern
zone, today’s Xochimilco, the “Mexicas” indigenous peoples devoted them-
selves to pre-hispanic agriculture; this is how the chinampas were created;
those who cultivated these were known as chinamperos, xochimilcas, or
chinampatecas [7]. In the Nahuatl language, Xochimilco signies “in the
ower seedbed”, and the term chinampas, or chinamitl in Nahuatl, means
“hedge close to the reed” [1, 12]. In order to include the chinampera culture
on the World Heritage Site List, its originality and its productive system
being still robust was of utmost importance [47, 49].
e chinampas serve as a refuge for the axolotl, an emblematic species
of the culture of Xochimilco. From the Nahuatl axolotl (atl, water, and xolotl,
monster), the “aquatic monster” was considered by the “Mexicas” as one of
the most important of the Aztec gods (“Xolotl”). It was also considered to be
an exquisite delicacy and as a basic ingredient of a medicinal tonic [7, 50].
e scientic name for the axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) was assigned
XOCHIMILCO LAKE, MEXICO. THE IMPORTANCE OF ITS PRESERVATION: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 565
in 1798, by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. On
the other hand, since 1994, the A. mexicanum received Special Protection
status through the Xochimilco Ecological Rescue Plan [51]. e chinampas
and the axolotl are identity referents and geosymbols of Xochimilco.
4.3 Touristic
e environmental and cultural riches of Xochimilco are important tourist
attractions; visitors are interested in the history and wildlife of the zone [52]
and participate in a tour in water-transport vehicles (“trajineras”) rowed
through the canals, this ride one of the main tourist activities. e tourist
activities persist despite the diverse obstacles, such as irregular settlements,
the decient quality of the water, and the land subsidence, the result of the
extraction of subterranean water [49, 53]. In addition to controlling the
irregular settlements and improving the quality of the treated water, it would
be convenient to supply the water of the aquifer at the same rhythm that it
is extracted.
4.4 Socioeconomic
In Xochimilco the principal economic activities are agriculture and tourism
[12, 16, 53]. Another potential economic option includes the hobby of bird
watching; according to ornithological studies, Xochimilco possesses a wealth
of birds that reaches 249 species [11, 18]. It is estimated that bird watching
generated $329 million USD in Mexico, deriving from 1,183,095 bird watch-
ers, foreigners in the majority [54]. It has been reported that this activity
could activate the economy, as long as the quality of water improves [55];
therefore, the condition of this resource is vital for increasing the economic
value of Lake Xochimilco.
THE PRACTICE OF MANAGING WATER RESOURCES
566
5. Deterioration
e rhythm of environmental damage in Xochimilco was gradual and sub-
tle until the middle of the XX century. e rate of deterioration increased
as the Mexico-City population tripled in size [56]; thus, the greatest aec-
tation to the zone could be caused by urbanization [49, 57]. Despite the
prohibitions of land use vs. residential use in protected areas, it is estimated
that 25% of the protected wetlands is urbanized, and solely 17% of the
chinampas are considered active [56, 57]. e lacustrine deterioration in-
dicators include contamination of the water, water hyacinth plague, and
unkempt chinampas [1]. Part of the solution lies in the following aspects:
controlling urban sprawl; making the population aware of the care and man-
agement of water; providing information to the community on the invasive
or exotic species, and promoting the importance of preservation of native
and endemic species.
5.1 Loss of species
According to reports, around 55% of the endemic species of Xochimilco
are found established under some state of conservation [11, 15, 18] (see
Figure 1).
XOCHIMILCO LAKE, MEXICO. THE IMPORTANCE OF ITS PRESERVATION: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 567
e disappearance of native fauna appears to be a direct consequence
of environmental degradation, mainly aecting the species of amphibians,
sh, and mollusks destined for human consumption [58]. e most report-
ed case is that of the axolotl (A. mexicanum), which is at present in danger
of extinction [7, 59]. Other species with less information with respect to
their extinction include the Tlaloc frog (Lithobates tlaloci), the Chapultepec
splitn sh (mexclapique) of the Basin of Mexico (Girardinichthys viviparus),
and the Xochimilca carp (Evarra bustamantei), currently extinct. e bird
known as the Aztec rail (Rallus tenuirostris) [2, 13], and one mammal, vol-
cano rabbit, also known as teporingo (Romerolagus diazi) [2, 60] are en-
demic species that are in danger of extinction. e majority of the species
are found limited in terms of the habitat that sustains them. us, the pres-
ervation of Lake Xochimilco and its well-being is crucial in order to oer
these species the hope of survival.
5.2 Contamination
Xochimilco has become a eutrophic wetland, and the current characteristics
of the canals and lagoons are due to the seasonal climatic conditions, the
diverse land-use management practices (agroecological, touristic, and ur-
ban), and the quality of the treated water [17, 23, 61]. It is important to take
measures to diminish the contaminants supplied to the aquifer and to invest
in removal treatments of these contaminants as well as of pathogens, but
always from an environmentally sustainable perspective.
6. Rescue programs
Since 1936, at the national and international level, diverse measures have
been implemented with the purpose of halting the deterioration of Xochi-
milco Lake (Figure 2) [62, 63, 64, 65, 66]. However, despite the eorts of
local, federal, and international authorities [67, 68], the lake and its resourc-
es appear to continue to be aected by the population growth [55].
THE PRACTICE OF MANAGING WATER RESOURCES
568
It would be convenient to involve the population to a greater degree, not
only with decision-making, but also in the application of the solutions and
initiatives.
7. Discussion
e challenges and tasks are many that should be carried out in the process
of preserving Xochimilco Lake; in order to achieve this, the implementa-
tion of diverse actions has been proposed [1], and just to mention a few as
follows: the construction of dwellings and of sustainable tourist services,
which include the design and production of ecological and biodegradable
goods, such as the use of Eco-friendly techniques: biodigesters; rainwater
collection; solar panels, dry bathrooms, etc. In addition, it is necessary to
promote environmental education, for example, workshops could be im-
plemented for composting household organic residues, thus obtaining bio-
fertilizers, promoting the water-care culture, and avoiding the land use and
environmental contaminants. Finally, it is necessary to manage external
nancial support with the aim of executing sustainable regional projects.
e adoption of sustainable practices should include the residents of the
zone, of the governmental sector, businesses, and/or acts of restoration that
facilitate it [69]. e circular economy would reduce the damaging eects
of the linear patterns of production, reducing the harmful eects of linear
patterns of production; that is, any primary product should be taken advan-
tage of in such a way that each piece of “waste” would become an asset and
XOCHIMILCO LAKE, MEXICO. THE IMPORTANCE OF ITS PRESERVATION: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 569
no value would be unrecovered [70]. In this manner, sustainability would
be achieved in gradual fashion without neglecting the socioeconomic, cul-
tural, and touristic needs.
Xochimilco Lake possesses sucient resources with which a sustainable
circular economy could be implemented. For example, with the end of phy-
toremediation of the Cuemanco Canal, autochthonous aquatic plants have
been employed from the chinampera zone: rooted (Scirpus americanus) and
oating (Lemna gibba) macrophtyes [71]. e water hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes), despite its being a plague, is also used for this purpose. e water
resulting from the process of bioremediation could be utilized for watering
the chinampas, and the biomass of E. crassipes and L. gibba, as a bioenergy
generator. Similarly, the potential has been evaluated of two species of mi-
croalgae, that is, Chlorella vulgaris and Tetradesmus obliquus (isolated from
Lake Xochimilco) and from a cyanobacterium, Arthrospira maxima, for
removing nutrients from raw residual water and accumulating lipids for the
production of biodiesel [72]. Microalgae oer properties that allow them to
serve as the raw material for dierent applications.
8. Conclusion
To preserve the Xochimilco lacustrine area, it is necessary to activate the
circular economy in order to drive sustainability in tourism, improve the
quality of water and soil, foster the chinampera culture, and implement new
programs of the protection and conservation of native and endemic species.
Acknowledgements
e rst author thanks the support of the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y
Tecnología (CONACyT) for studying the Doctorate degree in Ciencias Bi-
ológicas y de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana.
THE PRACTICE OF MANAGING WATER RESOURCES
570
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