Content uploaded by Amal Kumar Mondal, FLS,FIAAT
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Amal Kumar Mondal, FLS,FIAAT on Feb 09, 2023
Content may be subject to copyright.
Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 5 (2023) 100286
Available online 13 January 2023
2666-8939/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
Characterization of new natural cellulosic bers from Cyperus compactus
Retz. (Cyperaceae) Plant
Anup Kumar Bhunia
a
, Dheeman Mondal
a
, Kriti Ranjan Sahu
b
, Amal Kumar Mondal
a
,
*
a
Plant Taxonomy, Biosystematics, and Molecular Taxonomy Laboratory, UGC-DRS-SAP-II and DBT-BOOST-WB supported Department, Department of Botany and
Forestry, Vidyasagar University, Midnapore, West Bengal 721102, India
b
Department of Physics, Bhatter College, Dantan, Paschim Medinipur, West Bengal 721426, India
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Lignocellulosic bers
Tensile strength
Crystalline index
Surface topography
X-ray diffraction analysis
Thermo-gravimetric analysis
ABSTRACT
The characteristic features of new lignocellulosic bers has been explored and found in this work. Character-
ization of Cyperus compactus Retz. plant (CCP) ber is done using different analytical tools viz. FTIR, TGA, XRD,
SRA, and SEM. The extracted ber from Cyperus compactus stem has greater cellulose content (67.9%), better
tensile strength (943±51.2 MPa) and the ber has shown stability in higher temperature up to 227◦C. XRD
technique and FTIR analysis ensured the semicrystalline nature of CCP ber. SEM was exercised to ascertain the
surface characteristics of CCP bers. It is evident that the stem bers of Cyperus compactus Retz. have a wide
variety of industrial uses as crude materials.
1. Introduction
Most industries today are concerned with making environment-
friendly products. These are nontoxic to living beings that are subse-
quently benecial and sustainable for our environment. Now, many
industries use natural bers as a substitute for synthetic ber due to
huge natural resources, ease of extraction, rm environmental regula-
tions, and environment-friendly product production (Reddy et al., 2014;
Uma Maheswari et al., 2008; Kommula et al., 2013).
Because of its inexpensive manufacturing cost, men exercised syn-
thetic bers and high durability than natural bers products through the
products that are made of synthetic ber are not easily biodegradable
and cause serious environmental pollution. Thus, scientists are now
trying frequently to nd out natural ber resources from different
sources and their utilization (Mayandi et al., 2015).
In composite industries, natural bers have great interest. Nowadays
there’s a pressing want for looking at herbal bers from new resources. It
is most praiseworthy that a signicant number of researchers have
executed their work to deduce and use various natural resource-based
bers like sisal, coir, pineapple, jute, hemp, palm, Borassus, banana,
and tamarind for the reinforcement of polymer-matrix composites
(Belaadi et al., 2014; Thakur & Singha, 2011; Tamanna et al., 2021).
Cyperus pangorei plant has been studied for its mechanical, physical,
thermal, and chemical features by Mayandi et al. (2016).
Accordingly, an attempt has been made to characterize a new ber
from the Cyperus compactus plant from the family Cyperaceae. In some
village or in remote areas of Jalgalmahal these plants are grow randomly
in the agricultural eld and the Cyperus pangorei ber is widely used for
weaving mats, masland mat and other home utility product. As a sub-
stitute this ber can be used for those purposes (Show, 2018).
Cyperus perhaps belongs to the largest genera in Cyperaceae. It is
universal in distribution with 650–700 species scattered over the earth
(Tejavathi & Nijalingappa, 1990; Simpson et al., 2003). Nearly about
eighty Cyperus species are growing in India. Being agricultural weeds, it
has economic importance in diversied areas like food, fuel, medicine,
etc. (Simpson et al., 2003). Today sedge plants are exercised for several
different purposes like mat weaving, fencing, rope making, thatching,
etc. Introducing high-quality natural bers is the major objective of this
research endeavor. Chemical analysis, tensile properties, optical mi-
croscopy, FTIR, XRD, TGA, Surface roughness, and SEM studies were
exercised to characterize the extracted bers.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Field observation and raw material collection
Matured plants Cyperus compactus had been collected from different
study areas of Paschim Medinipur district, West Bengal, India. Location-
specic geo-coordinates were E 87◦22′51.8628′′, N 22◦24.4823′
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: akmondal@mail.vidyasagar.ac.in, mondalak.bot@gmail.com (A.K. Mondal).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/
carbohydrate-polymer-technologies-and-applications
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carpta.2023.100286
Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 5 (2023) 100286
2
presented in Fig. 1. Field photographs of plant and ber extraction
processing steps were captured by a digital single-lens reex camera
Nikon D7000 (Nikon, Japan).
2.2. Fiber extraction
Firstly, the plant’s stem portion was used to extract the bers. Then,
the stem was cut from the plant body and submerged in water for thirty-
ve days. The ber from the moist stem after the retting process had
been extracted. Extracted ber had been washed properly using double-
distilled water. After that these extracted bers were placed under
sunlight for seven days to get the ambient condition. After the whole
process, the extracted bers were used for their characterization (Sar-
avanakumar et al., 2013). The plant habitat image and different steps of
the CCP ber extraction process had been presented in Fig. 2.
2.3. Physical characterization
The CCP ber was placed under standard conditions room temper-
ature i.e., 27◦C temperature and 65–70% relative humidity for 24 hrs.
Fiber bundles were randomly crushed in a mortar and pestle and taken
into a slide for optical microscopy. The samples were observed with
Axio-Vision (Carl ZEISS, German) phase-contrast microscope. Physical
characteristics data like slenderness ratio, Runkel ratio, and exibility
coefcient were calculated using the optical data i.e., ber length, cell
wall thickness, ber diameter, and lumen diameter derived by optical
microscopy.
Slenderness ratio (SR) = Fiber length (
μ
m)
Fiber Diameter(
μ
m)
List of Abbreviations
CCP Cyperus compactus plant
SR Slenderness ratio
RR Runkel ratio
CI Crystalline Index
CS Crystallite Size
EDX Energy-Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
FTIR Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
TGA Thermo-gravimetric Analysis
DTG Derivative thermos-gravimetry
XRD X-Ray Diffraction
GPa Giga Pascal
MPa Mega Pascal
BSI Botanical Survey of India
µm Micrometer
mA Milliampere
KBr Potassium Bromide
SRA Surface Roughness Analysis
Fig. 1. Geographic information system mapping of the collected sample.
A.K. Bhunia et al.
Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 5 (2023) 100286
3
Flexibility coefficiuent =Fiber lumen diameter(
μ
m)
Fiber diameter(
μ
m)×100
Runkel Ration (RR) = Cell Wall Thickness(
μ
m)
Fiber lumen diameter(
μ
m)×2
2.4. Chemical estimation of the selected ber
For chemical estimation, fresh sample of 1 gm were used for each
experiment. The processed and extracted bers were exercised to
ascertain the chemical constituents i.e., cellulose had been quantied by
the procedure of Doree (1950). According to the procedure of Goering
and Vansoest (1975) estimation of hemicellulose had been done. The
extracted CCP ber had been exercised to quantify the percentage
amount of lignin by the procedure of Goering and Vansoest (1975);
Sadasivam and Manickam (2021).
2.5. Fourier-transformed infrared-spectrometry (FTIR)
The functional group of the selected ber and their unique chemical
bonds were identied by FTIR. FTIR spectral study of selected bers had
been accomplished with the aid of a Nicolet Avatar Model 360 spec-
trometer (Thermo Fisher, United States) by KBr pellet methods in the
wavenumber region 500–4000cm
−1
with a scan rate of 32 scans/minute
at a resolution of 2cm
−1
. The resultant peaks had been recorded.
2.6. X-ray diffraction (XRD)
XRD method had been exercised to know about the crystallinity of
CCP ber. XRD had been performed to obtain the Crystalline Index (CI)
and Crystal size of the selected ber. This experiment had been per-
formed with the assistance of an XPERT-3 diffractometer (Bruker-ASX,
Germany) tted with a CuK
α
radiation source at a current of 30 mA,
with an application of 45 kV tension. The CCP ber was examined at a
constant temperature of 25◦C in the 2θ range between 10◦to 80◦with
the step size of 0.05◦. XRD data has been calculated using two methods
analysing the XRD spectrum:
Individual crystalline and amorphous peak were extracted by curve
tting process from the diffraction intensity prole. A peak tting pro-
gram (Origin Software, 2021) was used, assuming Gaussian function for
each peak in all cases F number was >1000, which corresponds to a R
2
value>0.9792.
The CI was determined with the aid of the below -mentioned for-
mula. Shukla et al. (2003), Rabek (1980)
Crystallinity index =IC
(IC+Ia)×100
Where I
c
is the intensity of crystalline component and I
a
is the intensity
of amorphous component.
The Crystal Size (C.S.) of the CCP ber had been calculated with the
aid of Scherrer’s formula given Equation (Smilgies, 2009), by the
wavelength of the incident X-Ray radiation (λ =0.1542 nm), Scherrer’s
correction factor (k =0.94), peak’s full width half maximum (β) and
Bragg angle (θ).
Crystal Size =kλ
βcosθ
2.7. Tensile properties
Tensile behavior had been determined using a Tinius Olsen (H50KS)
Fig. 2. Habitat picture along with differential steps of ber extraction (A) Cyperus compactus plant, (B) Cyperus compactus plant stem immersed in pond water after
72 h, (C) Fiber extraction from wet stem after ~ 35 days, and (D) Extracted CCP bers.
A.K. Bhunia et al.
Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 5 (2023) 100286
4
Universal Machine at 0.5 mm/minute crosshead speed while maintain-
ing the xed gage length of 50 mm. All experiments were conducted at
an ambient temperature of 20◦C with a relative humidity of 65%. A
minimum number of 10 samples were taken for tensile testing to conrm
the repeatability of the results. Tensile strength, young’s modulus had
been calculated using these formulas-
Tensile strength =Breaking Load(N)
Cross Section Area(mm2)
Young′s modulus =Stress
Strain
2.8. Thermogravimetric study
The thermogravimetric analyzer (Model Pyris Diamond TG/DTA)
was employed to explore the constancy of the selected bers in thermal
conditions. The thermograms had been noted on a Perkin-Elmer TGA
analyzer at the constant heating rate of 10◦C/min in a nitrogen (N
2
)
atmosphere. The ber sample was studied in low to high-temperature
ranges from 50◦C to 600◦C that had been employed for the experi-
ment The kinetic energy (E
a
) of the CCP ber had been determined using
Broido’s equation. Activation-Energy (AE) confers to the minimal
quantity of energy required to degrade the ber. Broido’s equation was
as follows-
ln[ln(1
y)]=(E
R)[(1
T)+K]
Where y denotes normalized weight (W
t
/W
0
), W
t
denotes the weight of
the ber sample at any time t, W
0
was the initial weight of the ber
sample, T indicates the temperature in kelvin, and R was the universal
gas constant (8.32 kJ/mol-k).
2.9. Surface roughness measurement
A 3D non-contact proler (Bruker Nano GmbH, Germany) had been
exercised to ascertain the surface property of selected bers. At least ve
numbers of CCP ber had been taken into account to get the average
result. The outcomes were recorded and average values were reported. A
minimum length i.e., 50 mm was taken for measurement. The mea-
surement was continued along the length of CCP ber.
2.10. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis
SEM (ZEISS Supra-40) was used for examining the topography of the
CCP ber surface and cross-sectional views of the CCP ber sample also.
SEM was used for studying the ber matrix adhesion. The SEM studies
were done by scanning the ber sample with a high-energy electron
beam at an accelerating voltage of 5 kV in a secondary electron imaging
mode. Then the CCP sample surface was noted in different magnica-
tions range of 500X-2.5KX and the resulting image (Smart SEM Soft-
ware) was taken.
3. Result and discussion
3.1. Morphological study
From the CCP ber bundle, it was very much difcult, in getting the
appropriate ber length of CCP ber. The ber length of CCP ber varies
from 309.22
μ
m to 398.12
μ
m and the calculated mean length of a single
ber is 379.11
μ
m (Fig. 3). The ber diameter ranges from 17.44
μ
m to
19.91
μ
m and the means diameter value of CCP ber is 19.31
μ
m.
Lumen-diameter and cell-wall thickness of CCP ber have been recorded
i.e., 12.60
μ
m and 3.53
μ
m respectively. The Slenderness Ratio (SR) of
the CCP ber was 19.63, Runkel ratio and Flexibility-coefcient (FC)
have been recorded i.e., 65.25 and 0.56 respectively. The diameter and
ber length were more or less similar to CPFs, jute, ax, and Hemp ber
as represented in Table 1.
3.2. Chemical constituents of bers
The chemical constituents of Cyperus compactus ber have been
observed and the outcomes are represented in Table 1. Cyperus com-
pactus bers had a cellulose percentage of 67.9%, hemicelluloses 19.5%,
and lignin 12.6%. From Table 1. it was evident that CPFs, ax, hemp,
ramie, and pineapple have greater cellulose content, comparatively
Fig. 3. Optical Microscopic image of Cyperus compactus plant ber.
Table 1
Chemical composition of Cyperus compactus bers.
Plants ber Length (
μ
m) Diameter (
μ
m) Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%) Reference
CCP ber 379.11 19.31 67.9 19.5 12.6 Own sample
CPFs 602.06 16.20 68.5 – 17.88 Mayandi et al., 2016
Flax – 20 −25 71 18.6–20.6 2.2 John and Anandjiwala (2008)
Hemp – 28 −38 68 15 10 John and Anandjiwala (2008)
Ramie – 24 68.6–85 13–16.7 0.5–0.7 Saravanakumar et al. (2013)
Pineapple – – 81 – 12.7 John and Anandjiwala (2008)
Bamboo – – 26–43 30 21–31 John and Anandjiwala (2008)
Abaca – – 56–63 20–25 7–9 John and Anandjiwala (2008)
Borassus – – 53.4 29.6 17 John and Anandjiwala (2008)
Napier – – 45.66 33.67 20.60 John and Anandjiwala (2008)
A.K. Bhunia et al.
Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 5 (2023) 100286
5
Fig. 4. (A) FTIR Spectra of Cyperus compactus bers, (B) XRD of Cyperus compactus bers.
A.K. Bhunia et al.
Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 5 (2023) 100286
6
bamboo, abaca, Borassus, and Napier bers have lesser content of cel-
lulose than Cyperus compactus bers. The hemicellulose content of
Cyperus compactus bers is higher likewise all the other plant bers such
as ax, hemp and rami. Finally, the lignin quantity is lesser than ax,
hemp, ramie, and abaca and greater than all other bers. The mechan-
ical peculiarity of bers made from natural resources depends critically
on the cellulose content of those bers (Baley, 2002). In conclusion,
Cyperus compactus bers had a high ratio of cellulose content. It,
therefore, has a signicant deal of potential for usage as crude materials
in the mat industry.
3.3. Fourier transform-infrared (FTIR) spectrometry
The FTIR spectrogram of Cyperus compactus was observed (Fig. 4A)
between 4000cm
−1
and 500cm
−1
. From the FTIR spectrogram of CCP
bers, it has been noticed that an intense absorption peak of 3402cm
−1
,
corresponds to the O
–
H stretching of cellulose. A similar trend was
reported by Mayandi et al. (2016). The absorption spectra at 2917
cm
−1
corresponds to the C
–
H stretching of cellulose (Maheswari et al.,
2012; De Mendonça Neuba et al., 2020). It denotes that CCP bers
include cellulose. Two absorption peaks have been observed at 1736 and
1253cm
−1
, which were due to C=O stretching and C – O – C stretching
vibrations of the acetyl group of hemicelluloses component of CCP -
bers. A similar trend was reported by Prado and Spinac´
e (2015),
Mwaikambo and Ansell (2002), De Rosa et al. (2010). The absorption
spectra that appeared in 1637,1514,1427,1377, and 1036 cm
−1
were
due to C=C stretching, C – O stretching, – CH
3
asymmetric stretching, –
CH symmetric stretching, and aromatic plane deformation of lignin
components of CCP bers (Kommula et al., 2016; Tamanna et al., 2021).
A medium-strong absorption spectrum at 1427 cm
−1
and 1377 cm
−1
indicates the corresponding C
–
H bending of the alkane group of
hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin (Maheswari et al., 2012). The peak
observed at 897 cm
−1
is linked with C
–
O-C stretching at the β (1–4) -
glycosidic linkages between the monosaccharides in cellulose and
hemicellulose (Belouadah et al., 2015).
3.4. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis
The XRD pattern of CCP ber is represented in Fig. 4(B). The dif-
fractogram showed two reections, corresponding to 2θ values of
around 16.44◦and 22.12◦, respectively. Among all the peaks, the lesser
angle reection (16.44◦) was of low intensity, denoting of amorphous
material such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin (Tamanna et al.,
2021; Vijay et al., 2020) and the other reection (22.12◦) had
comparatively higher intensity and represented by crystalline material
can be attributed to cellulose IV in cellulosic ber. The lower intensity
peak is denoted by 18.24◦for Crystallinity index calculation. Gaussian
functions (Hult et al., 2003) are commonly used for the deconvolution of
XRD spectra. CI is calculated from the ratio of the area of all crystalline
peaks to the total area. An important assumption for this analysis is that
increased amorphous contribution is the main contributor to peak
broadening. Cellulose peaks are very broad and not well resolved, with
overlapping peaks. It is generally accepted in the cellulose community
that peak broadening is due to the amorphous cellulose (Park et al.,
2010). The Crystallinity Index had been calculated as 37.08%. The
crystallinity index of CCP bers is greater than other natural bers i.e.,
kapok and balsa bers (Purnawati et al., 2018).
The Crystallite Size of the CCP bers calculated from Scherrer’s
equation represents that the Crystal size value of CCP bers is 7.61 nm.
Cellulose peaks are very broad and not well resolved, with overlapping
peaks. It is generally accepted in the cellulose community that peak
broadening is due to amorphous cellulose. The crystallite size of the
selected bers is comparatively lesser than jute, and sisal, but greater
than ramie, and wheat straw ber (Saravanan et al., 2016; Suryanto
et al., 2014).
3.5. Tensile property assay
The tensile Behaviour of Cyperus compactus bers is represented in
Fig. 5. The tensile features of Cyperus compactus bers are also repre-
sented in Table 2. Tensile properties like modulus, the strength of CCP
ber, and elongation at the break of CCP bers have been noted to be
97.43±34.26 GPa, 943±51.2 MPa, and 1.07±0.33% signicantly
compared with that other natural resource-based bers like hemp, ax,
jute, and kenaf (Belouadah et al., 2015).
Fig. 5. Stress and Strain curve of Cyperus compactus ber.
Table 2
Mechanical properties of Cyperus compactus ber with some reference value.
Name of the
Fiber
Strength
(MPa)
Elongation at the
break (%)
Modulus
(GPa)
Reference
Cyperus
compactus
943±51.2 1.07±0.33 97.43
±34.26
Own Sample
Cyperus
pangorei
196±56 – 11.6 ±2.6 Mayandi et al.
(2016)
Corypha
taliera
43.24 18.09 – Tamanna
et al. (2021)
Fig. 6. TG and DTG Curve of Cyperus compactus ber.
A.K. Bhunia et al.
Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 5 (2023) 100286
7
3.6. Thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA)
The thermograms of CCP ber are represented in Fig. 6. It has been
observed that the thermal decay of Cyperus compactus ber exhibited
three stages of mass loss. In the early stage of degradation, there was a
loss of mass of about 4.66% within the range of temperature between
35◦C to 91.9◦C which is mainly imputed to the exhalation of moisture. In
the second breakdown stage, the maximum of around 71.72% of weight
loss occurred in selected ber samples in the intermediate temperature
range of 227◦C-374◦C. Because, the decay of chemical constituents, is
likely to be cellulose and hemicellulose (Indran & Raj, 2015; Sar-
avanakumar et al., 2014). The nal stage of breakdown is the decay of
lignin. Lignin is a most complex and undesirable polymer which had
required more time and temp. to degrade on account of its complex
nature. Though the lignin decay took place between 374◦C and 600◦C,
the degradation was initiated at a temp. above 200◦C (De Rosa et al.,
2010; Yang et al., 2007). This has been detected by the values of initial
degradation temperature (IDT) of raw Cyperus compactus ber were
227◦C. The same kind of initial breakdown temperature was also re-
ported for alternative natural resource-based bers, such as bagasse
(222.3 ◦C), kenaf (219 ◦C), cotton stalk (221.6◦C), rice husk (223.3◦C),
and wood maple (220.9◦C) (Yao et al., 2008). It was noticed that raw
ber exhibited an exothermic peak at 359◦C with a maximum decom-
position of 0.85 mg/min. From the TGA curve, it was observed that CCP
ber shows thermal durability up to 227◦C. The value of the activation
energy for Cyperus compactus bers is 118.90 kJ/mol.
3.7. Surface roughness (SR) analysis
Surface roughness has been indirectly co-related to the interfacial
adhesion between matrix and ber. In general, the primary strength of
the ber-reinforced mainly depends upon the interfacial adhesion be-
tween the CCP ber and the matrix (Mayandi et al., 2016). Moreover,
greater roughness facilitates a higher deposition of contaminants.
Hence, it’s far vital to look at the unevenness of the CCP ber surface, to
conduct the interfacial adhesion that can be anticipated. The mean
roughness (Ra) value of CCP ber is 1.979 µm (Fig. 7A).
3.8. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis
SEM micrograph of the longitudinal appearance of CCP ber surface
with lower and higher magnications represents the rough and more
uneven surface texture of Cyperus compactus ber noticed in (Fig. 8A,B).
The Cyperus compactus ber’s surface has cracks, micro-voids, and im-
purities, to its morphology. It shows regularly arranged and square-
shaped cell arrays over the entire ber surface. The micrograms of the
transverse section of the bers were presented in (Fig. 8C,D). From these
gures, it had been apparent that bers were multicellular and poly-
lamellated in nature. Such poly-lamellated bers occur in bamboo and
sorghum also (Parameswaran & Leise, 1975; Manimekalai et al., 2002).
In cross-sectional appearance, the CCP bers are mainly polygonal, with
round-shaped corners and oval to round lumens.
4. Conclusion
The novel lignocellulosic bers from the Cyperus compactus plant
were extracted by the method of normal water retting. From the above-
mentioned experimental results, several conclusions can be drawn. The
modulus, tensile strength and elongation of break of Cyperus compactus
has been concluded as 97.43 GPa, 943 MPa, and 1.07% respectively,
Fig. 7. (A) Roughness parameters. (B) 3-D Roughness surface texture and (C) 2-D Line diagram for roughness measurement of Cyperus compactus bers.
A.K. Bhunia et al.
Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 5 (2023) 100286
8
which are greater than some other natural resource-based bers. The
length of a single CCP ber is 379.11
μ
m and the diameter of a CCP ber
is 19.31
μ
m. The thermal investigation exhibits, very well thermal sta-
bility which is up to 227◦C. XRD and FTIR analysis conrmed that
Cyperus compactus ber is semicrystalline in nature. The roughness of
CCP ber is 1.979 µm. The SRA is indirectly co-related to the interfacial
adhesion among matrix and ber. Scanning electron micrograph
expressed the rough and uneven surface texture of Cyperus compactus
bers which can facilitate good mechanical bonding using matrix and it
is very useful in cottage industry. From above conclusion, it is observed
that CCP ber holds almost same mechanical, thermal and other prop-
erties as Cyperus pangorei ber (Mayandi et al., 2016) which has wide
applications in small scale industries.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to inuence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No external resource data was used for the research described in the
article. Own experimental data is used for this article.
Acknowledgement
We are expressing sincere gratitude to Central Research Facilities, IIT
Kharagpur for their instrumental support and also thankful to Ayan
Kumar Naskar for GIS map preparation. We are also thankful to Man-
otosh Pramanik, Prasenjit Das and Dipak Kumar Hazra for their help.
References
Baley, C. (2002). Analysis of the ax bers’ tensile behavior and analysis of the tensile
stiffness increase. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 33(7),
939–948. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-835X(02)00040-4
Belaadi, A., Bezazi, A., Bourchak, M., Scarpa, F., & Zhu, C. (2014). Thermochemical and
statistical mechanical properties of natural sisal bers. Composites Part B: Engineering,
67, 481–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2014.07.029
Belouadah, Z., Ati, A., & Rokbi, M. (2015). Characterization of new natural cellulosic
ber from Lygeum spartum L. Carbohydrate Polymers, 134, 429–437. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.08.024
De Mendonça Neuba, L., Pereira Junio, R. F., Ribeiro, M. P., Souza, A. T., de Sousa
Lima, E., Garcia Filho, F., et al. (2020). Promising mechanical, thermal, and ballistic
properties of novel epoxy composites reinforced with Cyperus malaccensis sedge
ber. Polymers, 12(8), 1776. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12081776
Fig. 8. SEM Micrograph of Cyperus compactus bers surface (A) The longitudinal view of Cyperus compactus bers in Lower magnication, (B) Higher magnication,
and (C) cross-sectional view of Cyperus compactus bers.
A.K. Bhunia et al.
Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 5 (2023) 100286
9
De Rosa, I. M., Kenny, J. M., Puglia, D., Santulli, C., & Sarasini, F. (2010). Morphological,
thermal, and mechanical characterization of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) bers as
potential reinforcement in polymer composites. Composites Science and Technology,
70(1), 116–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2009.09.013
Doree, C. (1950). The estimation of cellulose and lignin. The methods of cellulose chemistry
(pp. 352–375). London: Chapman and Hall Ltd.
Goering, H. D., & Vansoest, P. J. (1975). Forage ber analysis. Washington DC: U.S. Dept.
of Agriculture.
Hult, E. L., Iversen, T., & Sugiyama, J. (2003). Characterization of the super molecular
structure of cellulose in wood pulp bres. Cellulose (London, England), 10, 103–110.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024080700873
Indran, S., & Raj, R. E. (2015). Characterization of new natural cellulosic ber from
Cissus quadrangularis stem. Carbohydrate Polymers, 117, 392–399. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.09.072
John, M. J., & Anandjiwala, R. D. (2008). Recent developments in chemical modication
and characterization of natural ber-reinforced composites. Polymer Composites, 29
(2), 187–207. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.20461
Prado, K., & Spinac´
e, M. (2015). Characterization of bers from pineapple’s crown, rice
husks and cotton textile residues. Materials Research, 18, 530–537. https://doi.org/
10.1590/1516-1439.311514
Kommula, V. P., Reddy, K. O., Shukla, M., Marwala, T., Reddy, E. V. S., & Rajulu, A. V.
(2016). Extraction, modication, and characterization of natural lignocellulosic ber
strands from Napier grass. International Journal of Polymer Analysis and
Characterization, 21(1), 18–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/1023666X.2015.1089650
Kommula, V. P., Obi Reddy, K., Shukla, D. M., Marwala, T., & Rajulu, A. V. (2013).
Physico-chemical, tensile, and thermal characterization of Napier grass (Native
African) ber strands. International Journal of Polymer Analysis and Characterization,
18, 303–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/1023666X.2013.784935
Rabek, J. F. (1980). Experimental methods in polymer chemistry: Physical principles and
applications (p. 507). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Maheswari, C., Obi Reddy, K., Muzenda, E., Guduri, B., & Rajulu, A. V. (2012). Extraction
and characterization of cellulose microbrils from agricultural residue-Cocos nucifera
L. Biomass and Bioenergy, 46, 555–563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
biombioe.2012.06.039
Manimekalai, V., Ravichandran, P., & Balasubramanian, A. (2002). Fibers of Sorghum
bicolor (L.) Moench and their potential in paper and board making. Phytomorphology,
52, 61–68.
Mayandi, K., Rajini, N., Pitchipoo, P., Sreenivasan, V. S., Winowlin, J. T., &
Alavudeen, A. (2015). A comparative study on characterisations of Cissus
quadrangularis and Phoenix reclinata natural bres. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and
Composites, 34, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731684415570045
Mayandi, K., Rajini, N., Pitchipoo, P., Jappes, J. T. W., & Rajulu, A. V. (2016). Extraction
and characterization of new natural lignocellulosic ber Cyperus pangorei.
International Journal of Polymer Analysis and Characterization, 21(2), 175–183.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1023666X.2016.1132064
Mwaikambo, L. Y., & Ansell, M. P. (2002). Chemical modication of hemp, sisal, jute,
and kapok bers by alkalization. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 84(12),
2222–2234. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.10460
Reddy, K. O., Ashok, B., Reddy, K. R. N., Feng, Y. E., Zhang, J., & Rajulu, A. V. (2014).
Extraction and characterization of novel lignocellulosic bers from thespesia lampas
plant. International Journal of Polymer Analysis and Characterization, 19(1), 48–61.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1023666X.2014.854520
Parameswaran, N., & Liese, W. (1975). On the polylamellate structure of parenchyma
wall in Phyllostachys edulis. IAWA Bulletin, 4, 57–58.
Park, S., Baker, J. O., Himmel, M. E., Parilla, A. P., & Johnson, K. D. (2010). Cellulose
crystallinity index: Measurement techniques and their impact on interpreting
cellulase performance. Biotechnology for Biofuels and Bioproducts, 3, 10. https://doi.
org/10.1186/1754-6834-3-10
J Purnawati, R., Febrianto, F., Wistara, I. N., Nikmatin, S., Hidayat, W., Lee, S. H., et al.
(2018). Physical and chemical properties of kapok (Ceiba pentandra) and balsa
(Ochroma pyramidale) bers. Journal of the Korean Wood Science and Technology.
The Korean Society of Wood Science Technology, 46(4), 393–401. https://doi.org/
10.5658/wood.2018.46.4.393.
Sadasivam, S., & Manickam, A. (2021). Biochemical methods. New Delhi: New Age
International Publishers (P) Ltd.
Saravanakumar, S. S., Kumaravel, A., Nagarajan, T., Sudhakar, P., & Baskaran, R. (2013).
Characterization of a novel natural cellulosic ber from Prosopis juliora bark.
Carbohydrate Polymers, 92(2), 1928–1933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
carbpol.2012.11.064
Saravanakumar, S. S., Kumaravel, A., Nagarajan, T., & Moorthy, I. G. (2014).
Investigation of physico-chemical properties of alkali-treated Prosopis juliora bers.
International Journal of Polymer Analysis and Characterization, 19(4), 309–317.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1023666X.2014.902527
Saravanan, N., Sampath, P., & Sukantha, T. (2016). Extraction and characterization of
new cellulose ber from the Agrowaste of Lagenaria Siceraria (Bottle Guard) plant.
Journal of Advances in Chemistry, 12(9), 4382–4388. https://doi.org/10.24297/jac.
v12i9.3991
Show, S. (2018). Economics of mat sticks cultivation and mat industry: A study in Sabong
block of Paschim Medinipur district of West Bengal. Research Review International
Journal of Multidisciplinary, 03(08), 663–671.
Shukla, U., Rao, K. V., & Rakshit, A. K. (2003). Thermotropic liquid-crystalline polymers:
Synthesis, characterization, and properties of poly (azomethine esters). Journal of
Applied Polymer Science, 88, 153–160. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.11618
Simpson, D. A., Furness, C. A., Hodkinson, T. R., Muasya, A. M., & Chase, M. W. (2003).
Phylogenetic relationships in Cyperaceae subfamily Mapanioideae inferred from
pollen and plastid DNA sequence data. American Journal of Botany, 90(7),
1071–1086. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.90.7.1071
Smilgies, D. M. (2009). Scherrer grain-size analysis adapted to grazing-incidence
scattering with area detectors. Journal of Applied Crystallography, 42(6), 1030–1034.
https://doi.org/10.1107/S0021889809040126
Suryanto, H., Marsyahyo, E., Irawan, Y. S., & Soenoko, R. (2014). Morphology, structure,
and mechanical properties of natural cellulose ber from mendong grass (Fimbristylis
globulosa). Journal of Natural Fibers, 11(4), 333–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/
15440478.2013.879087
Tamanna, T. A., Belal, S. A., Shibly, M. A. H., & Khan, A. N. (2021). Characterization of a
new natural ber extracted from Corypha taliera fruit. Scientic Reports, 11(1), 7622.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-87128-8
Tejavathi, D. H., & Nijalingappa, B. H. M. (1990). Cytological studies in some members of
cyperaceae. Cytologia, 55(3), 363–372. https://doi.org/10.1508/cytologia.55.363
Thakur, V. K., & Singha, A. S. (2011). Physicochemical and mechanical behavior of
cellulosic pine needle-based biocomposites. International Journal of Polymer Analysis
and Characterization, 16(6), 390–398. https://doi.org/10.1080/
1023666X.2011.596303
Uma Maheswari, C., Obi Reddy, K., Varada Rajulu, A., & Guduri, B. R. (2008). Tensile
properties and thermal degradation parameters of tamarind fruit bers. Journal of
Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 27(16–17), 1827–1832. https://doi.org/10.1177/
0731684407087559
Vijay, R., Singaravelu, D. L., Vinod, A., Paul Raj, I. D. F., Sanjay, M. R., & Siengchin, S.
(2020). Characterization of novel natural ber from saccharum bengalense grass
(Sarkanda). Journal of Natural Fibers, 17, 1739–1747. https://doi.org/10.1080/
15440478.2019.1598914
Yang, H., Yan, R., Chen, H., Lee, D. H., & Zheng, C. (2007). Characteristics of
hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin pyrolysis. Fuel, 86(12), 1781–1788. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.fuel.2006.12.013
Yao, F., Wu, Q., Lei, Y., Guo, W., & Xu, Y. (2008). Thermal decomposition kinetics of
natural bers: Activation energy with dynamic thermogravimetric analysis. Polymer
Degradation and Stability, 93(1), 90–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
polymdegradstab.2007.10.012
A.K. Bhunia et al.
