(PDF) How Emerging Technologies and Skills have Contributed to the Agricultural and Consumer Goods Sectors in Africa

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 1

EDUCOR MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL

The Educor Multidisciplinary Journal (EMJ) is an academic journal that encourages and

embraces research from all disciplines.

Editorial Policy

Research and the development of fledgling academic researchers in higher education is of

major importance within the ambit of regulatory and academic requirements. It is also an

academic developmental imperative. The EMJ is a blind peer-reviewed multidisciplinary

academic journal that draws from various disciplines to gain a broad understanding, a well-

developed perspective, or to discover something new. It brings diverse academic disciplines

together to discuss and view issues from each of their perspectives. The journal is the official

academic journal of the Educor group of companies and is published annually. Due to the

variety and scope of academic offerings in the Educor group, the journal is generalist in nature

as the focus is multidisciplinary.

The EMJ provides a platform for new and established researchers and academics to publish

and share their research expositions. As such, it is a developmental academic journal that falls

in the ambit of the Educor academic developmental and training strategy. The following types

of research are welcomed by the Editorial Board of the EMJ:

• Empirical research

• Conceptual research

• Case studies

The journal provides open access to its content, at no cost or prior registration online. We

promote the principle that making research freely available to the public supports a greater

global exchange of knowledge. In the same vein, the process of submission, revision, and

publishing of texts is also free of charge to the authors. It is noted that the expressed opinions,

accuracy of facts, and interpretations published in the EMJ are those of the authors and do not

necessarily represent the views of the Educor group.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 2

Guidelines for Contributing Authors

The following guidelines must be adhered to:

• All submissions and communication should be addressed to editor@educor.co.za.

• The EMJ accepts only articles in English.

• Articles are to be submitted in MS Word format in Times New Roman, 12-point font

size, and using one-and-a-half spacing.

• The submitted article must be accompanied by a letter from the author(s) that states that

the article has not been submitted for publication elsewhere.

• No article that has already been submitted in full or in part for publication in another

journal will be accepted by the editorial committee of the EMJ.

• All illustrations should be appropriately numbered and be part of only one document.

• All submissions will be guided by the research office in terms of the agreed guidelines

of submission.

• There must be a clear indication of joint publications, co-authors, and the corresponding

author.

• The declared Educor Harvard style of referencing must be used.

Blind Peer Review

Initial submissions are sent to a peer reviewer for comment. The peer reviewer reviews the

significance of the article, its contribution to knowledge in the field of study, the originality of

the work, the validity of the discourse, the use of references, valid recommendations, and an

overview of judgment of the article. Feedback from the reviewer is then forwarded to the author

for revision (if necessary).

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 3

Ethics Declaration

The EMJ is committed to assuring the ethics of its published papers. The editorial committee

applies the principles of transparency and best practice in scholarly publishing. The editorial

committee is dedicated to publishing corrections, explanations, withdrawals, and apologies,

when necessary. The EMJ is committed to integrity and academic rigour.

For this reason, plagiarism is not acceptable. To protect the integrity of Educor, fraudulent

content will be removed or will become unpublished. When accepting the terms and

agreements expressed by our journal, the authors must guarantee that the paper and the

materials associated with it are original and do not infringe authors’ rights. In cases of shared

authorship, co-authors must justify full consensus and guarantee that the work has not been

previously published in any other format.

Frequency of Publication and Format

The EMJ will be published annually.

The Editors in Chief

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal

Educor Holdings

57 Underwood Road

Pinetown

3610

Tel: +27-31-7133800

Email: editor@educor.co.za

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 4

Editor-in-Chief

Dr Trishana Ramluckan Educor

Editorial Committee

Dr Alexia Cox Educor

Professor Ephias Ruhode Cape Peninsula University of Technology

Professor Henriette Hayswemmer BA Isago University, Botswana

Professor Jeevarathnam Govender Durban University of Technology

Professor Jobo Dubihlela Cape Peninsula University of Technology

Professor Loganadhan Naidoo Magosuthu University of Technology

Professor Peter Wyer London College of International Business

Studies, UK

Professor Pius Tanga University of Fort Hare

Dr Albert Mubako Institute for Digital Strategy (IDBS)

Dr Dayaeethie Veerasamy Durban University of Technology

Dr Michael Twum Darko Cape Peninsula University of Technology

Dr Stuart Warden Cape Peninsula University of Technology

Brigth Molale North-West University

Disclaimer

The publisher and the editor cannot be held responsible for any consequences arising from the

use of information contained in this journal. The views and opinions expressed do not

necessarily reflect those of the publisher or the editor.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal                                            Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020 
ISSN: 2520-4254     Page | 5  
 
Table of Contents 
 
Factors that Influence In-Migration in the Gauteng Province ........................................................................ 6 
Modipadi Poincettia Thobejane 
The Impact of COVID-19 on South African Education and the Social System ................................................ 22 
Awa Linus Tambu 
Using SNSs to increase public engagement with radio stations: Jacaranda FM and Facebook ...................... 50 
Moses Ofome Asak, Tshepang Bright Molale, Abiodun Salawu 
The Contribution of Emerging Technologies and Skills to the Agricultural and Consumer Goods Sectors in 
Two Countries in Africa .............................................................................................................................. 70 
Albert T Mubako 
The Predictive Modelling of Academic Performance Using Neural Networks ............................................... 85 
Francis Makombe 
Apathy: A Conundrum to Sustainable Community Development A Reflection Based on Student Social 
Workers’Experiences in Community Engagement Exercises in Zinyoka Village in Alice in the Province of the 
Eastern Cape, South Africa ......................................................................................................................... 99 
George Chikono 
The Economic Significance of Taxi Rank Businesses: A Narrative of East Rand Mall Taxi Rank Businesses ...122 
Thabiso Mathabathe 
Challenges facing the implementation of public policies in South Africa since the dawn of democracy. ......141 
Thato Seopetsa 
Organisational Stress in the South African Telecommunications Industry ...................................................176 
Tinuade A. Ojo 
 
 
  

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 6

Factors that Influence In-Migration in the Gauteng Province

Modipadi Poincettia Thobejane

Modipadi.thobejane24@gmail.com

A high in-migration rate has been identified as the cause of overpopulation in the Gauteng

province. The purpose of this paper is to determine the socio-economic factors that influence

the high rate of in-migration in the Gauteng province. The study used data from the 2001

census which recorded a total population of 425752 in the age group 15-35. Participants

qualified if they had in-migrated to the Gauteng province between 2001 and 2011. Bi-variate

analysis using chi-square was used to analyse the data. The results indicated that 43.1% of the

respondents in-migrated to the Gauteng province between the ten-year period. The results

indicate that these respondents believed that in-migrating to the Gauteng province would better

their lives due to it being an urban area with seemingly better social opportunities. There was

a higher number of men in-migrants than female in-migrants, although many wives followed

their husbands. The study recommends that opportunities in rural areas, with programmes that

intensely promote recreational activities should be created.

Keywords: In-migration, Gauteng province, population

1. Introduction

Migration according to Kainth (2010) is a geographical mobility between one unit to another,

including a change of residence from the place of origin to the place of destination, which also

is a factor of normal population change within a nation.

The concern of migration in the societies that welcome migrants is the impact that these

migrants have. This includes changes to national socio-economic and political events that

hinder development. Globally migration is now known to play a in shaping plans for social,

economic and political development. (Sengupta and Chatterjee, 2011:25). While analysing the

impact of migration around the world, Sengupta and Chatterjee (2011, 71) firstly note the

impact of the brain drain phenomenon’, In Central Asia, for example, the’ brain drain’ began

in the early 1990s, when students and scientists were pushed into working for donor and

recipient countries due to receiving low-incomes. This resulted in the West not only having

higher standards of living due to the in-migrants services, but also the problem of language

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 7

adaptation and untraditional cultural environment, caused an increase of illegal migrants to

increase change of demographic structure of the population and infectious diseases for those

that did not seemingly get jobs as expected (Sengupta and Chatterjee, 2011: 71).

Statistics South Africa (2011) illustrated the level of population change by percentage in South

Africa to the Gauteng province in-migrants from 2001-2007, as follows: Western Cape by

16,7%, the Eastern Cape by 4,0%, the Northern Cape by 6,7%, Free State by 2,5% , KwaZulu-

Natal by 7,0% , North West province by 2,4% , Mpumalanga by 8,3% and lastly Limpopo by

4,9% .The overall of in-migration of the population percentage changed to 8.2% in the

Gauteng province.

“Comparing the population percentage changes in the three periods, 1996-2001 showed a

change of 10.4% and, 2007-2011 showed a change of 6.7%. This shows that the changes

occurred per province as migration occurred. The results show a noticeable decrease of -2% in

the percentage share of the total population of Northern Cape from 1996 to 2001, Statistics

(2011). However, both Community Survey 2007 and Census 2011 show an increase in the total

population of Northern Cape (6, 7% and 8, 3% respectively). Gauteng, Western Cape, and

KwaZulu-Natal show an increase in the population share of 15%, 10, 3% and 0, 1% in 2007 to

2011, respectively.

The percentage change levels may strongly be tied to transformation and livelihood strategies

of the rural and peri-urban population. Others migrate for work, or health reasons. Some

migrate to study. Women aged 15–35 years were very likely to conduct permanent migration

for marriage reasons. Culturally, this is usually associated with a present wealth transferred

from the destination household to the household of origin (Carol, Camlin, Rachel, Snow and

Hosegood, 2014).

For older adult age groups, the likelihood of movement was less. Marriage-related reasons were

still important for women and increasingly so for men, and employment was the driving force

behind migration moving for reasons of union formation or dissolution were primary drivers

of permanent migration among young women (Carol et al., 2014). In other parts of the world,

migration policies have been implemented due to the knowing of heavy influx of migrants in

cities of developing countries. Should there be no policy implementation, problems of

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 8

accommodation, slums, squatter settlements, electricity supply, sanitation, traffic jams and

overall a decline in quality and standard of urban life arise (Khan, 2010:133).

The trends of urbanisation are as follows: 47% of the world’s population were located in urban

areas in 2001, which increased by 3% to make a 50% in 2007.UNHSP have highlighted that

globally, all of the population increases are absorbed by the urban areas of the less developed

regions. This will mostly occur in Asia and Africa where the annual urban population growth

is projected to be 2.4%. The rural population of these continents is projected to grow very

slowly at just 0.2% per year and will remain nearly stable at 3.2 billion of the population

(UNHSP, 2003:25).

2. Problem Statement

The high levels of urbanisation lead to problems of over-population, traffic congestion, the

formation of slums, and pollution which could negatively affect the receiving areas. Now, as

people migrate from rural to urban areas, it illustrates that the rural habitat lacks resources.

Through this, the population density decreases and an increase is visible in the destination,

hence the place of destination will experience the unevenness of change over time causing

rural-urban peripheries. This results in a term called urbanisation (Khan,2010: 139). This

causes the density of the area where migrants are packed to increase as compared to other areas.

The livelihood system of the urban area is different from that of the rural area as it has services

and is industrialised and is greater in terms of development.

The problem arises when the area becomes overpopulated. Overpopulation is a condition where

the size of the population exceeds the carrying capacity of its habitat, which is balanced by the

size of the population and the available resources to sustain the resources provided in the

environment for sustenance (Khan, 2010:141).

Problems that occur as a result of overpopulation include the formation of slums. According to

UNHSP (2003, 8) the term ‘slum’ is generally used to describe a wide range of low-income

settlements and poor human living conditions. The assurance of land is at the dweller’s own

risk because slum dwellers are usually ‘informal settlers’ and do not own the land they live on.

Poor housing structures, unsafe houses, overcrowding, poor sanitation, and a lack of adequate

water characterises slums.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 9

Proper houses are not always available to migrants who move to urban areas; so, they often

end up in sites peripheral to the cities. Usually, these migrants do not have the skills required

for urban employment. This leads to poverty and crime. The main forms of crime in slums

include drug trafficking and prostitution. Crime in the city can create a sense of insecurity in

its inhabitants (UNHSP, 2003: 8).

Health problems are common in the poorer centres of urban areas, where diseases are caused

by pathogens in water, food, soil, or air. Poor environment, housing, and living conditions are

reasons for diseases like cholera, tuberculosis, diarrhoea and poor health. This also causes other

problems to emerge, like water pollution as a result of a lack of sanitation, sewage treatment,

poor drainage of runoff water. This, in turn contributes to the transfer of viruses and bacteria

in the environment (UNHSP, 2003: 8).

3. Objectives of Study

• To assess if employment influences in-migration in the Gauteng province.

• To determine if education level has an impact on in-migration in the Gauteng province.

• To confirm if marital status, is associated with the level of in-migration in the Gauteng

province.

4. Research Questions

• To what extent does the availability of employment in the Gauteng province will

influence in-migration?

• How does the level of education impact on in-migration in the Gauteng province?

• Do Women tend to in-migrate due to marriage obligations with/to their husbands/males

and what skills do students need for the acquisition of knowledge during workplace

practice?

5. Literature Review

The literature review examines the various factors that may impact in- migration. Skeldon

(1990) and other authors like Connell, Dasgupta, Laishley and Lipton (1976) have argued that

migration is likely to occur due to an individual’s level of fulfilment or discontent with the

place of origination that particular point in time, and where there is a difference between a

person’s objectives and a place’s service. Skeldon’s concern (1990, 126) regarding migration

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 10

rates was that the rate of urban growth and the contribution of in- migration was seen to

contribute to the problems faced in host urban areas. In the case of people moving from areas

of lesser opportunities to areas of greater opportunities seemingly in the urban area.

Rambe (2018:2-3) further explains that since learning is a process of human adaptation,

students need to be involved with workplace practice in order to reconstruct, improve and

provide a balanced learning experience. According to Kolb and Kolb (2009:42), the

educational and industrial learning space itself is multifaceted – both organisational and

managerial performance has been entwined into the learning curve as a learning system and

process of learning. This enabled the educational scholars to debate on the need to shift their

primary focus from classroom learning to other forms of learning, including workplace

practice.

5.1 Apartheid and migration

Connell et al (1976, 40) states that, in the context of migration, apartheid leveraged the

movement of black people to urban areas. That was severely controlled by the white

government, to lessen the movement of blacks from the rural areas, into the white urban areas

hence the movement was temporary into the urban places. Urbanisation, which is defined as

an increase in the proportion of people in urban areas, was firmly regulated. Thus, after the

apartheid era, rural migrants were able to mobilise to urban areas and dwell in those areas for

opportunities they had been restricted from for so long.

Kok, Gelderblom, Oucho, and Van Zyl (2006, 107) state that the creation of homelands and

the laws regarding residence in the country effectively treated Africans in South Africa as

foreign residents. Such that the rules allowing Africans to work in urban South Africa, were

like the rules for the guest workers in European countries, where they could not obtain

citizenship. Although these guest workers in European countries could have their families with

them. In South Africa women were left in the homelands and men went to work in the urban

areas.

5.2 Rural-urban migration

The UNHSP (2003, 25) add that the main features of urbanisation have been determined by

political factors, such as civil war and repression as well asthe economic, environmental and

social factors. Due to the limited off-farm employment in the rural areas’ migrants move to

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 11

seek seemingly greater employment opportunities in the urban areas. As a result, the UNHSP

(2003,26) question, why poor rural populations continually move to the city, even when there

are apparently no jobs for them and they have to live in slums with what might appear to be a

lower quality of life in a vulnerable situation and separated from everything they know.

Apart from focusing on the expansion of secondary industry, Skeldon (1990, 126) and Connell

et al., (1976, 126) explain that, for people to move from one rural area to an urban area has

generally been associated with some displeasure of the conditions in the rural areas and that

their expectations could be realised in the area of destination (the urban areas). These are known

as push-pull factors. Rural poverty, associated with the absence of credit facilities, pushes

people out of rural areas. The ‘push’ includes a lack of educational facilities, a lack of rural

employment opportunities, low rural incomes, and social tensions in communities. The

availability of higher paid jobs, and better education, health services and entertainment can pull

people towards urban areas.

Adding to Connell et al., (1976), for Carley, Jenkins and Smith (2001,6) state that “although

city life is attractive for many, its conditions can be difficult. The explosive growth of motor

vehicle traffic and the spread of low-density suburban settlement patterns present challenges

to urban governance. Urban sprawl reduces the rural land resource and can generate a range of

negative causes which will pressure development. Then, in the absence of strong land use

planning, people and businesses enter a brutal cycle of attempting to escape congestion by

relocating to the urban fringe”.

5.3 Education and migration

Looking into education, Connell et al., (1976,61) state that educational status is a marketable

commodity hence schooling is used specifically to gain better employment for an individual,

and the location of such employment requires one to migrate. Education is viewed as an

instrument to remove individuals from the rural land. Urban incomes rise substantially for the

employed, and that increasingly educational qualifications are used by employers to select

people for formal employment. The question remains as to how the pattern of migration shifts

with different levels of education. Thus, Skeldon (1990, 161) proposes that migrants are readily

absorbed into an urban labour force and that they contribute significantly to increasing levels

of unemployment in the cities. “As a result, unemployment is probably the main problem and

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 12

is conceivably the root cause of many other problems such as crime and violence. It is the

greatest single cause of poverty” (Skeldon, 1990: 161).

Connell et al., (1976, 63) argue that the use of educational qualifications is a selection device

for urban employment, and the high level of income that such employment offers is different

to rural incomes. If this is so, then the increasing rates of schooling imply an increase in

migration from the rural areas to urban ones, which also assumes an expansion of urban

employment to match the increased output.

Connell et al., (1976, 77) reasoned that there is some evidence that the proportion of migrants

to towns is greatest in the population nearby villages at an early stage of urbanisation, but that

in more distant villages at later stages. Ideas on urban opportunities eventually diffuse to the

most distant villages: those closer to the town (urban area). Connell et al., (1976, 77) also

included that the choice of destination will be largely determined by the type of migration-

seasonal, circular or permanent in which the migrant intends to partake.

As a result, Skeldon (1990:209), determined that migration results in the rapid growth of cities.

Such that the traditional view is that migrants from rural areas flood cities with a multitude of

people, swelling poverty-ridden squatter settlements and threatening the stability of a nation.

Skeldon (1990, 152) further argues that the move of population from rural areas to urban areas

in the majority of developing countries has not been particularly fast, and the principal

component of the rapid urban growth has often been the natural growth of the urban-based

populations themselves rather than the net addition of migrants.

5.4 Gender ratio of migrants

Historically more males migrated from neighbouring countries to South Africa than females

because males were recruited by the mines for hard labour. One can assume that this is because

of many of the in-migrants had moved to South Africa specifically for employment. (Kok et

al, 2006:176). One reason for migrating to South Africa is because South Africa is seen as a

country of opportunities, where conditions are better than in the migrant’s country of origin.

However, Kok et al., (2006, 181) explain that half of in-migrants did not have previous

knowledge about their destination and therefore, are dissatisfied when they reach it.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 13

5.5 Theories of migration

Although there are many theories of migration, this paper looks only at Ravenstein’s laws and

Lee’s theory. Ravenstein identified a set of generalisations, which he called ‘laws of migration’

and stated that while females are more mobile than males in their countries of birth, males more

frequently venture beyond these. He adds that migration is highly age selective where working-

age adults display a greater propensity to migrate Cohen (1996). According to Ravenstein, the

volume of migration increases with the process of the diversification of the economy and

improvements in transport facilities. He also states that migration occurs mainly due to

economic reasons.

Lee’s proposed a comprehensive theory of migration in 1966. He begins his formulations with

factors, which lead to the spatial mobility of the population in any area, and factors associated

with the place of origin and factors associated with the place of destination, Intervening

obstacles, and lastly, Personal factors. According to Lee, each place possesses a set of positive

and negative factors. While positive factors are the circumstances that act to hold people within

it or attract people from other areas, negative factors tend to repel them. In addition to these,

there are factors, which remain neutral, and to which people are essentially indifferent. While

some of these factors affect most of the people in the area, others tend to have differential

effects (Cohen,1996).

6. Research Methodology

6.1 Research method

The study used quantitative data obtained from the 2011 South African census data. This was

the third census to take place in a post-apartheid South Africa and provided the country with

inclusive and nationally symbolic demographic data for the different areas of the country. This

census data provides information pertaining to in-migration between different provinces and

factors associated with it.

6.1.1 Data collection

The data was collected by 130 000 temporary employees of Statistics South Africa. The

employees visited numerous metros, cities, towns, townships, informal settlements, villages,

farms, and deep rural areas throughout the country. This paper looks specifically at the

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 14

information acquired from the Gauteng province as its main concern is to determine in-

migration in this particular province (Statistics South Africa, 2011).

The Statistics South Africa employees were tasked with recording the details of the people who

were present in the country on the night of 10 October 2011. A list had to be compiled of all

dwelling units for each EA in each EA census summary book. Each list worker had a minimum

of four EA’s to cover. These four or more grouped EAs were called supervisory units. Each

list worker became the superior of the work of the enumerators in the EAs that they had listed.

Following on the listing process, over 100 000 enumerators were recruited to count the people

in each EA. Training of enumerators started in earnest after recruitment.

People living in households across Gauteng, as well as those in hostels, hotels, The poor, the

rich, the homeless, those in transit at hotels, the young and the old, boys and girls, men and

women, the disabled, the educated and the schooled, the wise, the blue collar, the white collar,

those on the edge, the sick, the healthy, the unemployed and the employed, those in educational

institutions, those in the province under whatever conditions, legal or not, it matters less, there

is no difference among yourselves, hospitals and all other types of communal living quarters,

and even the homeless, were all visited in preparation for the count (Statistics SA, 2011).

“Geographically, the country had to be divided into small pockets of land called enumeration

areas (EA). The underlying principle for this sub-division is that an EA should be within easy

reach of a fieldworker, and all households in that EA can be covered within the allocated

number of days for the count. This process yielded 103 576 EAs, each containing an average

of 150 households, or in the case of communal living quarters, an equivalent workload. One

enumerator was allocated to each EA to visit all the households and individuals in the EA and

complete a questionnaire or leave a questionnaire to be filled in” (Statistics SA, 2011).

Data was collected by the fieldworkers temporarily employed by Statistics SA, who visited

dwellings of all types in South Africa to complete questionnaires about their employment

statuses, educational levels and marital statuses. The questionnaire carried a subset of the

census questions and sought to discover the whereabouts of each household member on census

night (Statistics SA, 2011).

6.1.2 Study population

There are different types of informal settlements in South Africa. The first type of informal

settlement is the low-density peri-urban which comprises of informal settlements from the

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 15

Winterveld area to the northwest of Pretoria. This type of informal settlement is constituted of

people who were forcibly relocated from an urban area and literally “dumped” in the nearest

homeland during the apartheid period. The other type of informal settlement can be attributed

to land invasion which occurs on pockets of land that lie within the municipal boundaries. All

informal areas outlined above share the same characteristics namely high-density areas, with

poor infrastructure and services, like the rural areas (Abbott, Martinez, and Huchzermeyer,

2001).

6.1.3 Questionnaire design

According to Statistics SA (2011) the population aged 15-35 migrants had three questions

which estimates of migration in any geographic area of the country, if the respondents have

ever moved, on the month moved and the year moved in that area.

6.1.4 Data analysis

The data obtained during the census is quantitative. The software that the research used was

the IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 23 using the chi-square to calculate the

level of significance to see if there is a relationship between the variables, which is a

descriptive, because the data obtained was from the 2011 census. The data was analysed

through the level of the bi-variate which is meant to assess the level of association between

dependent and independent variable known to be the relationship between internal migration

(the response variable) and the different predictors of concern or objectives.

6.1.5 Variables

The outcome variables of the study since 2001 were measured using the Gauteng province and

age group. The independent variables included levels of education, marital statuses, and

employment statuses. For the highest level of education achieved by the in-migrants, the

categories used included no education, some primary education, some secondary education,

higher education, and other. Marital status was grouped into two categories: ever married

(married, those living together, widows, separated and divorced) and never married. Five

categories of population group were provided for: black African, coloured, Asian, white and

other. Employment status included employed, unemployed, discouraged work seeker, and

other (not economically active). Province of the previous residence was grouped for both male

and female and place of residence was categorised as follows: urban areas, traditional areas

and farm areas.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 16

7. Result and discussion of the study

7.1 Respondents by age group

Table 1 shows the percentage of respondents who in-migrated to the Gauteng prorvince by the

different variables mentioned earlier. Starting with the age group variable, most of those who

migrated to Gauteng were between the ages of 25 and 29, showing a high influx of young adults

into the province. This age group is then followed by age group 30-34 in percentage of 47,18%

which concludes that most of the in-migrants are between 20 and 34 years old. The results

show that the differences between the age groups were significant with X2= 11129.904a, (p<

.005).

Table:1 Socio-economic variables

Variable

Did not

migrate

Migrated

Total count

X2 Value

Significance

Age groups

15-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35

72.2%

57.1%

50.42%

52.82%

55.7%

27.8%

42.9%

49.58%

47.18%

44.3%

79579

109176

119768

98809

18420

X2=11129.904a

p< .005

Population group

Black African

Coloured

Indian or Asian

White

Other

58.3%

68.9%

45.1%

46.6%

23.8%

41.7%

31.1%

54.9%

53.4%

76.2%

354189

13529

10828

45133

2073

X2=4548.311a

p< .005

Marital status

Married

Living together

Never married

Widower/widow

40.7%

43.1%

64.8%

56.9%

59.3%

56.9%

35.2%

43.1%

82858

60712

277528

1062

X2=20677.144a

p< .005

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 17

Separated

Divorced

57.0%

47.0%

43.0%

53.0%

1660

1932

Official employment

status

Employed

Unemployed

DWS

OEA

45.3%

64.0%

66.6%

67.0%

54.7%

36.0%

33.4%

33.0%

185052

94263

16964

129473

X2=18156.215a

p< .005

Grouped level of

education.

No schooling

Some primary

Completed P

Some Sec

Grade 12

Higher

Other

55.5%

55.1%

54.4%

61.9%

58.6%

40.2%

44.5%

44.9%

45.6%

38.1%

41.1%

59.8%

6122

13661

11458

170244

160315

62199

1753

X2=9279.115a

p< .005

7.2 Respondents by population group

In terms of the population group, the table shows that a majority of those who in-migrated to

the Gauteng identify as “other”. Table 1 also shows that the Indian or Asian population

group is the second largest. The white population group was the third highest among those who

in-migrated, followed by the black population. This difference was significant with X2= 4548.

311a, (p< .005).

7.3 Respondents by marital status

In the marital status, the population of those married was high compared to the population of

those who lived together and the other marital population statuses. This shows that most of the

in-migrants are married. The differences were significant., with X2= 20677. 1442, (p<0.005).

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 18

7.4 Respondents by employment status

The official employment status category shows that the employed were more likely to in-

migrate to the Gauteng province. The discouraged work seekers (DWS) also followed those of

the unemployed with a lesser percentage. It could therefore be concluded that most in-migrants

are those who have moved due to job opportunities in the province. The differences were

significant, with X2= 18156.215a, (p<0.005).

7.5 Respondents by level of education

In the level of education, the population with the highest to in-migrate are those who have

accumulated a higher education. The difference was significant, with X2= 2979. 115a,

(p<0.005).

8. Conclusion

The aim of this study was to determine the different factors influencing in-migration in the

Gauteng province.

The circumstances that influence moving to the Gauteng province can be economic, social,

political, or environmental. Economic reasons for moving to a province include finding a better

place of employment for one’s career path. Social reasons for moving may include looking

for better quality of life or to be closer to family and friends. In this research study, age and sex

have also been considered to determine if these influence in-migration.

The married population group is the highest group to in-migrate compared to other marital

statuses in the study, therefore, reasons that the more the people get married the more it is likely

for them to move to other better places to start a new life with their new partners, this goes in

favour for reasoning with the sex variable whereby males are more dominant to migrate than

females. The results of the survey support Ravenstein assertion that migration occurs mainly

due to economic reasons (Cohen,1996).

This supports the argument stated by Skeldon (1990:174) from the literature that, most people

migrate due to one spouse moving due to employment. It can be proven by the results of the

study that the primary reasons for marital status high in-migration is the start of a marital union,

or a person moving to stay with a spouse or to stay and live like married partners. Culturally,

this is usually associated with a dowry or bride wealth transferred from the destination

household to the household of origin.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 19

The data obtained by the 2011 census shows that those who move to the Gauteng province tend

to have accumulated a higher education. This research study is therefore allowed to go in favour

with what Kok et al., (2006, 100) argued on the cases that more people who migrate, migrate

to seek better quality education and better improvements in their lives. The force mainly was

schooling. On the other hand, ‘work’ was a primary driving force behind in-migration to

urban areas.

Urbanisation attracts people to cities, and this leads to overpopulation which results in scarcity

of houses, insufficient space for housing cause overcrowding and the development of slums,

where sewage facilities are inadequate and health facilities are poor, leading to the spread of

diseases. As a result, municipalities and local government face a serious resource crisis. This

is because the land distribution in the Gauteng province is small compared to other provinces

in South Africa (Khan, 2010: 133).

9. Recommendations

With all the issues surrounding in-migration in the Gauteng province, the first step to finding

solutions is to firstly investigate the problems faced by people in their place of origin, otherwise

known as ‘pushfactors, as identified in Lee’s migration theory.

Since most rural areas are assumed to have arable land, local governemts of provinces with

rural areas should allow a better flow of agricultural activities which include the young

population, allowing school leavers to be employed so that they are not forced to seek work in

the Gauteng province. In doing so, the demand for labour will be increased in rural areas and

the overpopulation of the Gauteng province may be lessened. By providing additional

programmes of choice of people may elect to remain in their localities rather than migrating.

In this paper migration has been shown to be selective of age, gender, level of education,

professional status, marital status, etc. This study understands that the migration structure has

been partly examined because of what happened during the apartheid era. To reduce the in-

flow of migrants to the Gauteng province, there must be a direct proportion to the number of

opportunities and the number of migrants to the intervening obstacles from oth rural and urban

areas. So that the volume of migration from the rural to the urban is not only associated with

the high number of people from rural areas but also with the number of opportunities available.

This study recommends that the Gauteng province and all the provinces should create more

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 20

jobs so that people can take good care of their families and lower the costs of basic health care

with the goal of reducing diseases and population growth.

10. Conclusion

If the South African government would make the rural dwellers understand that not only urban

areas can bring about better opportunities, by also developing opportunities and balancing

service distribution in both the rural and urban areas this will be a major step in the right

direction for reducing in-migration to the Gauteng province.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 21

References

Abbott. J, Martinez. I, and Huchzermeyer. M, (2001). An analysis of Informal Settlements

and the Applicability of Visual Planning. (ViSP) in South Africa: Water Research

Commission. WRC Report No. 786/1/01. University of Cape Town.

Cohen, R. (1996). Theories of Migration. The International Library of Studies on Migration

series. University of Oxford, UK. 544 pp. ISBN 9781858980010.

Carol. S, Camlin. Rachel. C, Snow, and Hosegood. V, (2014). Gendered Patterns of

Migration in Rural South Africa. Population, Space and Place. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

582-551

Connell, J., Dasgupta, B., Laishley, R. and Lipton, M. (1976). Migration from Rural Areas:

The Evidence from Village Studies. New York: Oxford University Press.

Kainth G. S, (2010). Push and Pull Factors of Migration: A Case Study of Brick Kiln

Migrant Workers in Punjab. Guru Arjan Dev Institute of Development Studies.

Khan, J. H. (2010). Socio-Economic and Structural Analysis of Internal Migration: A

Micro Level Study. India: Serials Publications.

Kok. P, Gelderblom. D, Oucho. J., and Van Zyl. J. (2006). Migration in South Africa and

Southern Africa: Dynamics and Determinants. Cape Town: HSRC Press.

Sengupta. A, and Chatterjee, S. (2011). Demography & Migration in Asia: Issues and

Trends. India: Shipra Publications.

Skeldon, R. (1990). Population Mobility in Developing Countries. Britain: Belhaven Press.

Statistic South Africa (2001) Census Report.

Statistics South Africa (2011) Census Report.

UNHSP. (2003) The Challenge of Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements.UK:

Earthscan Publications.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 22

The Impact of COVID-19 on South African Education and the Social

System

Awa Linus Tambu

University of South Africa, UNISA

awalinus@gmail.com

COVID-19 is not only a health problem but a global pandemic. In South Africa in particular,

the public is not fully aware of the virus and how to prevent the spread, so is the continued

increase in the numbers of those infected. Various countries implement different methods to

prevent the widespread of the virus, with some guidelines from the World Health Organisation.

South African government has imposed a number of regulations and restrictions on the public

in a bid to prevent or limit the spread of the virus. This research seeks to investigate the impact

of COVID-19 and national lockdown regulations on South African education, and how this has

affected the social system. It is questionable whether the rights of the citizens as enshrined in

the Constitution is breached as a result of the lockdown regulations? What resources have the

government put in place to combat Covid-19 in the education sector? And whether these

resources are adequately available to combat the pandemic? Conclusions and

recommendations are made with regard to the questions raised.

Keywords: COVID-19, Education system, Government regulations, constitutional rights,

Social system, Inequality

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 23

1. Introduction

It started as an anecdote, and yet today we cannot visit our friends and family members. The

President of South Africa announced a 21-day lockdown that started on Friday 27 March to

Thursday 16 April 2020. (Statistic South Africa. n.d.). Businesses, churches, and schools shut

down, the entire country under lockdown, restrictions, or new rules like social distancing

imposed on the people in a bid to prevent the spread of the virus.

Uncertainty loom, the safety of learners and teachers questioned, and whether schools shall

ever reopen remain indeterminate. COVID-19 pandemic has brought a lot of trauma and

anxiety to the public. The question remains for how long will people practice this lifestyle?

While some parents, students, and teachers question the future of the academic year, others

remain in doubt whether the virus exists, and if true, how deadly is the virus?

COVID-19 belongs to the coronavirus family; COVID-19 is closely related to SARS and

MERS viruses (News Medical n. d). According to the World Health Organisation (WHO)

(2020, 2), “COVID-19 is a disease caused by a new strain of coronavirus. ‘CO’ stands for

corona, ‘VI’ for virus, and ‘D’ for disease. Formerly, this disease was referred to as ‘2019 novel

coronavirus’ or ‘2019-nCoV.’ The COVID-19 virus is a new virus linked to the same family

of viruses as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and some types of common cold”.

Breathing droplets from a person suffering from COVID-19 who coughs out is considered as

one of the means to catch the virus. The reason why the South African government imposes

social distancing on the citizens - staying at least a meter away from the next person who may

have COVID-19 (News Medical, n. d.).

The challenge of this research is to ascertain how COVID-19 has impacted on South Africa

education and the social system. The research problem and objective of the research is

provided. The research questions raised would be critically examined, and a literature review

of the inception of the pandemic. According to the South African Constitution, everyone has

the right to freedom of movement and the right to education; It is questioned whether the

closure of schools and lockdown is an infringement of constitutional right? Other Acts of

Parliament, like the Disaster Management Act (2002), State of Emergency Act (1997), and

government regulations are critically examined. The effect of COVID-19 pandemic on

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 24

education and the social system is also examined, and possible recommendations advanced in

this regard.

2. Problem Statement

Closure of schools and businesses, and subsequent categorizing lockdown into five alert levels

by the South African government is intended to prevent the spread of the virus and to reduce

the number of deaths resulting from COVID-19. This has impacted negatively on education

and the social system – a complete shift in lifestyle. Schools and other learning institutions are

forced to introduce completely different learning methods, students, without prior training, are

compelled to learn and adapt to these new learning methods.

A national state of disaster declared on 15 March 2020 and a national lockdown affected the

education system; it implied the closing of schools and a shift in the academic calendar, and

style of learning. In terms of provinces, as a result of the disparity in per capita income, some

rich provinces according to Nag (2018), like Gauteng and Western Cape, were quick to adapt

to the new method of learning than other poor provinces like Limpopo and Eastern Cape.

Institutions like TENEO education introduced the South African Curriculum – Online school

for Grade R4-12 in which teachers deliver lessons through the digital medium in both English

and Afrikaans languages. Through this method, parents can also access and observe their

children, see if their children are attending classes, view upcoming tests and examination, and

communicate with teachers (TENEO Education n.d.). Unfortunately, not every student and

parent can easily gain access.

While some students are slow to learn and adapt to the new learning methods, others do not

have the financial means to access these new learning methods. This may be a result of the fact

that the students have either relocated to their countries or rural areas where accessing

computers and the internet become difficult if not impossible. Although the result is not

representative of the entire population, Statistic South Africa (2020) released a web-based

survey to measure the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the country. The third round of

the survey focused on the issues of migration and education for those residing in Gauteng

province. Applying a non-probability and convenience sample, over half of 1.323 individuals

were from Gauteng. About 6% of the respondents changed their provincial residence. A greater

proportion moved between the dates of the announcement of the lockdown and the

commencement of the lockdown (Statistic South Africa, 2020).

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 25

A quarter of the respondents indicated the need to be closer to their families and friends. About

12% of respondents travelled across provincial boundaries for the purpose of attending

funerals. In the sample, 9% were international migrants, 22.06% born in Zimbabwe, and 22.6%

born in Europe. ‘One-third of respondents were born in countries that are part of the Southern

African Development Community (SADC) region. Other areas featured were South America,

North America, the rest of Africa (outside the SADC region), and Asia’ (Statistic South Africa,

2020). These movements indirectly lead to an increase in the level of inequality since students

who cannot afford or access the learning tools are bound to drop from school.

Although the government had restricted movements of citizens to prevent the spread of

COVID-19 by imposing lockdown regulations, the spread of the virus remains on an increase.

This is because while some citizens adhere to the lockdown rules and preventive measures,

some directly or unconsciously breach these restrictive measures. One of the reasons raised to

justify disrespect for lockdown regulations by some citizens is that it is unconstitutional, as it

infringes on their right to freedom of movement.

3. Research Objective

The objectives of this research are to critically illuminate the origin of COVID-19; examine

the impact of COVID-19 on South African education and the social system; examine the

measure put in place by the government to fight the pandemic, whether these measures are

adequate and effective. One of the objectives is also to examine if there is conflict in terms of

the legislature and the executive with regard to the exercise of power; and how possible the

virus can be controlled and prevented.

4. Research Question

The research examines the impact of COVID-19 on education and the social system, and

measures put in place by the government to fight the pandemic. To achieve this objective, the

following research questions are raised:

• What is the effect of COVID-19 on students?

• What resources have the South African government put in place to combat Covid-19 in

the education sector, and whether these resources adequate?

• How can COVID-19 be controlled especially in schools?

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 26

• With the advent of COVID-19 and the lockdown regulations, it is questionable whether

the rights of the citizens as enshrined in the Constitution are breached as a result? In

other words, are government regulations on COVID-19 a breach of a constitutional

right?

• What are the future prospects of education with reference to COVID-19?

5. Literature review

5.1 Mode of learning in South Africa before COVID-19 pandemic

‘The emphasis in the new curriculum after 1996 in South Africa was placed on the transition

from the traditional aims and objectives approach, to Outcomes-based education (OBE) and

Curriculum 2005’(Mouton, Louw, and Strydom, 2013:3). After 1993, parents desperately need

their children to be in school. Education in South Africa has been praised and encouraged, this

is a result of the fact that the majority of South African parents are from the previously

disadvantaged groups who never had access to a decent education. (Mbiza, 2018).

Before 2009 the South African education system was governed by the Department of

Education. The Education system is now governed by two national sectors – The Department

of Basic Education (DBE) in charge of primary and secondary institutions, and the Department

of Higher Education and Training (DHET) in charge of tertiary education and vocational

training, which includes Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET) centers, and Higher

Education (HE) institutions, Each of the nine provinces in South Africa has provincial

education departments in charge of the implementation of national policies on education.

(Mhlanga and Moloi, 2020 p.3).

Although some higher institutions like the University of South Africa has been utilizing the

digital system for Online Distance Learning; and some private high schools, like Valenture

Institute operates completely online globally (Valenture Institute). However, the traditional

model of learning in South Africa is a face-to-face whiteboard lectures; with the advent of

digital technology, the focus has been on blended learning.

5.2 The outbreak of COVID-19

According to the Department of Health (2020), the outbreak of the virus began in December

2019 in the city of Wuhan in China. Coronaviruses are considered a large family of viruses that

can cause illnesses to both humans and animals. In the case of humans, it can cause respiratory

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 27

infections and can lead to severe conditions like Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS),

and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). COVID-19 is considered the most recently

discovered coronavirus, which causes coronavirus disease (Department of Health, 2020).

People may become infected, but the symptoms do not manifest; the symptoms of COVID-19

are generally mild and begin progressively. At this stage, most people can recover from the

virus without proper treatment (Department of Health, 2020). However, if proper treatment is

not taken, it can subsequently lead to Pneumonia or difficulties to breathe; at this stage, the

case is considered severe (WHO, 2020,2).

It has been noted that the symptoms of COVID-19 are similar to influenza or a common cold,

and can include cough, shortness of breath, and fever (WHO 2020,2). Other common

symptoms are tiredness and dry cough, aches, pains, sore throat, runny nose, or nasal

congestion (Department of Health, 2020). Studies suggest that COVID-19 is transmissible

mainly through contact with respiratory droplets, and not through the air. A person can catch

COVID-19 if these droplets settle, for example, on a surface (News Medical, n. d.), or around

the person and someone touches the object and then touches his or her eyes, mouth, or nose. A

person can also catch the virus if he or she breathes in droplets from anyone who is suffering

from the virus. It is, therefore, possible to catch COVID-19 from a person who has mild

symptoms like a cough. (Department of Health, 2020). It has also been stated that symptoms

of COVID-19 are estimated to appear within 2 to 14 days. During this stage, the infected person

does not display any symptoms, and the virus is transmissible. (Worldometers n.d.).

Since COVID-19 has cold and flu symptoms and spread more rapidly in cold weather, it is not

yet certain if hot temperatures prevent the spread of the virus (Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention, 2019). People who are suffering from pneumonia or difficulties in breathing must

seek medical attention. There is not yet any vaccine or treatment for COVID-19 (Department

of Health, 2020). At the time of this research, South Africa records 459.761 cases, the total

number of deaths 7.257. 287.313 recovered, and 539 in critical conditions. However, no new

deaths, and no new cases recorded (Worldometers, 2020, July 29). For preventive measures, it

has been recommended that everyone practice avoiding touching their nose, mouth, and eyes

with unwashed hands; wash hands regularly with soap or hand sanitizer; avoid closes contact

especially with those infected with the virus; frequently clean and disinfect touched object and

surfaces, and cover sneeze or cough with a tissue or a flexed elbow (Sacoronavirus, n.d).

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 28

5.3 School environment versus homes-schooling

Accordingly, about one million students are enrolled in 26 public universities; more than

7.000.000 are enrolled in over 50 higher vocational education and training institutions; and

about 90.000 are enrolled in different private institutions. (Universities South Africa, n.d.).

There are about 25.000 schools with 23.000 being public schools catering to over 12 million

learners (Passmark, n.d.). The culture has always been getting up early in the morning, prepare

and go to school, learn in classrooms, interact with other learners during intervals, come home

do homework, class assignments and prepare to go to school the next day. However, the

challenges faced by learners in a schooling environment would include bullying, truancy, low

morale, and a high rate of learners drop out. (Mouton, Louw, and Strydom, 2013, p. 32-33).

Although schooling environments are advantageous, there are certain disadvantages, for

example, teachers may be inadequately trained with regard to outcomes-based assessment, lack

of physical and learning support resources, teachers experiencing administrative overload, and

the possibility of overcrowded classrooms (Mouton, Louw, and Strydom, 2013 p. 35).

Discounting conventional classrooms and encouraging homes-schooling requires a

collaborative effort between the education departments, teachers, students, and parents. Some

parents would prefer home-schooling for the interest of their children -security purposes.

Where it is affordable, homes-schooling would imply a greater responsibility for personal

development. Unnecessary competition, peer pressure, and bullying at school are avoided.

However, with homes-schooling, learners and students are prevented from peer socialization

opportunities, and the possibility for corrupt personality development (Kwach, n.d.).

In the midst of COVID-19 pandemic, most learning institutions have introduced at least, a

degree of online learning to their learners and students. Higher Education and Training

institutions like EDUCOR, for example, Damelin College introduced virtual classes for most

of it’s programs; through the use of Microsoft teams to ‘Go! Digital’. Other institutions adopted

applications like zoom for video conferencing and websites with the use of tablets, laptops, and

cell phones like main devices where learners, teachers, and parents can see through a web

camera, and hear through microphones and speakers. Teachers share screen through this means

and ask questions using the chat function. Applications like Skype, Zoom, Google Classrooms,

and Microsoft teams are rapidly becoming part of school vocabulary. (Du Plessis. 2020).

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 29

The rapid improvement in technology has revolutionized distance learning, especially in the

course of the COVID-19 pandemic. Educators, lecturers, learners, students, and parents are

compelled to be more techno-literate as the medium of learning due to the lockdown

restrictions (Du Plessis, 2020).

6. Research methodology

Since this research is intended to examine how COVID-19 has impacted on South Africa

education and the social system, the research design will be exploratory in nature. A logical

analysis of COVID-19 and its effect will be provided through a qualitative research method.

This will include an analysis of the South African Constitution, other Acts of Parliament, and

government regulations.

Secondary sources like reports, textbooks, articles, thesis, periodicals, reports and internet

sources are also consulted to answer the research questions and to attain the objectives of this

research.

7. National lockdown alert levels and implications

South Africa went into a national lockdown at mid-night Thursday 26 March 2020. After the

imposition and implementation of the national lockdown regulations, South Africa

progressively relax the lockdown restrictions. The country, at that stage, was considered to be

at lockdown alert level 5. The government gradually adjusts to the various levels of lockdown

based on the degree of containment and infection rate. At the time of this research, the entire

nation was at lockdown alert level 3. However, different provinces may subsequently be placed

under different lockdown alert levels, depending on the infection rate in that province

(Sibanyoni, 2020).

7.1 Alert Level-5 Lockdown

This is the most stringent and difficult level. At this level government consider the possibility

of the virus spreading at a very fast speed, considering the fact that no suitable medical facilities

are in place, a reason for a national lockdown. Sectors permitted to operate during this level

are only particular essential services like hospitals, ambulances, pharmacies, and security

sectors. Transport services and private cars allowed to operate only at restricted times with

stringent limitations on vehicle capacity and hygiene requirements like masks.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 30

The inter-province movement of people is restricted, with exceptions like those traveling to

attend funerals and transportation of essential goods. National lockdown level 5 witnessed the

introduction and implementation of social distancing and quarantine (Pieterse, 2020). The

Inter-province movement of people is restricted, with the exception of the transportation of

essential services. The gathering of people is completely prohibited, with the exception of

funerals (Sibanyoni, 2020); however, the maximum number of persons required to attend is not

specified under this alert level.

Safety measures include social distancing – two meters away from the next person, to be

applied in public places like pharmacies, sanitation, and the use of proper personal protective

equipment like face masks and cloth. Curfews enforced between 8 pm and 5 am with the

exception of essential service workers (Sacoronavirus.co.za n.d.).

7.2 Alert Level-4 Lockdown

At this level, all essential services allowed to operate. This includes financial services, global

businesses like export markets, Postal and Telecommunications Services, Information

Technology, and food retail stores with limitation on vehicle capacity, and hygiene

requirements. Everyone confined at home from 8:00 PM to 5:00 AM. No inter-provincial

transport except transportation of goods, and for funeral purposes. People allowed to do

exercise, like walking running and cycling between 6:00 AM to 9:00 AM within 5KM of their

residences, but not in groups. The wearing of masks is compulsory in all public spaces.

7.3 Alert Level-3 Lockdown

Implementation of level 3 lockdown implies the virus may spread, but at a moderate rate, which

hospitals can accommodate. Sectors permitted to operate are takeaway restaurants, sale of

liquors within restricted hours, grocery, and clothing, electronic, and bookshops permitted to

operate at 50% capacity. Inter-province transport restrictions with limitations on vehicle

capacity maintained. The nation moved to Level 3 lockdown alert at the start of June 2020

(Youtube.com). According to Disaster Management Act: Regulations (2020), Regulation 4

states that all businesses like supermarkets, retail stores wholesale, and pharmacies shall;

(a) determine their area of floor space in square metres;

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 31

(b) based on the information contemplated in paragraph (a), determine the number

of customers and employees that may be inside the premises at any time with

adequate space available;

(c) take steps to ensure that persons queuing inside or outside the premises are able

to maintain a distance of one and a half metres from each other;

(d) provide hand sanitisers for use by the public and employees at the entrance to

the premises;

As preventive measures, the South African government requires every person to keep ‘a

distance of one-and-a-half meters from other people’, washing or sanitizing hands regularly,

clean surfaces regularly and wearing masks in public places. Places of worship are limited to

50 persons depending on the size of the venue. (Sacoronavirus, 2020)

7.4 Alert Level-2 Lockdown

At this level, it is considered that the virus can still spread but at a moderate rate. This is because

of the availability of moderate means to manage infected persons. Other sectors allowed to

operate at this level include all retail, constructions, installations, and manufacturing

companies, domestic air transport permitted. The rule of social distancing still applies.

According to the Disaster Management Act: Regulations: Alert level 1 during Coronavirus

COVID-19 lockdown (Gazette 43727 of 20 September 2020), every person is expected to be

confined to his/her place of residence between 00:01 until 04:00 except the person is permitted.

With regard to attendance at funerals section 68(1) states that ‘attendance at a funeral is limited

to 100 persons or less: Provided that not more than 50 percent of the capacity of the venue is

used, with persons observing a distance of at least one and a half meters from each other’. Night

vigils are strictly prohibited.

Section 69 of the aforementioned regulation limits gatherings at faith-based institutions to 250

persons; gatherings at social events are limited to 250 persons; gatherings for political events

and traditional council meetings are limited to 250 persons and in the case of out gatherings

500 persons, with a provision that ‘no more than 50 percent of the capacity of the venue is

used, with persons observing a distance of least one and a half meters from each other’ – the

same applies to gatherings at conferences, live performances, and concerts.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 32

The alert level allows for the partial re-opening of international borders. Section 75(3) states

as follows:

From 1 October 2020, all travelers from the African Continent and from countries outside the

African Continent with a low rate of COVID-19 infection and transmission will resume subject

to -

(a) the traveler providing a valid certificate of a negative test which was obtained not

more than 72 hours before the date of travel; and

(b) in the event of the traveler's failure to submit a certificate as proof of a negative test,

the traveler will be required to quarantine at his or her own costs.

According to the Disaster Management Act: Regulations: Alert level 2 during Coronavirus

COVID-19 lockdown (Gazette 43620 of 17 August 2020), every person is expected to be

confined to his/her place of residence from 22:00 – 04:00 except a person is permitted. In terms

of attendance during funerals, section 52 states that; ‘attendance at a funeral is limited to 50

persons and will not be regarded as a prohibited gathering. Night vigils are not allowed. During

a funeral, a person must wear a face mask and adhere to all health protocols and social

distancing measures. Face masks remain mandatory in all public places.

With regard to other gatherings, section 55(2)(a) of the Disaster Management Act: Regulations:

Alert level 2 during Coronavirus COVID-19 lockdown prohibits all gatherings, except a

gathering at:

A faith-based institution, which is limited to 50 persons or less, depending on the size

of the place of worship: Provided that all health protocols and social distancing

measures are being adhered to as provided for in directions issued by the relevant

Cabinet member responsible for cooperative governance and traditional affairs.

7.5 Alert Level-1 Lockdown

At this level, all sectors are permitted to operate. Inter-city transport allowed, but restrictions

on international transport maintained (Sibanyoni, 2020). However, strict hygiene conditions

and rules must be followed. It is expected that since the South African government did not rate

an Alert Level 0, or an Alert Level -1 Lockdown, allowing international flights and uplifting

the rule of wearing masks would be considered as a national state of normalcy, with schools

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 33

resuming. This is the level at which, it is expected that COVID-19 can be cured or is under

control.

According to section 66-68 of the Disaster Management Act: Regulations: Alert level 1 during

Coronavirus COVID-19 lockdown, every person must be confined at home between 00:01 am

to 04:00 am. Except the person has been granted permission or is attending to ‘a security or

medical emergency’. In public places, it is mandatory to wear a face mask in public places and

in public transports. Night vigil is prohibited, and funeral attendance is limited to 100 persons

provided not ‘50% of the capacity of the venue is used’. However, gatherings for conferences,

worship, for example, is limited to 250 persons. International airports partially open, while all

commercial seaports are open.

8. Effect of COVID-19 on the social system

Considering the abovementioned lockdown alert levels, one would state with certainty that the

implementation of national lockdown measures as a result of the pandemic has impacted

negatively on society.

‘In Peddie in the Eastern Cape, children are eating wild plants to survive, as the Covid-

19 pandemic and the lockdown take their toll. The number of households going hungry

has doubled, according to new research’ (Brown, 2020). The situation can further be

understood from the expression of a woman who said ‘my children will tell you the taste

of every plant in this area, as for the last three months I have been feeding them these

plants’ (Brown, 2020).

According to the National Income Dynamics Study (NIDS), while 21% of respondents

indicated that they did not have money to buy foodstuff in the previous year, 47% of household

indicated that they did not have money to buy groceries in April 2020 (See Brown, 2020).

While foreign nationals were also approaching Gift of the Givers for food, distress calls from

workers in companies like restaurants, aviation, and hotel sectors is an indication of how

massive job losses, as a result of lockdown, had spread hunger in society (Brown, 2020). Some

of the lockdown restrictions have remained an indefinite condition for some businesses in the

entire nation, for example, closure of some businesses and events like conference and

convention centres, no more sit in restaurants, bars, and hotels. Venues for entertainment like

theatres, cinemas, and sporting centres remain closed, including cultural and religious

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 34

gatherings. These have led to a tremendous increase in the rate of unemployment in South

Africa, considering the number of workers laid off.

The negative impact of the lockdown due to COVID-19 on socio-economic activities in the

country, especially the restrictions on inter-province transport cannot be underestimated. It is

anticipated that further restrictions would be imposed on passengers to wear masks before entry

into a vehicle, car, or train is allowed.

Table 1.1 COVID-19 Statistics in South Africa

Tests conducted

Positive cases

Recoveries

Deaths

4,229,709

677,833

611,044

16,909

Source: COVID-19 Corona Virus South African Resource Portal

A more disturbing factor in the above statistics is the number of deaths (16.900) within a period

of five months. Therefore, the number of those infected by the virus (677.833) minus (-) the

number of those recovered (611.044) from the infection is 66789 infected cases. This is to

justify the fact that the infection rate remains on the increase. It should be noted that the

statistics above were gathered at the time this research was being conducted. Therefore, the

figures may vary before the publication of this article. It is also important to examine how

COVID-19 and national lockdown have affected the transport industry, especially inter-

province transports. The statistics from the table below indicates the distribution of

respondents, in percentage, who changed their provincial residence during the lockdown.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 35

Table 1.2 Percentage distribution of respondents who changed their provincial residence during the

lockdown.

Provincial residence during lockdown Percentage

Change of provincial residence during the lockdown

Yes

5,9

No

94,1

Period of move

In the few days between the announcement and the start of the

lockdown

43,3

During April 2020

4,5

During May 2020

35,8

Since the beginning of June

16,4

Reason for move

I returned to my usual province of residence after spending the initial

lockdown period in another province

19,1

I wanted to be closer to family/friends

25,0

I did not feel safe in the province I usually live

4,4

It is cheaper to live here

1,5

Healthcare is better here

2,9

Other

47,1

Source: Statistics South Africa (2020, July 04)

9. The effect of COVID-19 on learners and students

In some homes where families barely survive with insufficient food, learners who depended on

school meal became under-fed as a result of schools shutting down (NASCEE, n. d).

A high rate of school drop-out from primary, high schools, and tertiary institutions for the

following reasons;

• Lack of the necessary resources for institutions to facilitate online learning.

• Some parents cannot afford the necessary learning tools for their children.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 36

• Where the resources are available, students may find it difficult to adapt to the

introduction of new learning methods and techniques.

A serious problem faced by learners and students in South Africa is not the COVID-19

pandemic, but the consequences of the lockdown and restrictions as a result of the virus.

Lockdown restrictions have had a negative impact, emotional psychological, on learners,

students, and teachers (Vorster, 2020).

Report indicates that many students could not learn in isolation, considering their acquaintances

to a structured traditional classroom environment. At home, as a result of school shutdown,

disadvantaged students struggle with piles of work. Some do not have access to study materials

on time, and the stress of fear of not meeting up. Many students relocated to settlements that

remain crowded with continued distractions, and family interruptions (Jansen, 2020).

There are about 19.7 million children in South Africa who are under 18 years; this makes up

34% of the population. Some of the challenges amplified as a result of lockdown restrictions

include starvation and education. This is justified by the restriction; ‘the cost of food basket

increased by 7% or R220’ in the month of March 2020, and the fact that about 2.5 million of

these children attend some education and children development facilities where they were

receiving meal every weekday (Vorster, 2020).

At home, learners and students have experienced loneliness due to separation from their mates,

teachers, and even parents who became vulnerable and placed in isolated places. (Jansen,

2020). When schools resume, learners and students would find it difficult to catch-up,

considering the fact that most of them have been without access to learning materials for over

six months. The effectiveness of trying to recapitulate what was lost, what is to be done,

coupled with the fact that learners and students need satisfactory emotional and psychological

support at school, make the schooling environment scary. Jansen (2020) states some of the

experiences expressed by learners as follows:

Those in elite schools had access to fully online education while many others depended

on downloaded content from WhatsApp groups, which they accessed if and when

devices and data were available. Many relied only on intermittent programming

through radio, television and occasionally print material from the local school. What

all these students had in common, though, was the experience of emotional distress

experienced during the extended lockdown.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 37

10. Are adequate resources being put in place to combat Covid-19?

The South Africa government in collaboration with the Department of Education has

introduced new learning channels like Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET)

Online Courses, and National Open Learning System in a bid to assist students at home. A

process is being developed where students can access past examination papers in preparation

for their final assessments. The Department of Basic Education (DBE), in collaboration with

provinces, prepared online and broadcast learning resources to promote reading for all Grades

(South African Government, n.d.).

The Department of Basic Education (DBE) and South African Broadcasting Corporation

(SABC) has launched a Coronavirus COVID-19 television and radio curriculum support

program for learners. The main aim is to limit the impact of the lockdown on the academic

calendar. Various support programs for learners have been introduced and are being

broadcasted on all three SABC television channels and 12 radio stations.

The television schedule is as follows:

• SABC 1: Monday to Sunday - 05:00 – 06:00

• SABC 2: Monday to Friday – 09:30 – 11:00

• SABC 3: Monday to Friday – 06:00 – 07:00

It should be noted that, in order to reach wider audiences, the FREE STEM Lockdown Digital

School has expanded into a community television since April 2020, and the learner support

program made available on DSTV channels – Soweto TV (251), and 1KZN (261) (Gov.za,

n.d.). Parents and learners are encouraged to visit the Western Cape Education Department’s

e-Portal which has been updated for homeschooling.

One cannot deny the fact that the South African government has been putting a lot of resources

to combat COVID-19, for example, an increase in social grants. However, most households

would not have yet received the COVID-19 special grant. This measure by the South African

government did not benefit everyone in the country foreign nationals who do not have Identity

Card are completely left out (Brown, 2020).

A report was released on 9 July 2020 by Oxfam in relation to rising prices; it was noted that

‘one-in-three adults surveyed said they were going to bed hungry, and a fifth had lost weight

during the lockdown because of a lack of food’. One of the reasons being price gouging and

stockpiling of foodstuff and other basic needs. It has been indicated that there is a substantial

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 38

increase in hunger since the beginning of the lockdown restrictions. According to Statistic

South Africa on the one hand, 2.688 respondents who reported hunger increased from 4.3% to

7% (See Brown, 2020).

Human Sciences Research Council and the University of Johannesburg on the other hand,

based on 5.481 questionnaires, about 28% of respondents reported going to bed hungry since

the lockdown restriction. (See Brown, 2020). This is an indication of an already existing gap

of the unequal social situation; an indication that the resources put in place by the South African

government to fight against the COVID-19 pandemic proves to be inadequate. This also

directly hinder learners and students and their learning processes.

According to statistics, households with children are more likely to suffer from hunger than

households without children. The situation is further aggravated by the loss of jobs resulting

from measures to control the spread of the virus. Moreover, 30% of children live in households

where no one is employed. Households use most of their finances to buy sanitizing products in

a bid to prevent contracting the virus; this comes at the expense of basic needs like food (Jonah,

et al., 2020).

Despite all the resources put in place by the government including the creation of learning

Applications, the introduction of more learning programs on television and radio slots by the

Education Department, it would be concluded here that these resources remain inadequate to

assist the learning processes of learners and students.

11. Is lockdown to fight COVID-19 a breach of constitutional rights?

One of the reasons some citizens breach government regulation for the fight against COVID-

19 is because they believe that they uphold the Constitution. Accordingly, restricting them from

exercising their constitutional rights becomes unconstitutional. Freedom of movement, for

example, is a constitutional right, but there seems to be a tussle between this constitutional right

and the exercise of executive powers with regards to the fight against COVID-19.

According to section 10 of the South African Constitution (1996), everyone has the inherent

dignity and the "right to the have their dignity respected and protected”. Section 18 states that

“[e]veryone has the right to freedom of association”. According to subsections 21(1)(2),

“[e]veryone has the right to move freely and to leave the country. Another important subsection

of the Constitution is subsection 29(1) which bestows everyone the right to basic education,

and further education. However, movements of people are restricted, churches closed, learners

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 39

and students are forced to stay at home since schools are shut down as a result of COVID-19.

The issue raised here is whether these constitutional rights are not infringed by the government

by imposing a national lockdown?

It is necessary to examine some Act of Parliament in order to justify the findings. To ascertain

whether COVID-19 is a disaster, section 1 of the Disaster Management Act (2002) states:

Disaster means a progressive or sudden, widespread or localised, natural or human-caused

occurrence which -

(a) causes or threatens to cause -

(i) death, injury or disease;

(ii) damage to property, infrastructure or the environment; or

(iii) disruption of the life of a community; and cope with its effects using

only their own resources;

(b) is of a magnitude that exceeds the ability of those affected by the disaster to

cope with its effects using only their own resources.

Accordingly, section 1 of the Disaster Management Act (2002) defines disaster management

as a non-stop and a combination of multi-sectoral and multi-disciplinary procedure of preparing

and implementing measures aimed at “preventing or reducing the risk of disasters”; “mitigating

the severity or consequences of disasters”. Therefore, one would conclude here that a national

lockdown could be to prevent or reduce the risk of the spread of COVID-19.

According to section 26(1) of the Disaster Management Act (2002), the national government

(executive) has the power and responsibilities to coordinate and manage national disasters.

In terms of a declaration of national state disaster, section 27 of the Disaster Management Act

(2002) states as follows:

(1) In the event of a national disaster, the Minister may, by notice in the Gazette,

declare a national state of disaster if -

(a) existing legislation and contingency arrangements do not adequately provide

(b) other special circumstances warrant the declaration of a national state of

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 40

(2) If a national state of disaster has been declared in terms of subsection (1), the

Minister may, subject to subsection (3), and after consulting the responsible Cabinet

member, make regulations or issue directions or authorise the issue of directions

concerning -

(a) the release of any available resources of the national government, including

stores, equipment, vehicles and facilities;

(b) the release of personnel of a national organ of state for the rendering of

emergency services;

(c) the implementation of all or any of the provisions of a national disaster

management plan that are applicable in the circumstances;

(d) the evacuation to temporary shelters of all or part of the population from the

disaster-stricken or threatened area if such action is necessary for the

preservation of life;

(e) the regulation of traffic to, from or within the disaster-stricken or threatened

area;

(f) the regulation of the movement of persons and goods to, from or within the

disaster-stricken or threatened area…

Subsection 27(3) of the Disaster management act (2002) states that the powers mentioned under

subsection (2) may be exercised only to the degree that it is important for the purpose of

assisting and protecting the public and property, providing relief and dealing with destructive

and other effects of the disaster.

Considering the power and duties of the national government with regards to disaster

management, the Disaster Management Act does not give power to the government to declare

a national lockdown, neither is the term “national lockdown” defined under the Act. It is

important to note that the Disaster Management Act (2002) does not apply where “a state of

emergency is declared to deal with that occurrence in terms of the State of Emergency Act”

(Subsection 2(1)(a)).

South African Constitution (1996) under section 37 provides for a state of emergency.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 41

Accordingly;

1. A state of emergency may be declared only in terms of an Act of Parliament, and

only when;

a. the life of the nation is threatened by war, invasion, general insurrection,

disorder, natural disaster or other public emergency; and

b. the declaration is necessary to restore peace and order.

2. A declaration of a state of emergency, and any legislation enacted or other action

taken in consequence of that declaration, may be effective only

a. prospectively; and

b. for no more than 21 days from the date of the declaration, unless the National

Assembly resolves to extend the declaration. The Assembly may extend a

declaration of a state of emergency for no more than three months at a time. The

first extension of the state of emergency must be by a resolution adopted with a

supporting vote of a majority of the members of the Assembly. Any subsequent

extension must be by a resolution adopted with a supporting vote of at least 60

per cent of the members of the Assembly. A resolution in terms of this paragraph

may be adopted only following a public debate in the Assembly.

4. Any legislation enacted in consequence of a declaration of a state of emergency may

derogate from the Bill of Rights only to the extent that;

a. the derogation is strictly required by the emergency; and

b. the legislation

i. is consistent with the Republic’s obligations under international law

applicable to states of emergency;

ii. conforms to subsection (5); and

iii. is published in the national Government Gazette as soon as

reasonably possible after being enacted.

However, even though everyone has the right to freedom of movement as stipulated in the

Constitution, these rights may possibly be limited under section 37, most especially, under

section 36 of the Constitution of South Africa (1996). Subsection 36(1) states as follows:

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 42

The rights in the Bill of Rights may be limited only in terms of law of general

application to the extent that the limitation is reasonable and justifiable in an open and

democratic society based on human dignity, equality and freedom, taking into account

all relevant factors, including –

a. the nature of the right;

b. the importance of the purpose of the limitation;

c. the nature and extent of the limitation;

d. the relation between the limitation and its purpose; and

e. less restrictive means to achieve the purpose.

The Constitution provides for declaration of a state of emergency by Act of Parliament,

however, the legislators omitted the definition of “state of Emergency“. One of the issues here

is whether a national lockdown is tantamount to a state of emergency? Moreover, it is

questioned whether according to the State of Emergency Act (1997, Preamble), COVID-19 is

considered a “public emergency” or a “natural disaster”? However, it should be noted that

where there is a conflict between the Constitution and any other law, the Constitution, as the

highest law of the land, prevails.

12. How can the spread of COVID-19 be controlled especially in schools?

The protection of learners, students, teachers, academic staff, and also educational facilities

should be considered as paramount. Preventive measures by the various institutions would go

a long way to prevent the virus in school premises and campuses by any person gaining access

into the institutions, who may have been exposed to the virus. This measure would avoid the

possible spread of the virus in schools.

Learners who are infected or have symptoms of COVID-19 must not be sent to schools.

Therefore, symptoms screening is recommended in schools and offices; this must be in

accordance with the guidelines of the Department of Health. The establishment of a COVID-

19 television and radio curriculum support program for parents, learners, and students is

recommended.

COVID-19 could be a catalyst for the South Africa government to address the inequalities that

exist in institutions with regards to learning facilities and sanitary infrastructures. Therefore,

good toilets facilities are recommended, and the rule for social distancing observed; this also

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 43

means a reduction to the number of learners or students in a classroom, and screening students,

teachers, and other employees would be required.

Precautions must be taken to avoid stigmatizing learners, students, or staff who may have been

exposed to the virus and are cured (Prevention Web, 2020; Relief Web, 2020).

13. Conclusions and recommendations

Although the closure of schools followed by the lockdown was a necessary step, it is important

to also note that early childhood development is very important; their long absence from

schools may affect their health and future. Pre-conditions for the reopening of schools must be

met. The impact of the lockdown has really created pressure and anxiety on the general public,

learners, and families. Plans must be put in place to provide counselling and social support for

parents from the relevant departments.

It would be accepted that many learning institutions are not prepared to start welcoming

students back since health and safety cannot be guaranteed. This means no return to schools;

may lead to a negative future impact on the South African labour force and the economy. There

is the possibility that the prolonged stay of learners from the schooling environment, especially

from impoverished and disadvantaged homes may drop from school.

Although the focus may be on how students and learners can possibly return to school, if

everything remains the same, there would be the possibility of a high rate of school dropouts.

The reasoning here is that most learners and students have not been familiar with online

learning, training seems practically difficult if not impossible. While some learners may have

financial difficulties buying data to access the internet, others may not have the means to

purchase android cell phones, computers, and laptops.

Academic institutions have the responsibility to rethink means of maximizing output; this

implies setting priorities on the innovation of some of their main functions and support services.

Although not every student has access to a personal laptop, some institutions provide free data

to students. This does not benefit all students; especially in cases where the institutions provide

only one network for the students, for example, Vodacom Data. Not every student uses this

network; it is recommended that institutions provide a variety of network service options for

students to make a choice.

Considering that there has never been any online training for online learning, students should

be allowed to submit their assignments even after the due dates; that is, a drastic change of

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 44

assessment methods and assessment deadlines, without compromising on the learning outcome

and assignment quality. COVID-19 has caused a negative impact on South African education

and the social system. If these government regulations persist, it may lead to an increase in the

number of school dropouts, and deepen inequality. Although the South African government

has taken a number of measures to combat the pandemic in the country, and in the education

sector, these measures are considered inadequate.

General safety measures at home, offices, and schools should be maintained for the duration

of the pandemic. Provinces should adhere to the disaster management plans for provinces as

enumerated under section 39 of the Disaster Management Act of 2002. The South African

government should initiate a training program where parents, learners, teachers, and

administrators are trained on how COVID-19 can be transmitted; this should include training

on a sanitation plan both at home and in schools.

Prevention is better than fighting to cure the virus. Therefore, parents, teachers, and

administrators should be well informed on how to protect themselves and their families. Clear

information and communication are very important; this would limit the myths, rumuors, and

wrong information regarding the virus and its infection. The spread of the virus may drastically

reduce if the South African government embarks on free training and sensitization programs,

and the production and distribution of free sanitizers, and masks to households and schools.

Embracing technology as a learning medium will provide equal opportunity for learners and

students, provided it is accessible to all. If learners and students have to stay at home and study,

in order to boost a reading culture, parents must be encouraged to be more involved in their

children’s education. Therefore, the Education Department should establish a system that will

integrate the relationship between the department, learners, and parents. The department of

education should ensure that online learning is ‘user friendly’ for learners, students, and parents

and that it is easily accessible.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal                                            Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020 
ISSN: 2520-4254     Page | 45  
 
References 
Brown, J (2020), Covid-19 lockdown: Children eat wild plants to survive as hunger explodes, 
[Online]  Available  at:  https://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/eastern-cape/covid-19-
lockdown-children-eat-wild-plants-to-survive-as-hunger-explodes-51120562  [Accessed  31 
July 2020].  
Businesstech (2020), Updated lockdown rules for South Africa – including revised alert levels 
[Online]  Available  at:  https://businesstech.co.za/news/government/424164/new-lockdown-
rules-for-south-africa-including-updated-alert-levels/ [Accessed 09 September 2020]. 
CDC.gov,  (2020).  Frequently  asked  questions  [Online]  Available  at: 
https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/faq.html, [Accessed 20 September 2020]. 
Cyril, R (2020), COVID-19 lock-down: SA to moves to level 3 on 1st June [Video]. Available 
at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9K1JSRt_29w [Accessed 26 September 2020]. 
Du  Plessis,  C (2020),  Digital  education  with  an  eye  on  the future,  [Online]  Available at: 
https://mg.co.za/special-reports/2020-06-19-digital-education-with-an-eye-on-the-future/ 
[Accessed 06 July 2020]. 
Gov.sa,  (n.d.)  Education  -  Coronavirus  COVID-19,  [Online]  Available  at: 
https://www.gov.za/covid-19/individuals-and-households/education-coronavirus-covid-19 
[Accessed 04 August 2020]. 
Gov.za  (2020),  Coronavirus  COVID-19  Alert  level  2  [Online]  Available  at: 
https://www.gov.za/coronavirus/alert-level-2 [Accessed 24 August 2020]. 
Gov.za  (n.d.).  Disaster  Management  Act:  Regulations:  Alert  level  1  during  Coronavirus 
COVID-19  lockdown  [Online]  Available  at:  https://www.gov.za/documents/disaster-
management-act-regulations-alert-level-1-during-coronavirus-covid-19-lockdown-18 
[Accessed 23 September 2020].  
Gov.za,  (1996),  Constitution  of  the  Republic  of  South  Africa,  [Online]  Available  at: 
https://www.gov.za/documents/constitution-republic-south-africa-
1996?gclid=CjwKCAjwn9v7BRBqEiwAbq1Ey0k-
aqjD6s8QKRMpvGZhkPU2reaD7vYRsCPE2hxLIDZfQT43luF1thoCZXsQAvD_BwE 
[Accessed 12 May 2020]. 

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal                                            Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020 
ISSN: 2520-4254     Page | 46  
 
Gov.za,  (1997),  State  of  Emergency  Act  No.  64  of  1997,  [Online]  Available  at: 
https://www.gov.za/documents/state-emergency-act-
0?gclid=CjwKCAjwn9v7BRBqEiwAbq1Ey0VU47l6GMfAcFWuf8o3Ei6ME3Vnt9E1Gc2Z
7dInwtHY9lGGo3lWsRoCvW4QAvD_BwE [Accessed 10 August 2020]. 
Gov.za,  (2002),  Disaster  Management  Act  No.  57  of  2002.  [Online]  Available 
at:   https://www.gov.za/documents/disaster-management-
act?gclid=CjwKCAjwn9v7BRBqEiwAbq1Ey-f-
Zpbr5ImlH1K47K1ffZQcw3SkO0ledIllBIhXdkEXZ0PZJjPWExoCh3AQAvD_BwE 
[Accessed 22 September 2020]. 
Gov.za, (2020),  Department of Basic  Education Notice  302  of  2020  [Online]  Available  at: 
https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/202005/43372gen302.pdf [Accessed 10 
August 2020]. 
Gov.za,  (2020),  Disaster  Management  Act:  Regulations: Alert  level 3  during Coronavirus 
COVID-19  lockdown.  [Online]  Available  at:  https://www.gov.za/covid-19/about/disaster-
management-act-regulations-alert-level-3-during-coronavirus-covid-19-lockdown  [Accessed 
30 September 2020]. 
Gov.za,  (n.d.),  Disaster  Management  Act:  Regulations:  Alert  level  1  during  Coronavirus 
COVID-19  lockdown,  [Online]  Available  at:   https://www.gov.za/covid-
19/about/coronavirus-covid-19-alert-level-1, [Accessed 30 August 2020]. 
Jansen,  J  (2020),  Ready  to  learn?  The  emotional  impact  of  the  Covid-19  pandemic  and 
lockdown  on  South  African  children,  [Online]  Available  at: 
https://www.iol.co.za/news/opinion/ready-to-learn-the-emotional-impact-of-the-covid-19-
pandemic-and-lockdown-on-south-african-children-50691597 [Accessed 18 August 2020]. 
Jonah, C MAY, J and Sambu, W (2020),  Lockdowns threaten children’s  nutrition, [Online] 
Available  at:  https://www.news.uct.ac.za/campus/communications/updates/covid-19/-
article/2020-04-14-lockdowns-threaten-childrens-nutrition [Accessed 14 May 2020]. 
Kwach, J (n.d.),  Everything  you  need  to  know  about  homeschooling  South  Africa  [Online] 
Available  at:   https://briefly.co.za/34855-everything-homeschooling-south-africa.html 
[Accessed 04 July 2020]. 

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal                                            Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020 
ISSN: 2520-4254     Page | 47  
 
Mbiza,  M  (2018),  The  Issues  with  South  Africa’s  Education  System [Online]  Available  at: 
https://educonnect.co.za/the-issues-with-south-africas-education-system/  [Accessed  04  April 
2020]. 
Mhlanga, D and Moloi, T (2020) COVID-19 and the digital transformation of education: What 
are  we  learning  on  41R  in  South  Africa?  Education  Sciences,  [Online]  Volume10,  p.  180, 
Available at: www.mdpi.com/journal/education [Accessed 27 July 2020].   
Mouton, N, Louw, GP and  Strydom, G (2013) Critical challenges of the South African school 
system  International  Business  and  Economic  Research  Journal  [Online]  Volume  12  (1) 
Available  at: 
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/297722032_Critical_Challenges_Of_The_South_A
frican_School_System [Accessed 04 May 2020].   
Nag, OS  (2018),  The  Richest  and  poorest provinces  of  South  Africa  [Online]  Available at: 
https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-richest-and-poorest-provinces-of-south-africa.html 
[Accessed 03 April 2020]. 
NASCEE (n.d), Impact of the coronavirus on South African schooling [Online] Available at: 
https://nascee.org.za/news-events/impact-of-the-coronavirus-on-south-african-schooling 
[Accessed 26 April 2020]. 
Passmark  (n.d.)  How  big  are  South  Africa’s  schools?  [Online]  Available  at: 
https://passmark.org.za/howbig/ [Accessed 15 July 2020]. 
Pieterse,  C  (2020),  Social  Distancing  Explained  [Online]  Available  at: 
https://sacoronavirus.co.za/2020/04/08/social-distancing/ [Accessed 14 May 2020]. 
Prevention Web, (2020) Guidance for COVID-19 prevention and control in schools - March 
2020,  [Online]  Available  at:  https://www.preventionweb.net/publications/view/70990 
[Accessed 25 April 2020]. 
Relief Web (2020), Guidance for COVID-19 prevention and control in schools - March 2020 
[EN/AR],  [Online]  Available  at:   https://reliefweb.int/report/world/guidance-covid-19-
prevention-and-control-schools-march-2020-enar [Accessed 09 May 2020]. 
Sacoronavirus  (2020),  Summary  of  Level  3  Regulations,  [Online]  Available  at: 
https://sacoronavirus.co.za/2020/05/28/summary-of-level-3-regulations/  [Accessed  14  June 
202  

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal                                            Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020 
ISSN: 2520-4254     Page | 48  
 
Sacoronavirus  (n.d.),  COVID-19  Risk  Adjusted  Strategy,  [Online]  Available  at: 
https://sacoronavirus.co.za/covid-19-risk-adjusted-strategy/ [Accessed 04 July 2020]. 
Sacoronavirus  (n.d.).  COVID-19  Corona  Virus  South  African  Resource  Portal  [Online] 
Available at: https://sacoronavirus.co.za/ [Accessed 06 August 2020]. 
Shabir,  O  (2020),  How  is  COVID-19  spread?  [Online]  Available  at:  https://www.news-
medical.net/health/How-is-COVID-19-Spread.aspx [Accessed 06 July 2020]. 
Sibanyoni,  M  (2020), South  Africa’s  lockdown  level  5,4,3,2  and  1  [Online]  Available  at: 
https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/infographic-south-africas-lockdown-level-5432-and-1/ 
[Accessed 06 May 2020]. 
Stats  sa  (2020),   Mobility  and  migration  in  SA  during  the  COVID-19  lockdown,  [Online] 
Available at: http://www.statssa.gov.za/?p=13483 [Accessed 04 August 2020]. 
Stats sa (2020), Social impact of COVID-19 (Wave 3): Mobility, Migration, and Education in 
South  Africa  [Online]  Available  at:  http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/Report-00-08-
04/Report-00-08-04July2020.pdf [Accessed 29 July 2020]. 
Stats  sa,  (2020)  Statistics  of  liquidations  and  insolvencies  (Preliminary)  2020,  [Online] 
Available at: http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0043/P0043June2020.pdf [Accessed 25 
July 2020]. 
TENEO Education (n.d.), [Online] Available at: https://www.teneoeducation.co.za/ [Accessed 
22 August 2020].  
Universities  South  Africa  (n.d.)  [Online]  Available  at:  https://www.usaf.ac.za/public-
universities-in-south-africa/ [Accessed 08 July 2020]. 
Valenture  Institute,  (n.d.),  [Online]  Available  at: 
https://valentureinstitute.com/discover/admissions-jan-south-
africa?gclid=Cj0KCQjwzbv7BRDIARIsAM-A6-
1sbzYBCDmeEUzRR6tWYQfMh7Ha14WPpoDcnjRQcraKgl1fs8fTVkcaApgYEALw_wcB 
[Accessed 10 August 2020]. 
Vorster, RW  (2020),  The  challenges  of  hunger  and education  for  South  Africa’s  children 
(Part One), [Online] Available at:  https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/opinionista/2020-05-05-
part-one-the-challenges-of-hunger-and-education/ [Accessed 24 August 2020]. 

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 49

WHO (2020), Key Messages and Actions for COVID-19 Prevention and Control in Schools 1-

12. [Online] Available at: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/key-

messages-and-actions-for-covid-19-prevention-and-control-in-schools-march-

2020.pdf?sfvrsn=baf81d52_4 [Accessed 05 April 2020].

Worldometers (2020), COVID-19 Coronavirus pandemic [Online] Available at:

https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/#countries [Accessed 04 July 2020].

Worldometers (2020), COVID-19 Coronavirus pandemic [Online] Available at:

https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/?utm_name=iossm [Accessed 07 July 2020].

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 50

Using SNSs to increase public engagement with radio stations:

Jacaranda FM and Facebook

Moses Ofome Asak

(North West University)

moses.asak@uniport.edu.ng

Tshepang Bright Molale

(North West University)

bright.molale@nwu.ac.za

Abiodun Salawu

(North West University)

abiodun.salawu@nwu.ac.za

The purpose of this study was to determine how Facebook is utilised for public engagement by

a radio station in South Africa. The study draws from the Uses and Gratifications theory (UGT)

introduced by Blumler and Katz in 1974. A quantitative research method was employed in the

study of organisational communication, with content analysis used as the research design. The

target population was a census of 116 comments made by Jacaranda FM on its Facebook page

in the month of October 2017. The findings of this study suggest that there is a relationship

between the radio station’s comments on its Breakfast with Martin Bester (BMB) Facebook

page and public engagement. It was further established that although UGT is largely audience-

centred, the theory also applies to organisational communication behaviours since

organisations like radio stations choose to use social media and have begun to be active users

of social network sites because they are motivated to use such media for their benefit.

Keywords: Radio, engagement, organisational communication, Uses and Gratification Theory,

social media, social network site, Facebook, South Africa.

1. Introduction

The prevalence of social media has raised research interests among scholars since the advent

of this digital technology. This is more so because people and organisations can hardly do

without social media today. Radio stations are not exempt from this and commercial radio

stations are increasingly using social network sites to expand audience reach and to strengthen

and increase the impact of content. In this paper, the use of social network sites (SNSs) is

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 51

conceptualised as an organisational communication behaviour and Facebook is considered a

tool. The radio station under study is Jacaranda FM and this paper examines how this

organisation has used Facebook as a platform to interact with its public to achieve

organisational objectives. In this study, ‘public engagement’ refers to interactions with the

station by members of the public who listen, read, visit or react to the radio station on its

Breakfast with Martin Bester’s Facebook page.

Facebook pages of radio shows (like the Breakfast with Martin Bester Facebook page) are

conceptualised in this paper as images or representations of radio stations. On SNSs, the radio

show is usually depicted by the radio station’s logo or the show presenter’s profile picture, as

in the case of Breakfast with Martin Bester show Facebook page. One assumption underlying

this study is that exciting programmes emanating from radio broadcast stations are likely to

expand their reach and attract more public participation if they are mentioned or appear in

media vehicles with which the public engage (Paek et al., 2013).

An assessment of this is essential when we consider that while it may be said that terrestrial

radio broadcasting in developed economies has made good progress, and more ways to

optimise the use of SNSs as complementary tools for terrestrial broadcast practices, the same

may not be said about less developed economies (Safko, 2010). This is because the technology

is basically transferred and the expertise to man the technology still leaves much to be desired

within the ‘critical mass’. Nevertheless, if terrestrial broadcast media must be sustained and

remain relevant in the digital landscape, it should be seen to be doing more with SNSs. This is

necessary to gain and retain the attention and interest of audiences and users of SNSs for the

accrual of social capital which eventually attracts advertising revenue - the live wire of

commercial broadcasting. In line with this, Freeman, Klapczynski and Wood (2012) note that

the use of social media like SNSs is increasingly becoming a necessary precondition for

terrestrial broadcast stations to survive and remain relevant. Despite this, Kent and Taylor

(2003) observe that media organisations are not taking full advantage of the interactive

capabilities that new media platforms like SNSs afford.

This study takes on an organisational communication approach rather than a purely audience-

centered approach as established by the uses and gratification theory. This is because the

incursion of digital media into social space has caused a paradigm shift in the application of

this theory to institutions and organisations more than ever before. The UGT theory is therefore

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 52

relevant not only for audience-based research but for media organization-based research as

well. Organisations like radio stations are motivated to seek and choose to use other media like

SNSs because of the benefits they look to derive from such media. The Facebook page of

Jacaranda FM’s Breakfast with Martin Bester show was examined to ascertain why the radio

station engages the public on this specific social network site and to establish the nature of such

engagement.

1.1 Problem statement

For the commercial radio broadcaster, radio broadcasting is a business, where the ultimate goal

is to make profit. To achieve this, commercial radio stations aim to attract and hold the attention

of audiences by offering appropriate, relevant and appealing content. In effect, relevant and

appealing content attracts a large listenership, thereby attracting advertisers who become

patrons to the station and pay for station airtime. This provides the revenue that sustains radio

stations and allows most terrestrial commercial radio broadcasting outlets to make a profit. In

the midst of a digitally competitive media environment, however, terrestrial radio stations are

not only tasked with producing and offering relevant content but also with extending the

delivery of this content in an efficient and cost-effective way to hold their audience and attract

new ones.

With the advent of digital platforms, the production and dissemination of content has become

seamless, creating an ever-stiffer competitive media market which cuts across local boundaries.

Terrestrial radio stations, especially those in developing countries, are finding it tough to retain

their audiences, let alone attract and hold new ones. This is especially so in the face of new

competition from other forms of digital media like internet-only radio stations that are

gradually perfecting the use of social media (Brady, 2016). To be sustainable in this context,

the question of cultivating brand loyalty (positive feelings and attitudes towards a radio station

that makes the audience prefer to tune to that station every time) becomes an issue for terrestrial

radio broadcast stations. The problem therefore borders around a situation where one is not

sure if the use of SNSs by terrestrial commercial radio stations in South Africa is superficial (a

result of the bandwagon effect) or a major tool in engaging their audiences by reaching,

building and maintaining relationships with them while considering the returns of social

capital. Assessing the nature of Jacaranda FM’s engagement on Facebook is therefore relevant

in this regard.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 53

1.2 Research objectives

The objectives of this study are to:

1. Identify why Jacaranda FM uses Facebook for public engagement.

2. Determine if there is any relationship between the station’s use of Facebook and public

engagement with the Facebook page.

1.3 Research questions

The objectives outlined above informed the following research questions which guided the

study:

1. Why does Jacaranda FM use its Breakfast with Martin Bester show Facebook page for

public engagement?

2. What relationship is there, if any, between Jacaranda’s use of Facebook and public

engagement with the Facebook page?

The scope of the study is limited to Jacaranda FM radio station and Facebook, the social

network site most used by the station. Facebook is also the most used social network site in

South Africa, with over 14 million users (Businesstech, 2016; Media Update, 2020). The

Breakfast with Martin Bester show on Jacaranda FM was selected based on its number of

followers on Facebook. There were over three hundred followers, more than any of the station’s

other shows. Breakfast with Martin Bester show was listened to for a period of one month.

Although the geographical scope for this study is technically South Africa, the media scope is

global considering the universal nature and use of Facebook on the internet.

This paper will be of great importance to terrestrial radio stations and the broadcast industry in

general because through this study, station managers, media managers, producers and owners

will have a better insight as to how radio stations can use SNSs to engage the public and how

this can benefit radio stations. The findings will furthermore underscore the relevance and need

for terrestrial broadcasters to engage with their audiences on SNSs. Consequently, this paper

will contribute to the body of knowledge in organisational communication and social media

engagement scholarship.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 54

3. Literature review

This study locates its focus within a wider context of computer-mediated communication and

digital media and how traditional mass media and public engagement interact through social

media platforms. Ellison and Boyd (2013) note that the prevalence of social network sites

(SNSs) is one of the most significant developments connected to social media. The advent of

SNSs is intertwined with that of the Web 2.0 concept, which is essentially an interactive

architectural application platform. This interactive technology embedded in Web 2.0 is a major

attraction that has informed the choice of social media by people and organisations (Campbell

et al., 2011) and it has generated different SNSs where people could connect and interact with

others.

2.1 Theoretical/Conceptual review

This study draws from the Uses and Gratification theory propounded by Blumler and Katz in

1974. Blumler and Katz (1974) proposed that people are motivated to select specific media

from the mainstream media of radio, television or print (newspapers, magazines etc.) to gratify

specific needs. This makes them active users in what they seek to do with the media. The

proliferation of digital media technology has made understanding what drives people’s choice

of media and what gratification is obtained from them more important. Major factors that have

been found to motivate the use of social network sites include the desire to socialise, be

entertained, and to seek self-status and information (Park, Kee, and Valenzuela, 2009). For

LaRose and Eastin (2004), SNSs are mainly used to fulfil the social need to socialise with

others because users desire a sense of belonging and community (Ellison et al. 2007: p. 2; Park

et al. 2009: p. 731).

The application of the Uses and Gratification theory to radio and SNSs is still relatively new

and there remains a lacuna in considering organisations as entities who also seek out and use

specific media to gratify corporate needs.

Calitz, and Cullen (2012: p.2) define social media as “any tool or service that uses the Internet

to facilitate conversation”. From this definition it can be concluded that social media refers to

a collection of online communications channels devoted to virtual community-based

interaction and the sharing of content. These communication channels include websites for

social networking and various forums. Veerasamy and Govender (2013) note that the way

organisations communicate with their brands have changed from mass media messages to

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 55

intimate conversations and social experiences on virtual network sites. Citing Giannini (2010),

Veerasamy and Govender (2013) explain that this shift in the way organisations communicate

demands that professionals now work harder and smarter to keep up with trends, particularly

because their mass audiences are no longer passive consumers of media messages but active

users of different forms of social media.

Social network site, which is the focus of this study, is a component of social media on the

internet. Examples of social network sites (SNSs) include Facebook, Twitter, Instagram,

Pinterest, Google+, Wikipedia, LinkedIn, Reddit, and so on. These SNSs are situated within

the broader context of computer-mediated communication on the internet. They are probably

the most important interactive online tools for individuals and organisations. By providing

users with the opportunity to share information and their thoughts and interests, this creates

more opportunities for interaction and participation within virtual communities and networks.

For this reason, in this study, SNS is appropriately situated within the dynamic and interactive

context of Web culture (Beer, 2008). In their seminal work, Boyd and Ellison (2008, p. 158)

define SNS as:

“ a networked communication platform in which participants 1) have uniquely

identifiable profiles that consist of user-supplied content, content provided by other

users, and/or system level data; 2) can publicly articulate connections that can be

viewed and traversed by others; and 3) can consume, produce and/or interact with

streams of user-generated content provided by their connections on the site.”

Krämer et al. (2014, 28) define SNSs as tools that highlight “(a) the importance of a dynamic

profile that can be attributed to a person or an organisation as well as (b) the visibility of

interpersonal connections and the content people share within the network”. From these

definitions it can be concluded that Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, among others,

are all SNSs because these sites underline the characteristic nature of social network sites as

tools employed by users to interact and generate content.

Extant literature is replete with how companies, non-profit organisations, and activists have

used social network sites for different purposes (Paek et al., 2013; Egbunike and Olorunnisola,

2015; Mutsvairo and Sirks, 2015). Other reasons for using social network sites include its use

by journalists to: impact on news content (Gil de Zúñiga , Jung and Valenzuela, 2012; Asekun-

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 56

Olarinmoye et al., 2014); news sharing and democratisation (Papacharissi and de Fatima

Oliveira, 2012; Holton et al., 2014; Boyd, 2015); to underscore the state of journalism and

journalists’ changing roles with the advent of social network sites (Thomas, 2013; Ponnan and

Ali, 2015); for terrestrial radio’s expansion into online space (Tufan, 2014; Zoellner and Lax,

2015), and so on. Many of these studies, however, focus either on news content or how

journalists perceive or use social media. Little is known about how the use of social network

sites helps radio stations to engage and develop relationships with the public or if there is any

correlation between these stations’ use of social network sites and public engagement (Lin,

Sung and Chen, 2016).

Studies show that there is no consensus among scholars with respect to one definition for the

term, ‘engagement’. In marketing circles, for example, scholars refer to ‘engagement’ in terms

of customer or consumer engagement or consumer-brand engagement (Malthouse et. al., 2013;

Vivek et. al., 2014). O’Brien (2010) defines engagement as the “quality of user experiences”

while Vivek et al. (2014) define it as the "intensity of an individual's participation in and

connection with an organisation's offerings…” Multiple definitions indicate that engagement

is manifested in the different interactions that people participate in, online or offline.

Although the term ‘engagement’ has been in use (especially in marketing circles) for over four

decades, its use among scholars came to the fore only about two decades ago (Vohra, Anupama,

Bhardwaj and Neha, 2016). The definitions and uses of the word (among scholars and

marketing professionals alike) have assumed different dimensions over the years and its uses

are increasing because engagement has become a key concern in scholarly research on

organisations’ and people’s media use and participation in the public sphere (Couldry,

Livingstone and Markham, 2010). Vohra and Bhardwaj (2016) note that the scope of

engagement should be described in the light of previous research on the subject because it is

often conceptualised as a multidimensional construct. Therefore, in a review of over fifteen

definitions of engagement and how various scholars chose to conceptualise and define

engagement, Vohra and Bhardwaj (2016) observe that scholarly definitions of the concept are

based on the context in which it was studied, thus reflecting the different dimensions of the

concept.

Like other business entities, radio stations have come to embrace the great potential of engaging

or interacting with their audiences using social network sites. As Tufan (2014,91) rightly

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 57

observes, this is obviously because of the high interactive power of the web which drives SNSs

and which is used not only in social media environments for communicating with radio

audiences in a “friendly and quick way but also for creating a point of corporate image by

existing in these environments”. Such relationships are produced by institutions and

organisations like radio stations when they create their profiles to interact with the public.

Indeed, research has shown that the most popular radio stations are very active in their use of

social network sites like Facebook or Twitter (Tufan, 2014). It is obvious that such radio

stations have gone beyond traditional ways of broadcasting because traditional methods present

greater challenges to establish and build relationships with the audience. This is because the

one-way communication model of terrestrial radio broadcasting - where the stations

disseminate information without much feedback from the public - can no longer stand in the

long haul. One of the strengths of using social network sites is that it integrates seamlessly with

other media. Total dependence on terrestrial broadcasting is becoming obsolete and more

challenging to the extent that the direct airing of commercials on the radio no longer affects the

customer positively, as it used to (Tufan, 2014). This economic aspect is already being taken

over by social media: peoples’ referrals of products and services using social media is gradually

becoming the most important influencer of purchase intent (as against the million-rand

commercial on the radio) (Qualman, 2009).

2.2 Radio Broadcasting in South Africa

South Africa operates a three-tier broadcasting system, consisting of public, commercial, and

community broadcast stations (NAB, 2014). Commercial radio broadcasting in South Africa

includes free-to-air-channels (terrestrial) and subscription services (satellite). The South

African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) is the country’s major broadcast provider, with 19

radio AM/FM stations (SABC, 2019). It was established in 1937 to broadcast in what were

then the country’s official languages, English and Afrikaans (NAB, 2014). The country’s other

official languages are indigenous languages. SABC now broadcasts in all 11 of the country’s

official languages. In the 1960s, regional radio stations in South Africa commenced operations

as radio FM music stations because of the high fidelity the FM band afforded (NAB, 2014).

This encouraged the production and airing of popular music for the promotion of the people’s

indigenous languages. In 1966, the SABC established an external mouthpiece, Radio RSA, to

broadcast to the world in English, Swahili, French, Portuguese, Dutch and German (World

Heritage Encyclopedia).

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 58

2.3 Brief history of Jacaranda FM in South Africa

Jacaranda FM was a product of the restructuring of SABC after a decision to stop further

transmission of Springbok Radio in 1985 and later became a major force to be reckoned with

in commercial radio broadcasting in South Africa. Springbok Radio was privatised along with

the three regional radio services: Radio Highveld, Radio Port Natal and Radio Good Hope.

Also included in the privatisation process were Radio Oranje and Radio Algoa. These six

stations were the first to commence commercial broadcasting in South Africa. In 1990, Radio

Jacaranda’s transmitting signal was upgraded to stereo and its name changed. It became

Jacaranda 94-97 in 1994 and was finally renamed Jacaranda 94.2 in 1997, when the station

became privatised. South Africa's biggest black-owned media company, Kagiso Media, owns

Jacaranda FM.

The radio station is the group's top performer and was the number one independent radio

commercial station with over two million listeners by weekly audience figures in South Africa

(Businesstech, 2016). In 2015 Jacaranda FM was the top independent private commercial radio

by weekly listenership in South Africa (SAARF RAMS, 2015). By 2020 its weekly listenership

had increased to 2 million. The radio station is technologically savvy in its use of social media

and has the highest listenership for commercial broadcasting. These factors served as criteria

for its selection in this study. The station’s weekly cume - that is, the average number of persons

reached by the station in one week (Monday-Sunday 6AM-6AM) - has been on an upward

trend (Table 1). Table 1 shows that on the average, the total listenership for the radio station

increased from 804 000 in 2012 to 1 000 000 in 2015.

Table 1: Listenership Figures for Jacaranda FM station

Estimated Listenership

7 Day

Av. Mon – Fri

May 2015

1 955 000

1 000 000

May 2013

1 855 000

909 000

Feb 2013

1 744 000

831 000

Dec 2012

1 796 000

835 000

Oct 2012

1 869 000

843 000

Aug 2012

1 771 000

780 000

Jun 2012

1 774 000

804 000

Source: SAARF RAMS (2015)

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 59

Jacaranda FM is featured on the DStv audio bouquet (Channel 158) in addition to its over-the-

air broadcast. The DStv IS-7 Ku band satellite footprint affords Jacaranda FM coverage of the

whole of South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland, Mozambique, Zimbabwe,

Mozambique, and the southern half of Malawi. In addition, the BMB website hosts live

worldwide audio streaming. The radio station operates primarily from its headquarters in

Midrand near Johannesburg and has other secondary studios.

4. Research methodology

A quantitative method of research was employed for this study. This is because the data mined

from the station’s Breakfast with Martin Bester’s Facebook page was descriptive. Quantitative

content analysis was therefore appropriate to analyse the meanings manifested in data collected

from the station’s Facebook platform. Facebook is both the SNS most used by Jacaranda FM

in its radio programming and the most used SNS in South Africa (Media Update, 2020). The

population of comments on the Breakfast with Martin Bester (BMB) Facebook page comprises

1 338 comments that were posted as text messages by Jacaranda FM and its listeners during

the BMB show in October 2017. A target population of all 116 comments posted by the radio

station on the show’s Facebook page was used. A census of the study population which were

all comments made by Jacaranda FM on its BMB show Facebook page in the month of October,

2017, was used because the total number of comments made by the station in the period was

manageable enough to justify a census.

Quantitative content analysis (QCA) was used in the analysis of the data collected from the

radio station’s Facebook SNS during October 2017. The QCA was employed in the study

because it allows for features of a text to be systematically categorised and recorded for

analyses. Jacaranda FM was selected on the basis of it being the first private independent

commercial radio station in South Africa and because of its national coverage and wide

listenership. The period of the month of October was chosen because it is the start of a

programming quarter at radio stations, during which time the station’s activities are neither too

heavy nor light (Bonini, 2014). The start of a quarter is the period in which stations schedule

the shows that will air at the station for the next four months.

Before the analysis in this study, data were first coded. In the coding process, codes assigned

to content were grouped into categories that related to engagement on the SNS. The codes were

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 60

based on the selected unit of analysis. The units of analysis were comments in form of words

or sentences that were posted as text. The categories relating to engagement that was used in

analysing data from the Breakfast with Martin Bester Facebook page are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Framework for Quantitative Content Analysis

QUANTITATIVE CODING GUIDE FOR BMB AND PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT ON SNSs OF FACEBOOK

CATEGORIES*

UNITS OF ANALYSIS

Comments

(text-words or sentences)

1. Type of posts

CAT1 (1) Comments

2. Reactions

What are public reactions to the station’s posts?

CAT4(1) Comment-comment,

CAT4(2) Share

CAT4(3) Like

3. Sentiments expressed

What sentiments are expressed by the public to the station’s posts?

CAT5(1) Positive

CAT5(2) Neutral

CAT5(3) Negative

*Categories adapted from Bonini and Sellas’ (2014) content analysis model

3.1 Data presentation and analysis

Descriptive data of public interaction with the Martin Bester breakfast show Facebook page

was obtained in October 2017. Data from categories 1, 2 and 3 was used to address the study’s

research questions. The data was presented and analysed in Tables 3 and 4 and in Figures 1

and 2. Frequency and simple percentages were used in the analysis. An attempt was made to

determine whether there was any relationship between the BMB show’s use of Facebook and

public engagement with the station.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 61

Table 3 presents the data of comments made by the BMB show and the public in the month of

October.

Table 3: User count frequency of reactions to the posts made by the BMB show

BMB

October, 2017

Engagement

Type

BMB

No. of

Posts

Share

count

Comment

count

Like

Love

Wow

Haha

Sad

Angry

Total

Reaction

Comment-

comment

116

0

(0%)

849

(24%)

306

(8%)

39

(1%)

17

(1%)

11

(0%)

0

(0%)

0

(0%)

1222

(35%)

Video links

5

486

(14%)

373

(10%)

874

(23%)

215

(6%)

81

(2%)

98

(3%)

269

(7%)

11

(0%)

2407

(65%)

Total

121

486

(14%)

1222

(33%)

1180

(32%)

254

(6%)

103

(2%)

104

(3%)

264

(7%)

16

(0%)

3629

(100%)

Figure 1 depicts the BMB show’s engagement with the public by comment in the month of

October 2017.

Fig. 1: Scatterplot graph of the BMB show’s engagement with the public via comments (October 2017)

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 62

In Figure1, the slope of the line is positive because as the BMB show’s comments increase, the

public comments also increase. The model depicts a strong positive correlation since the points

are relatively clustered along the slope or line. In Figure 2, the output of a regression analysis

run on the data obtained from Figure 1 is presented.

Fig. 2: Summary output of regression analysis of the BMB show’s engagement with the public in

Facebook comments

Based on the regression output presented in Figure 2, the regression equation is stated as

follows: Public comment-hat = 33.98+4.09*BMB comment. The intercept (public comments)

and the slope (BMB comments) match what was depicted on the trend line in Figure 1. The R-

squared of 0.573 of the variability in public comment is explained by BMB comment. The

standard error is same as the residual standard deviation. This represents the typical standard

deviation between the actual public comments and what the model predicted them to be. So, in

this case, 4.760 is the typical miss or the typical fluctuation around the regression line.

The p-value for the slope coefficient is significant at 0.000, which means that there is a

relationship between the number of public comments and the number of BMB comments

posted on the show’s Facebook page. Since the data came out as a positive slope, it is correct

to say that public comments made are associated with BMB’s comments on the show’s

Facebook page in October 2017. Data pertaining to public reactions to BMB comments on its

Facebook page is presented in Table 4.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 63

Table 4: Aggregate sentiment scores expressed in comments made by the public in their comments on the

BMB show’s Facebook page

SOUTH AFRICA: BMB FM

Sentiments

OCT, 2017

Positive comments

387 (32%)

Neutral comments

552 (45%)

Negative comments

288 (23%)

Total sentiments expressed

1227 (100%)

Table 4 shows that 45% of the total comments made in the month of October on the Facebook

page of the BMB show were neutral. 32% of these comments were positive, and 23% were

considered negative. This data is illustrated in Figure 3:

Fig. 3: BMB Engagement Sentiment/Emotion analysis in October 2017

4.Result: Summary

1. Jacaranda FM station adopted to use Facebook for radio programming and audience

engagement because Facebook was found to be dynamic and to have attractive features

for radio/audience engagement, making it an ideal networking tool.

2. Jacaranda FM in South Africa uses Facebook for audience engagement because there

is a relationship between the station’s use of the platform and the level of audience

engagement received. There is a positive relationship between the number of comments

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 64

by Jacaranda FM on its BMB Facebook page and the number of comments by audience

engagement because the p-value for the slope’s coefficients is significant.

5. Discussion

The nature of engagement on the Jacaranda FM’s Breakfast with Martin Bester’s (BMB)

Facebook page assumes the form of posts such as comments like text messages, videos or

photos. The public engages with these posts in the form of comments, pictures, shares, ‘like’

or ‘love’ reactions. For the purpose of this paper, analysis was limited to only the comments

posted by the station on the BMB show’s Facebook page.

Park, Kee, and Valenzuela (2009) identify some of the major reasons why users use social

network sites. The reasons include fulfilling a need to socialise and a need to seek information.

The findings of this study suggest that as an actor in its Facebook social network, Jacaranda

FM is motivated to socialise with other members of the network. This involves engaging with

the audience by strengthening on-air radio content for the public on the Facebook platform in

order to inform and entertain, thereby earning trust and loyalty from their audience. This aligns

with Ellison et. al (2007) and Park et al.’s (2009) argument that underscores the need in people

and organisations to be part of a community. Jacaranda radio station as part of a social network,

engages with its audience to build relationships with members.

The radio station’s desire to seek information by engaging with the public on Facebook is also

important and cannot be overemphasised. By engaging and relating with the public, Jacaranda

FM is in a position to acquire information in the form of user-generated content. This user-

generated content can be used to create further appealing content for their target audience.

When the audience are co-creators of content, it is more likely that they will want to engage

with the station as it posts such content on Facebook. This further demonstrates that the need

to socialise, as suggested by LaRose and Eastin (2004), is a predominant factor why

organisations like Jacaranda FM use Facebook and other social media.

The findings of this study suggest that there is a positive relationship between Jacaranda FM’s

use of Facebook and the audience engagement they receive. This suggests that if the station

used Facebook rigorously to engage the public, the public would correspondingly engage more

with the brand. This supports Veerasamy and Govender’s (2013) definition of social media as

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 65

a tool that facilitates conversations. Perhaps more important is this study’s confirmation that

radio stations, like individual entities, seek out and use media to gratify themselves, as put

forward by the Uses and Gratification theory espoused by Park, Kee, and Valenzuela (2009).

This gratification comes in the form of meeting a need to socialise and seek out information

(LaRose and Eastin, 2004). In this case, the radio station is able to obtain information from its

audience by engaging with them, in this way also generating new content that is then curated

and used for station programming.

The findings of this study further suggest that the station can have a given number of comments

which it can post on its Facebook network for robust or effective engagement. This benchmark

can be used to predict the number of posts they need to publish to obtain a certain amount of

comments or reactions from the audience. Posts of a high quality from the station that involves

appealing, relatable and relevant content which attracts and holds attention will most likely

generate positive reactions and sentiments in the audience rather than more of neutral

comments as was the case in this study.

6. Conclusion and Recommendations

Radio stations have a presence on social network sites because that is where their audiences

spend much of their time. Social network sites have features that make them ideal for radio

station to use to garner public engagement. Facebook was employed by Jacaranda FM partly

to engage with the public in order to expand its reach and cultivate its audience by attracting

and holding their attention. Jacaranda FM should do more by posting very appealing, relatable,

and relevant comments on its Facebook page. Such content inspires the audience and makes

them want to engage with the station in a similar manner by comments to the station’s

comments. This explains the relationship between the radio station’s activity and the activities

of the public on the station’s SNS.

This paper established that there is a positive relationship between Jacaranda FM’s comments

on its Breakfast with Martin Bester Facebook page and audience engagement. We therefore

conclude that the station’s activity on the social network site has a positive impact on the station

in terms of expanding the reach as well as attracting and holding attention of listeners on its

Facebook page.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 66

Since the revenue from commercials is what sustains the radio station, it is beneficial for the

station to have an extended audience on its SNS that its advertisers can reach. It is important,

therefore, that the station continues to engage the public on Facebook. Doing so allows the

station to drive traffic to its corporate website (dot.com) where it can expose its audience to

more advertisements. This is important because radio can no longer be relevant as a solely

terrestrial device. It must be seen to integrate effectively with social media in virtual space to

have relevance in the digital media landscape. Based on the findings and discussions from this

study, the following specific recommendations for broadcast practitioners and researchers are

advanced: First, the radio station’s social media writers should be more creative in crafting

texts that will appeal to the public and attract them to share and engage with their posts. This

will create more robust and effective engagement on the social network platform and will

ultimately yield benefits for the station.

Second, station and social media managers should consider the positive correlation between

the radio stations’ SNS posts and audience engagement as established in this study. Quality

content posted on a station’s SNS will attract robust engagement and positive sentiments from

the public. This, in turn, will impact positively on station’s bottom-line. Third, more

researchers should start looking to the application of UGT theory to organisations because like

individuals, organisations too are motivated to choose specific media because of the

gratification they seek to derive.

References

Asekun-Olarinmoye, O.S., Sanusi, O.B., Johnson, J. and Oloyede, O.B. (2014). Imperatives of

Internet and social media on broadcast journalism in Nigeria. Journal of New Media and Mass

Communication, 23, pp. 8-15.

Beer, D. (2008). Social network(ing) sites, revisiting the story so far: A response to Danah

Boyd and Nicole Ellison. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13, pp. 516-529.

Bonini, T. (2014). The new role of radio and its public in the age of social network sites. First

Monday, 19(6). Available at: http://bit.ly/2hPn9W5 [Accessed 11 August 2020].

Boyd, D. and Ellison, N.B. (2008). Social Network Sites: Definitions, History and Scholarship.

Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 13(1), pp. 210-230.

Boyd, D. (2015). Social media: A phenomenon to be analyzed. Social Media and Society. 1(1).

Available at: http://doi.org/10.1177/2056305115580148 [Accessed 16 Aug. 2020].

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 67

Brady, R. (2016). New digital platforms increase competition for radio broadcasters. Industry

Insider, [online]. Available at: https://rb.gy/lo2fvz [Accessed 11 August 2020].

Businesstech. (2016). These are the 10 biggest radio stations in South Africa. Businesstech

[online]. Available at: shorturl.at/EW035 [Accessed 8 October 2020].

Businesstech. (2016). The biggest social media networks in South Africa in 2016. Businesstech

[online]. Available at: https://bit.ly/2fyy1bd [Accessed 11 August 2020].

Calitz, A.P. and Cullen. M.D.M. (2012). The Use of Social Media in Business School

Marketing Conference Paper. Available at: https://rb.gy/x810xi. [Accessed 8 November 2020].

Campbell, C., Pitt, L.F., Parent, M., and Berthon, P.R. (2011). Understanding Consumer

Conversations around Ads in a Web 2.0 World. Journal of Advertising, 40, pp. 87-102.

Couldry, N., Livingstone, S. and Markham, T. (2010). Media Consumption and Public

Engagement. New York, NY: Palmgrave Macmillan. Pp. 65-87.

Donath, J. (2007). Signals in social supernets. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication,

13, pp. 231-251.

Egbunike, N. and Olorunnisola, A. (2015). Social media and the #Occupy Nigeria Protests:

Igniting or damping a Harmattan storm? Journal of African Media Studies, 7(2), pp. 141-164.

Ellison, N.B., Steinfield, C. and Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook “friends”: Social

capital and college students’ use of online social network sites. Journal of Computer-mediated

Communication, 12(4), pp. 1-29. Available at: https://rb.gy/ktf6qy [Accessed 10 Apr. 2010].

Ellison, N.B. and Boyd, D. (2013). Sociality through Social Network Sites. In: W.H. Dutton,

ed., The Oxford Handbook of Internet Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 151-172.

Freeman, B.C., Klapczynski, J., and Wood, E. (2012). Radio and Facebook: The relationship

between broadcast and social media software in the US, Germany, and Singapore. First

Monday, 17(4). Available at: http://bit.ly/2j1MVUR [Accessed 11 August 2020].

Gil de Zúñiga, H., Nakwon Jung, N. and Valenzuela, S. (2012). Social media use for News and

Individuals’ social capital, civic engagement and political participation. Journal of Computer-

Mediated Communication, 17(3), pp. 319-336.

Holton A.E., Baek, K., Coddington, M. and Yaschur, C. (2014). Seeking and sharing:

Motivations for linking on Twitter. Communication Research Reports, 31, pp. 33-40. Available

at: http://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2013.843165 [Accessed 11 August 2020].

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 68

Kent, M. L., and Taylor, M. (2003). .Maximizing media relations: A Web site checklist. Public

Relations Quarterly, 48, 14–18.

Krämer, N.C., Rösner, L., Eimler, S., Winter, S. and Neubaum, G. (2014). Let the Weakest

Link Go! Empirical Explorations on the Relative Importance of Weak and Strong Ties on

Social Networking Sites. Societies, 4, pp. 785-809.

LaRose, R., and Eastin, M.S. (2004). A social cognitive theory of internet uses and

gratifications: Toward a new model of media attendance. Journal of Broadcasting and

Electronic Media, 48(3), pp. 358-377.

Lin, J. S., Sung, Y. and Chen, K.J. (2016). Social television: Examining the antecedents and

consequences of connected TV viewing. Computers in Human Behavior, 58, pp. 171-178.

[http://doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2015.12.025].

Loechner, J. (2012). Social media marketing trends and frustrations. [online] Research Brief.

Available at: http://bit.ly/2c5x0Tq [Accessed 11 Aug. 2020].

Luo, Y. and Jiang, H. (2012). A Dialogue with Social Media Experts: Measurement and

Challenges of Social Media Use in Chinese Public Relations Practice. Global Media Journal,

5(2), pp. 57-74.

Malthouse, E.C., Haenlein, M., Skiera, B., Wege, E. and Zhange, M. (2013). Managing

customer relationships in the social media era: Introducing the social CRM house. Journal of

Interactive Marketing, 27(4), pp. 270-280.

Media Update. (2020). South African social media stats for 2020. [online] Available at:

https://rb.gy/ipygrf [Accessed 11 August 2020].

Mutsvairo, B. and Sirks, L.A. (2015). Examining the contribution of social media in reinforcing

political participation in Zimbabwe. Journal of African Media Studies, 7(3), p. 329-344.

National Association of Broadcasters. (2014). State of the Broadcasting Industry Report 2014.

[online] Available at: http://www.nab.org.za/content/page/broadcast-industry [Accessed Aug.

2020].

Paek, H.J., Hove, T., Jung, Y., and Cole, R.T. (2013). Engagement across three social media

platforms: An exploratory study of a cause-related PR campaign. Public Relations Review,

39(5), pp. 526-533.

Papacharissi Z. and de Fatima Oliveira, M. (2012). Affective news and networked publics: The

rhythms of news storytelling on #Egypt. Journal of Communication, 62, pp. 266-282. Available

at: http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01630.x [Accessed 11 August 2020].

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 69

Park, N., Kee, K., and Valenzuela, S. (2009). Being immersed in social networking

environment: Facebook groups, uses and gratifications, and social outcomes. Cyberpsychology

and Behavior, 12(6), pp. 729-733.

Qualman, E. (2009). Socialnomics: How Social Media Transforms the Way We Live and Do

Business. New York: John Wiley. Pp. 45-188.

SAAF RAM. (2015). RAMS July 2015 - December 2015 (March 2016 Release). Available at:

http://www.saarf.co.za/RAMS/rams-methology.asp [Accessed 9 November 2020]

SABC Annual Report. (2019). 25 years of memories. Available at

https://www.sabc.co.za/sabc/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/SABC_AR_2019_.pdf [Accessed

9 November 2020]

Safko, L. (2010). The social media bible: tactics, tools, and strategies for business success.

New York: John Wiley and Sons. Pp. 67-243.

Thomas, C. (2013). The development of journalism in the face of social media. M.A. University

of Gothenburg.

Tufan, F. (2014). New possibilities provided by social networks to radio broadcasting practices:

R@ dio 2.0. Journal of Media Critiques, 1, pp. 87-101.

Veerasamy, D. and Govender, J.P. (2013). The influence of social networking on lifestyle: A

higher education perspective. Journal of Education and Vocational Research, 4(4), pp. 94-100.

Vivek, S.D., Beatty, S.E., Dalela, V. and Morgan, R.M. (2014). A Generalized

Multidimensional Scale for Measuring Customer Engagement. Journal of Marketing Theory

and Practice, 22(4), pp. 401-420.

Vohra, A. and Bhardwaj, N. (2016). A conceptual presentation of customer engagement in the

context of social media: An emerging market perspective. International Journal in

Management and Social Sciences, 4(1), pp. 3-18. Available at: http://bit.ly/2j6aTCw [Accessed

11 August 2020]

World Heritage Encyclopedia. n.d. SABC. [online] Available at:

http://www.self.gutenberg.org/articles/SABC [Accessed 8 October 2020]

Zoellner, A and Lax, S. (2015). On-Air and Online: Social media and local radio production in

the UK. Medien Journal. Zeitschrift fuer Kommunikationsforschung, 39 (2). 5 - 18.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 70

The Contribution of Emerging Technologies and Skills to the Agricultural

and Consumer Goods Sectors in Two Countries in Africa

Albert T Mubako

Institute for Digital Business Strategy

albert.mubako@institutedbs.com

This paper investigates how emerging technology has impacted the ways of working and

functioning of various industries in Africa. The research was conducted at a time when digital

transformation may have been accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, which has resulted in

a greater rate of adoption of emerging technology (social media, mobility, analytics, cloud

computing and the internet of things [SMACT]. This qualitative research focuses on how

African youth and entrepreneurs have developed their businesses and communities in the

digital economy by exploiting emerging technology and skills. For Africans to overcome the

market challenges caused by digital transformation, they need to acquire and leverage digital

business skills tailored to their unique challenges.

This paper will be of interest to other researchers and industries on the African continent that

are competing for global market share and the transformative development of their

communities. Disasters and pandemics have become accelerators of the adoption of digital

technology to sustain industries around the globe. The COVID-19 global pandemic (2020) has

affected up to 49 countries, making it the largest health, social, and economic threat that the

world has faced in the 21st century. The COVID-19 crisis has pushed both planned and

unplanned innovation. This study explores the development of this social and cultural

innovation in various consumer sectors in Africa.

Keywords: Digital transformation, emerging technology, digital skills, business value

1. Introduction

There are current reports that suggest that more companies are adopting digital transformation

and leveraging emerging technology to improve every aspect of their business. Research by

Accenture Technology (2015) found that companies will use software, intelligent and

connected applications in order to drive revenue growth and defend their market position, in

so doing companies will create new competitive frontiers.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 71

A lack in the adoption of emerging technologies and developing digital entrepreneurship skills

in intelligent and connected applications is directly affecting job opportunities available to

young people and African transformative growth. The problem being described is as follows:

Sustainable transformative development in Africa is severely challenged by lack of digital

technology and skills, with young people making up 60 per cent of Africa’s unemployed.

Emerging technologies such as cloud computing, the internet of things (IoT), mobility

applications, artificial intelligence (AI), and social media can improve African businesses.

“There is opportunity and financial loss due to failure in selecting the technologies that can

best support and drive competitiveness in the marketplace’ (Mubako,2017). “Business

infrastructure has become digital with increased interconnections among products, processes,

and services (Bharadwaj, El Sawy, Pavlou and Venkatraman, 2013)” (Mubako, 2017:12).

Further to this is the need for emerging technologies to be utilised effectively to solve

specifically ‘African’ problems and problems that often arise from African culture.

A failure to leverage digital capabilities through digital transformation may lead to the loss of

important opportunities for Africa. There is also the possibility that with the help of digital

solutions to increase global market share and transformative development of communities.

African societies may find the tools needed to reduce corruption by increasing transparency

and getting rid of inefficient management processes. Digital transformation may also aid in

developing new services and reducing financial exclusion in African communities. In East

Africa, for example, Africans who have no access to bank accounts are enabled to do financial

transactions through mobile money platform such as M-Pesa which facilitates money transfer

services and micro financing.

“The COVID-19 response by companies has accelerated the speed and scale of digital

transformation; however, a lack of digital skills could jeopardise companies with misaligned

talent plans.” (Engler 2020). According to Engler (2020), due to the need for digital tools and

processes in business, the companies need to prioritise acquiring workers with digital skills in

order to gain more competitive advantage embedded in the new digital business models.

2. Objectives of Study

The objectives of this research are to investigate the impact and contribution of emerging

technology on entrepreneurship in agriculture and consumer goods sectors in select African

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 72

countries and to analyse the emerging technology used by African entrepreneurs in the

agriculture and consumer goods sector.

Another objective is to illuminate the digital entrepreneurship skills needed to improve aspects

of business value, such as the digital facilitation of transactions, networking, and information

exchange, all of which are key in business, thus contributing to business knowledge. This study

will benefit business people in Africa who are competing globally for market share.

3. Research Questions

To achieve these objective, the following research questions are raised:

1. How have emerging technologies contributed to creating value in agriculture and

consumer industries in Africa?

2. Which emerging technologies are used by African entrepreneurs in agriculture and

consumer industries?

3. How do individuals’ skill themselves to leverage emerging technologies for the

agriculture or consumer goods industries?

4. Literature Review

In this section, key theoretical concepts that underpin this research will be addressed.

“Digital business strategy (DBS) is an organisational strategy formulated and executed by

leveraging digital resources to create differential value” (Bharadwaj, El Sawy, Pavlou and

Venkatraman, 2013). A DBS is a reimagined corporate strategy that has realigned IT and

business strategies in one functioning strategy underpinned with an organizational digital

culture.

“Digital technologies (viewed as combinations of information, computing, communication,

and connectivity technologies) are transforming industries via individual digital

entrepreneurship, business strategies, business processes, marketing capabilities, products and

services, and key interfirm relationships in extended business networks” (Bharadwaj et al.,

2013). “Two-thirds of business executives believe their organization is currently being

disrupted by IT and 72 percent agree that they will be disrupted over the next 12 months.”

(Accenture, 2015).

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 73

KASI Insight (2020) conducted over 3,000 interviews across eight countries: namely, South

Africa, Nigeria, Ghana, Tanzania, Kenya, Ivory Coast, Ethiopia, and Cameroon on the impact

of COVID-19 on African consumers. According to KASI Insight (2020), the COVID-19

pandemic threat in Africa prompted changes in shopping behaviour that mirrored global trends

to some extent. “In Africa, COVID-19 is primarily an economic crisis, the health threat is

considered secondary” (KASI Insights, 2020). According to KASI Insights (2020) most

African economies are largely informal and have high unemployment rates along with limited

job security therefore making COVID-19 a threat to people’s livelihoods. This demonstrates

the severe impact of COVID-19 lockdowns on the ways of working (working from home) and

livelihoods in Africa where most of the population rely on entrepreneurship of physical selling

of goods to provide for their families.

“Pierson, (2010) stated that digital capabilities can determine methods of providing greater

access to raw materials between countries by utilizing practices that will optimize efficiency

through effective global supply chain management” (Mubako, 2017). Tilson, Lyytinen and

Sørensen, (2010) inferred that digital architectures and web technologies provide new

phenomena such as recursivity, scalability and flexibility. Such advantages need to be

leveraged in Africa, but a lack of access, digital readiness and skills pose a threat to African

entrepreneurs and businesses in applying technology effectively. Emerging technologies

driving the digital transformation are listed below (Mubako,2017):

• Social media

• Mobility and consumerisation (use of mobile platforms and applications)

• Analytic/big data (use of computer-based data analysis)

• Cloud computing (use of shared and on-demand network-based access to servers, data

storage and software services)

• Internet of things (IoT) and sensors (use of digitally connected instruments)

• Augmented reality (use of software that connects digital and physical elements)

• Cyber-physical service systems (CPSS) (use of computers that are connected to the

surrounding physical world)

• Platform -based ecosystems (use of online value ecosystems)

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 74

• Drone technology (use of drones to survey and deliver products and services)

• Artificial intelligence (use of algorithms in business processes)

• Blockchain (use of digital ledgers for payments and record-keeping)

By using technologies such as social media, mobility applications, analytics, cloud computing

and IoT (also known as SMACT), individuals and business can now interact, and collaborate

across channels of operations and beyond traditional infrastructure (Mubako, 2017). The

‘intelligent edge’ (or edge computing) is promoting boundaryless value and information

sharing in digital ecosystems that include partners such as suppliers, developers, customers and

the connected things they use to conduct business. This forms the basis for business value to

be gained from platform-based ecosystems. By sharing information and working together along

the value chain in the ecosystem, the suppliers and customers benefit in the form better market

access or ease of provision of services and goods.

‘Digital skills’ refers to an individual’s ability to apply technologies and digital business

modelling. In the current digital economy, where business and IT personnel acquire and use

business skills, individuals are becoming aware of the benefits of cross-functional skills.

According to Engler (2020), technology skills are central in IT but need to be spread across

organizational functions of businesses and relationships. “These are to be applied to customer

relationships, sales and services, marketing and commerce, collaborating and human resources

reskilling” (Engler 2020).

“Workers with limited digital skills will find themselves at a disadvantage vis-à-vis those who

are better equipped for the digital economy, incumbent local firms will meet stiff competition

from digitalized domestic and foreign ones, and various jobs will be lost to automation”

(UNCTAD, 2019). This supports the argument that African entrepreneurs need these skills to

improve the value of their businesses and to offer better products or services to their

communities.

“Even if nontechnology companies don’t need employees to be quite so digitally literate as the

tech giants, they will need to identify their requisite skills and prioritize a way to acquire them

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 75

if they hope to unlock the value of the competitive advantage embedded in the reimagined

business model” (Engler, 2020).

“Ecosystem networking involves communication and information exchange for mutual benefit,

whilst collaboration is a process in which entities share information, resources and

responsibilities to jointly plan, implement, and evaluate a program of activities to achieve a

common goal” (Camarinha-Matos, Afsarmanesh, Galeano and Molina, 2009). This statement

by Camarinha-Matos et al. (2009) emphasizes the benefits of a fully functioning ecosystem a

great example of such an ecosystem is the Google Playstore, where application developers and

customers collaborate to produce and consume mobile applications on a digital marketplace.

Building relationships with consumers and growing brand loyalty are the positive outcomes of

ecosystems.

New digital business models driven by emerging technologies are contributing to the global

marketplace. These emerging technologies and digital networks contribute to the global

marketplace in the following ways:

1. Digital networks offer access to more products, including data.

2. Increased market participation due to financial inclusion of previously excluded

communities due to lack of infrastructure (like banks in rural areas).

3. Innovation drives more competitiveness for Africa and the international markets.

4. New and unique digital products can be offered on new online markets.

5. Closer relationships with customers allow for better production planning and

negotiation.

6. “Digital data can be used for development purposes and for solving societal problems,

including those related to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).” (UNCTAD,

2019)

According to UNCTAD (2019) digital economy report, emerging technology help improve

economic and social outcomes and can be a driver for innovation and productivity growth for

its use cases in Africa. Digital platforms and ecosystems facilitate transactions, networking

as well faster as information exchange that can lead to better sales and revenue. In Africa, key

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 76

disadvantages to accessing emerging technologies may include time-to-market factors,

customer expectations, and the cost of computer and telecommunication infrastructure.

‘Smart’ agriculture refers to the use of technology to provide precise measurements on the

inputs required to have a good yield or to determine precisely what the environment requires

for successful crop and animal farming or conservation which is SDG related. “Creating a

‘smart’ future requires innovative ideas to leverage ubiquitous digital connectivity, smart

sensors, artificial intelligence, Internet of Things (IoT), access to all human knowledge, and

entrepreneurship to capture opportunities for the best quality of life”( Lee and Trimi, 2018).

5. Methodology

This study followed a phenomenological descriptive approach to try to understand individuals’

experiences of the phenomenon of emerging technologies in business from an African

perspective. Data was collected based on the responses obtained from a small number of

individuals to observe their views of the topic of emerging technologies in business from an

African perspective (Creswell, 2012). This research approach allowed for a subjective

assessment of the interviewee’s reported experiences with digital capabilities. Qualitative

research has been recommended as an effective design approach for attempting to understand

how individuals perceive and interact with their environment (Yin, 2014). Confidentiality was

emphasised to all participants to recruit the right participants and elicit honest answers to the

interview questions. Using purposive sampling, five participants from two African countries

(South Africa and Uganda) were selected to participate in the study. The researcher identified

three key characteristics that participants were required to possess to participate in this study.

Participants needed to fulfil at least two of the following inclusion criteria: (a) the participant

is an African entrepreneur; (b) the participant is involved in sustainable community

development; (c) the participant has incorporated SMACT in their business.

6. Findings

6.1. Demographics

The results of this research are based on findings obtained from five entrepreneurs from two

African countries (Uganda and South Africa). These entrepreneurs operate in the consumer-

oriented and agriculture industries. The respondents were interviewed to ascertain their

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 77

experience regarding the challenges and opportunities offered to them by the digital economy

and current business environment in South Africa and Uganda.

Section A of the interview questionnaire gathered the demographic information presented in

Table 1.

• Respondent 1 is the chief executive officer (CEO) of an agricultural technology (Agri

Tech) startup for beekeeping and conservation. He holds a Bachelor of Commerce

degree and has obtained his masters in conservation.

• Respondent 2 is the chief financial officer of a software development firm. Respondent

2 has an ACCA diploma in accounting.

• Respondent 3 is an executive manager for an IT consulting firm. He earned a bachelor’s

in business computing degree and a Master of Business Administration degree.

Table 1: Demographics and Industry

Interviewee

Number

Participant

Label

Title

Sector

Age

Sex

1

Respondent 1

Chief

Executive

Officer (CEO)

Agri Tech /

Conservation

41

Male

2

Respondent 2

Chief Finance

Officer (CFO)

Software

Engineering

37

Male

3

Respondent 3

Managing

Director

IT Consulting

35

Male

4

Respondent 4

Chief

Executive

Officer (CEO)

Real Estate

36

Male

5

Respondent 5

Sales

Operations

Manager

Beauty

36

Female

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 78

• Respondent 4 is an owner of a real estate investment company. He holds a bachelor’s

degree and Master of Science degree in project management.

• Respondent 5 holds a fashion and beauty diploma and multiple certifications and is a

sales operations manager for a beauty studio.

7. Discussion and Analysis

This section organises the detailed findings into two major research categories. The common

themes are demonstrated in subsections to support the analysis.

In Section B: (Emerging technology and business value) of the interview questionnaire

addresses the following research question: How have emerging technologies contributed to

creating value in agriculture and consumer industries in Africa?

7.1 Theme 1: Data drives digital transformation (DT)

The Interviewees’ responses focused on the importance of customer data (knowing what their

customers need, connecting with them) and relationship building as key drivers for DT in their

sectors. Respondent 2 stated that “Consumer insights drives DT, the ability to know what the

customer desires”. Respondent 2 mentioned emerging technologies like Artificial Intelligence

(AI) and Machine learning (ML) that he considered to lead the drive of DT with the capability

of collecting and analysing behaviour of the customer. Respondent 4 stated that the ability to

acquire customer-related information more quickly and reliably drives DT and being able to

respond to customer demands. According to Respondent 1, “Connectivity, access, and mobile

penetration drives DT. There are new technology trends in agriculture for better yields and data

drives improvements down the value chain”. Respondent 5 stated that “In this economy,

relationship building which involves directly communicating and interacting with customers is

important, so this is [the] main driver for digital transformation”.

The answers from the interviewees suggest that maintaining customer relationships and using

data provides a competitive business advantage. Although the interviewees were from diverse

educational backgrounds and industry sectors, they shared the same views.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 79

7.2 Theme 2: Emerging technology has a relationship with business value and shopping habits

in Africa have changed.

The responses in the interviews indicate that digital skills have become essential during the

COVID-19 global pandemic. With many countries under lockdown and the enforcement of

social distancing, the interactions between businesspeople and consumers became less

physical, taking place online. Communication turned digital, and meetings were held online.

According to KASI Insights (2020), the COVID-19 pandemic threat in Africa saw changes in

shopping behaviour. These changes mirror global trends to some extent. The video

conferencing interviews further confirmed that there was a change in shopping habits in 2020.

Respondent 2 noted that: “There is change in traditional cash purchases in Uganda to mobile

money and people are using WhatsApp as online shopping tool for ordering delivered groceries

to homes”. Respondent 1 further explained that “people have started to shop online rather than

go to the shops. Takealot and Netflorist are examples of the use of online shopping as their

order volumes have gone up”. Respondent 5 believes that “the COVID-19 pandemic has forced

consumers to buy on platforms. It has accelerated the adoption of shopping on online and

mobile platforms for essentials, but bulky products are not offered on these platforms.”

There is a consensus among these responses that to some extent, mobility and ecommerce are

shaping new shopping habits in Africa. The trend of using online shopping methods is based

on necessity due to lockdowns that unfortunately restrict movements to the shopping centres,

this has put reliance on ecommerce shopping and delivery services for retail goods.

7.3. Theme 3: The impact of the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic on communication and

collaboration

In response to interview questions regarding how communication and collaboration have

changed in the face of global lockdown, a consensus that digital technology has become the

preferred tool used to connect in work, business and learning was observed.

Respondent 3 said: “We use all available resources for communications WhatsApp, Google

Hangouts and Zoom the key is to be available and open as possible”. Respondent 1 mentioned

the Ayoa app and described WhatsApp as “an effective social and sales platform”. This

respondent also explained that “Google Suite and Zoom video meetings platforms are good for

documents and sharing on projects”. Respondent 4 noted that in real estate sectors, email

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 80

communications remain important for tracking of official communications but that he also uses

WhatsApp. Respondent 2 stated: “Our employees can work from anywhere as long as [they]

have good internet connectivity for Microsoft Teams, WhatsApp and Zoom”.

The answers from the respondents show that common digital tools for communication are

trending across sectors in Africa. With social distancing measures in place and working from

home having become the norm, digital communication has become is a global trend.

The following section assesses the responses to interview questions in Section C (Digital skills

and entrepreneurship) of the interview questionnaire. In this section, the respondents were

asked how they digital skills could be acquired to promote business value and themselves in

digital business. The question was posed as follows: What are the emerging technologies and

how does each individual skill themselves to leverage emerging technologies for digital

entrepreneurship? When reviewing the interview records, common perspectives and themes

emerged. These are highlighted next.

7.4. Theme 4: Entrepreneurs are open to upskilling and see how it benefits their business

value.

The interviewed entrepreneurs indicate they value skills that will improve customer

relationships, marketing, and growth and that will provide resilience in tough market

conditions. It is evident that remote working and communication has been mastered due to the

regulations for global lockdowns and limitations of physical meetings in countries. The

responses gathered demonstrate that African entrepreneurs are aware of sophisticated emerging

trends, such as Machine Learning (ML) and Artificial Intelligence, as well as programming

and data.

Respondent 1 explained that “IT programming is important to learn if it adds value to the

business. We are learning ecommerce, IoT for monitoring bee activity because we are

disruptors in traditional bee keeping and conservation. The benefits of learning digital skills

include staying connected using the web and data for both social and business reasons.”

According to Respondent 2: “IT skills is a factor in modern business, and it is formulated on

all the levels; we are not an IT-driven company, but we are customer-driven using IT. I am

very interested in learning new skills like AI and ML.” The respondent stated that AI skills

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 81

will provide customer and product insights and help their suppliers and other stakeholders in

the gas supply industry. The respondent said the benefits of acquiring digital skills is learning

how to market efficiently, generate business and create interest in our products like Alibaba

and Amazon.

Respondent 5 said the following: “The applications that add value are those that provide a way

to directly interact with customers and maintain Business to Customers (B2C) relationships.

For collaborating with suppliers, we are looking into drop shipping via an ecommerce website

and App.”

7.5. Theme 5: Upskilling and learning emerging skills is important to remain relevant in the

digital economy.

This theme of the importance of learning emerging skills to remain relevant in the digital

economy, as the most of the five respondents noted that digital transformation (DT) affected

their business sectors. DT provides an opportunity to offer new value propositions and opens

new sales channels for their customers (product and services online offerings). However, the

respondents believe that as Africans, acquiring the new digital skills are negatively affected by

the high costs of access to training and time taken to then apply the skills in the market.

Respondent 2 noted that IT skills are a factor in modern business, and it is formulated on all

the levels of a business processes. The respondent said “we are not an IT-driven company, but

we are customer-driven using IT.” This indicates the use of IT skills and the need for the

technology skills in the marketplace.

Respondent 3 said that “Learning new skills in this digital economy will only make you more

resilient adding to differentiation and more opportunities. It is very important as the technology

changes goal posts rapidly. Learning new skills as an individual fosters relevance”.

Respondent 4 noted that learning digital skills has improved his decision making for his real

estate business. These skills have kept his business afloat and marketable. He explained that by

using third-party tools, he is able to forecast expenses and interest payments.

Respondent 5 said that in the beauty industry, consumers need to buy and book services and

this is now made easier through mobile applications and websites. The respondent stated that

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 82

being connected to customers online and knowing how and what to offer customers is

important to make sales.

8. Conclusion and Recommendations

This research’s first objective aimed to uncover views of the impact of emerging technologies

in the agriculture and consumer industries in Africa.

Technology such as SMACT provides platforms to collaborate and co-create value between

entrepreneurs and their customers. The responses were focused on communication, direct

interaction and data leaning to providing services and products that customers’ needs through

online connections. On analysing the emerging technologies used by African entrepreneurs in

the agriculture and consumer goods sector, it is evident the technologies can create habit

forming and repeat actions such as weekly shopping and ordering online. This is attractive to

entrepreneurs in the consumer goods sector, the beauty sector, ecommerce and gas supply and

tech sectors.

Another objective was to investigate the skills African entrepreneurs need to succeed in the

digital economy. The responses gathered from the five respondents demonstrate an open and

positive attitude towards gaining new skills related to emerging technology. The constraints of

access to emerging digital technology include the cost of applications and courses for

upskilling. It was determined that data constraints and consumptions costs are not geared for

sole proprietors or small businesses in Africa. Despite this, the entrepreneurs interviewed for

this study have some experience in using digital tools for communication and seek to learn and

make use of emerging technologies in other aspects of their business processes. As such, a

recommendation is that government and civic communities make affordable facilities to

empower entrepreneurs with knowledge-driven development to increase Africa’s

competitiveness in the digital economy. On this basis, it can be said that African entrepreneurs

want to follow global trends and adapt to new ways of creating and delivering value to their

communities.

This research has demonstrated that there is a link between emerging technology and business

value. Business leaders must be able to demonstrate the tangible business impact of digital

transformation to their teams, stakeholders and customers. It is important to consider studies

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 83

that have been done locally, both in Africa and South Africa (KASI Insights, 2020), that show

how shopping habits shifted due to theCOVID-19 pandemic in affected communities and

business. The report indicates a shift from traditional walk-in shopping to online contactless

shopping for food and essential consumer goods.

References

Accenture Technology (2015). The Future of Applications. [pdf]. Accenture Research.

Available at https://www.accenture.com/_acnmedia/PDF-18/Accenture-Future-of-

Applications-POV-Final-2015.pdf [Accessed 19 July. 2020].

Bharadwaj, A., El Sawy, O. A., Pavlou, P. A., and Venkatraman, N. (2013). Digital business

strategy: toward a next generation of insights. MIS Quarterly, 37(2), pp. 471-482.

Camarinha-Matos, L. M., Afsarmanesh, H., Galeano, N., and Molina, A. (2009). Collaborative

networked organizations: Concepts and practice in manufacturing enterprises. Computers and

Industrial Engineering, 57(1), pp. 46-60.

Creswell, J.W. (2012). Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative

Research. 4th ed. Boston: Pearson Education.

Engler, S. (2020). Lack of Skills Threatens Digital Transformation. [online] Smarter with

Gartner. Available at: https://www.gartner.com/smarterwithgartner/lack-of-skills-threatens-

digital-transformation/ [Accessed 19 July 2020].

Kasi Insights (2020). COVID-19 Pulse Report - Tracking the impact of COVID-19 on

consumers and businesses in Africa [online]. Available at:

:https://researchchoices.org/covid19/findings/report/40/covid-19-pulse-report-tracking-the-

impact-of-covid-19-on-consumers-and-businesses-in-africa [Accessed 19 July 2020].

Lee, S.M. and Trimi, M. (2018). Innovation for creating a smart future. Journal of Innovation

and Knowledge, (3), pp. 1-8.

Lerner, S. (2015). Digital Business Strategy. Touro Accounting and Business Journal, [pdf] p.

48-49. Available at: https://las.touro.edu/media/schools-and-colleges/lander-college-for-arts-

and-sciences/documents/tab-journals/tab_journal_spring_2015.pdf [Accessed 20 July 2020].

Mubako, A.T. (2017). Digital transformation. The realignment of information technology and

business strategies for retailers in South Africa. Anchor Publishing Germany.

Pierson, K.L. (2010). Organizational management improvement through planned decision

support tools in technology-based organizations. University of Maryland University College,

ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2010. 3493865.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 84

Thecka, S. (2014) . Transforming fragmented industry into sustainable businesses with SMAC

technologies. IST-Africa Conference Proceedings, 2014 (pp. 1-9). IEEE. Available at:

https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/6880615 [Accessed 22 July 2020].

Tilson, D., Lyytinen, K., and Sørensen, C. (2010). Digital infrastructures: the missing IS

research agenda. Information Systems Research, 21(4), pp. 748-759.

UNCTAD (2019). Digital Economy Report 2019, Value Creation and Capture: Implications

for Developing Countries. [pdf] . United Nations Publications. Available at

https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/der2019_overview_en.pdf [Accessed 19

July. 2020].

Yin, R. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods. 5th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE

Publications.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 85

The Predictive Modelling of Academic Performance Using Neural

Networks

Francis Makombe

Tshwane University of Technology

218747868@tut.ac.za

The growth and development of predictive models in the current world has influenced

considerable changes. Today, the predictive modelling of academic performance has

transformed more than a few institutions by improving their students' academic performance

(Lall and Makombe, 2020). Contextual information on predictive modelling of academic

performance in private higher education institutions is provided in this article. Academic

performance forms a significant factor in academic institutions and is also a measure of their

output. There are various factors which influence learners’ academic performance, such as

test and assignment marks. This article outlined the use of different algorithms for students’

academic performance predictive modelling, and the results obtained in the experiments

conducted in this research led to selection of the neural network algorithm for classification

purposes, compared to other algorithms utilized in the research, whose performances were

lower than that for neural networks.

Keywords: Private Tertiary Education Providers, Data Mining, Algorithms, Simulation and

Modelling, Sequential Data, Predictive Model, Data Mining Techniques, Knowledge

Discovery in Databases (KDD).

1. Introduction

In South Africa, public higher education providers are institutions that have been established

and funded by the state through the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET).

Public providers include universities, universities of technology, and comprehensive

universities. Private providers are owned by private organizations or individuals (Lall and

Makombe, 2020).

Roby (2003) mentions that proficiency tests, student achievement, and student attendance can

be controlled to a certain extent by students and parents. While to a certain extent, the testing

climate and curriculum used can be controlled by lecturers, socioeconomic factors are more

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 86

difficult to assess. There was a statistically significant relationship between student attendance

and student achievement in Ohio at the fourth, sixth, ninth, and twelfth grade levels. The

correlation of student attendance and student achievement was moderate to strong, with the

most significant relationship occurring at the ninth-grade level, when comparing attendance

and achievement rates (Roby, 2003).

Student poverty and a lack of sufficient funding were cited as key reasons for student academic

failure and progression difficulties, and there was use of interpretive methods to explore the

academic experiences of South African university students who despite receiving financial

assistance for their studies, continued to be classified ‘at-risk’ of academic failure and

exclusion (Mngomezulu, Dhunpath and Munro, 2017).

An ostensibly positive outcome (such as receiving financial assistance) could have unintended

negative academic consequences, including increasing students’ risk of academic exclusion,

by virtue of the tendency for such funds to be utilized to ameliorate family poverty. To this

effect, private tertiary education providers needed a more systematic approach to handle this.

Examples of approaches that can be used include the provision of more bursaries and loans.

This student support would aid in improving academic success rates (Mngomezulu, Dhunpath

and Munro, 2017).

Students’ class attendance and participation plays an important role in today’s higher and

tertiary education. Several previous studies have shown that class attendance is an important

predictor of academic outcomes which conclude that students who attend more classes

generally earn higher final grades (Kirby and McElroy, 2003).

There was analysis of a fuzzy expert system which transformed crisp data in a fuzzy set

automatically and also determined the total student marks for both semesters 1 and 2, in the

research conducted by Yadav (2012). A fuzzy logic-based expert system that periodically

evaluated student performance and supplied students with feedback on progress was evaluated

and the system utilized the service data grid service agents to reveal the distributed and

heterogeneous grid databases (Patel, Sajja and Patel,2014).

Yassein , Helali and Mohomad (2017) mention that the adoption of data mining techniques for

educational purposes ensures that learners are well equipped with the skills and knowledge

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 87

they need to pass their assessments. If educational institutions can predict students’ academic

performance early before their final examination, then extra effort can be taken to arrange

proper support for the low performing students to improve their studies and help them to

success (Yassein, Helali , Mohomad, 2017). It is important to observe that there are continuous

pressures on being placed on private tertiary educational institutions to be able to achieve

continually increasing higher education outcomes such as improved pass rates.

Performance of the predictive models varied according to the semester and the machine

learning algorithm in use, and that the decision of which model to apply and the best moment

for that depended on the specifics of the semester (Munoz, Luiz Antonio Buschetto Macarini,

Cristian Cechine, Matheus Francisco Batista Machado, Vinicius Faria Culmant Ramos, 2019).

A study was done on the impact of classroom attendance on academic performance of

university students in an Organic Chemistry course. The findings of the research concluded

that attendance had a significant effect on the academic performance of students (Ayodele

,2017).

2. Problem Statement

Private tertiary education institutions rely on observations of signed class attendance registers

to take note of and highlight any poor class attendance records. Doing this for all learners on a

regular basis is a huge task. Identifying and using of a data mining technique appropriate to the

scenario could improve on this system. For this reason, modelling and simulation for the

proposed predictive modelling task was done.

3. Research Questions and Objectives

The primary research question to be addressed in this study was: How can a computational

predictive model be designed and developed to assist in the prediction of academic

performance using neural networks?

The following sub-questions were also to be addressed by the research:

1. What is the most accurate algorithm for predicting academic performance?

2. How is a computational predictive model designed and developed to assist in

modelling student academic performances?

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 88

3. How is the predictive model implemented and evaluated?

Looking at more specific research questions relating to the primary research question, the

following objectives were identified:

1. To use the algorithm with the best accuracy value and area under the curve in modelling

student academic performance.

2. To design, develop, and implement the proposed predictive model.

3. To evaluate the effectiveness of the predictive model.

4. Literature Review

The focus of this research was placed on a computational model which predicts learners’

academic performance, in private and tertiary education institutions in South Africa. Further in

this section, there is review of some previous work done by Roby (2003) which is related to

the effect of class attendance on the academic performance of learners in private and tertiary

education.

Compiled and reported information may lead to suggestions for dealing with the problems of

poor student attendance and its relationship to student achievement, Mboweni L, (2014).

Some evidence already exists that infers attendance is higher in smaller schools, Cotton,

(1996). Adaptive models have advantages such as the ability to learn a signal processing task

from acquired examples of how the task should be resolved and the ability to continuously

track changes in the environment under study, Larsen (1999).

Other variables could be the focus of continued analysis, such as student socioeconomic status

and aptitude and their relationship to attendance patterns and student achievement at private

tertiary institutions. Student age, perceived relationships with teachers, and the perceived value

of attending private tertiary institutions are other variables to consider for student

attendance/student achievement research.

In Great Britain, it was noted that school attendance was one of the most important factors

associated with progress toward literacy for children in British schools in the research

concluded by Tymms and Merrell (2007). There is a large scientific literature underpinning

current knowledge about the characteristics of students who are truant, Reid (2012) as well as

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 89

about interventions that may reduce truancy, Pigott, Kelly, McCrea and Maynard (2013). This

work accepts that students not only are compelled to attend, but also benefit from attending

school. So, it is particularly critical to understand and address the characteristics and modifiable

risks for truant behaviour. These risks include those associated with the student, the family, the

local community and the school.

The Genetic Algorithm and Decision Tree are used in Distance learning for analysing student

academic performance, these concepts form the basis of the GATREE System (Pierrakeas and

Kalles, 2006), which has been built on top of the GALIB library (Wall, 1996). The genetic

operators on the tree representations are relatively straightforward. A mutation may modify the

test attribute at a node or the class label at a leaf.

A technique to produce fuzzy rules based on the ID3 approach and to optimize results with

greater accuracy was the aim of the research conducted by Lanjewar and Chaware (2014). In

that research there was application of the ID3 derived rules on the students’ database available

with the instructors so as to predict their final year's marks (Lanjewar and Chaware, 2014).

The Fuzzy C-Means clustering technique was combined with the deterministic model on a

dataset of B.Tech students who appeared in semester-1 and semester-2 examinations (Yadav

and Singh , 2012).The experimental results showed that the Fuzzy C-Means algorithm was the

best model for modelling academic performance in educational domain (Yadav and Singh ,

2012). Therefore, the fuzzy C-Means clustering algorithm served as a good benchmark to

monitor the progression of students modelling in educational domain. The rule based Fuzzy

Expert System was more efficient model in comparison to existing fuzzy expert systems for

modelling academic performance evaluation (Yadav and Singh , 2012).

Raheela and Pathan (2014) used four academic batches of marks obtained from the Computer

Science and Information Technology (CS&IT) department at NED University (Pakistan) in

their study. They used HSC marks, marks in MPC, Math’s marks in HSC, marks in various

subject studied in the regular course of a programming language, CSA, Logic design, Data

Structures, and so forth for their analysis.

The reasons for the identification of a student at risk of dropouts or attrition early enough were

to be able to provide necessary support and interventions for the student, reducing student

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 90

dropouts, increasing retention, performance and graduation rates (Connolly and Olugbenga

Wilson Adejo, 2017).

An artificial neural network (ANN) is designed based on the biological neuron approach. It has

many inputs and a single output. An ANN is composed of numerous simple processing

elements that are layered and interconnected (Sarker, Sanjida and Acharjee, 2017). Neural

networks have a number of advantages which include their adaptability, increased learning

ability, and generalization ability (Sarker, Sanjida and Acharjee, 2017).

There are several applications of an ANN such as the solving of various problems in society

by using inputs. Some of these applications include weather forecasting, making stock market

predictions, validating data, forecasting sales, and conducting customer research. These are

examples of applications that can predict any type of problem using various algorithms

implemented in ANN (Eldon, 1994).

Some of the disadvantages of an ANN are as follows (Eldon, 1994):

• They are prone to overfitting;

• Model development is empirical;

• Many ANN systems do not describe how they solve problems;

• There is no single standardised paradigm for ANN development.

5. Methodology

The Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) methodology was used. This method allows

for the extraction of knowledge from data. The following research methods were used in this

research:

1. Literature study: A thorough literature review was conducted to identify the various

factors that influence academic performance.

2. Modelling and simulation were done using the ANN technique and the computational

predictive model was designed based on the observed data.

3. Case Study: Data was harvested from a private tertiary education provider’s system

whose study thereof was used to validate the suggested computational predictive model.

The factors for this study were as follows:

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 91

• Study hours per week

• Bursary (whether the student had a bursary or not)

• Class attendance

• Student workload (number of modules registered for)

• Full-time study or attending through part-time classes.

• English language proficiency and its influence on academic success

• Student poverty (Stdpvty) referring to the number of employed parents or guardians.

• Final marks obtained.

These factors were used because no research has been conducted in South Africa where these

factors have been used to predict academic performance in private tertiary education using

artificial neural networks.

9. Data Collection Methods

A data collection method is a process of assembling and administrating data, then analysing

the responses and finally, writing the conclusive reports. As this study followed a quantitative

approach, a questionnaire with closed-ended questions was used for data collection.

Questionnaires were administered in an anonymous manner after the conclusion of the ethical

clearance procedure. Participants were briefed on the purpose of the study and were also

requested not to include any form of identification details on the completed questionnaires. The

same information was also emphasised in an anonymous letter that accompanied the

questionnaire.

10. Experimental Results and Findings

This section describes the experimental results obtained in this study.

7.1. Performance Statistics for Different Algorithms Used

The following chart demonstrates the different accuracy, sensitivity, and F-measure values

obtained from the experiment conducted. Inaccuracies are also shown for each of the six

algorithms used in this research. Figure 1 shows that the neural networks algorithm had the

best accuracies and the least inaccuracies, and it also had high precision and F-measure values

(where a good classifier has an F-measure value of close to 1, whilst the worst classifier has an

F-measure close to 0).

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 92

Figure 1: Performance statistics for different algorithms used

Source: Lall and Makombe (2020). A Predictive Model for the Determination of Academic Performance

in Private Higher Education Institutions.

7.2. Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC)

The purpose of the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve is to primarily assess the

accuracy of a continuous measurement that is performing a binary outcome prediction (Zou,

O'Malley and Mauri, 2007). The best classifier has an Area Under the Curve (AUC) of close

to 1, and the worst classifier has an AUC close to 0. Shown below are the AUC values for three

classifiers obtained which had the best predictive performance and one with the worst

predictive performance.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 93

Figure 2: ROC curves for two best classifiers and one worst classifier

Source: Lall and Makombe (2020). A Predictive Model for the Determination of Academic Performance

in Private Higher Education Institutions.

The following values were obtained for the AUC. This was done for three classifiers: two of

the best classifiers and the worst classifier observed.

Table 1: AUC values for two best classifiers and one worst classifier

Algorithm

AUC

eXtremeGBoost

0.62

Neuralnet

0.86

Svm

0.43

Source: Lall and Makombe (2020). A Predictive Model for the Determination of Academic Performance

in Private Higher Education Institutions

7.3. Selected Algorithm

The ANN algorithm was chosen for the predictive tasks due to its predictive performance and

low misclassification errors obtained. The support vector machine algorithm had the lowest

accuracy and AUC values in the experiment conducted.

The researcher identified that the neuralnet algorithm, which had weights generated locally and

made use of the compute and net. result functions outperformed all other classifiers with an F-

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 94

measure close to 1. It was concluded that the neuralnet algorithm outperformed the other

algorithms in the predictive tasks of academic performance.

8. Experimental Plots Obtained

This section provides a detailed description of results obtained in the experiments conducted.

8.1. Scatterplots Obtained

The following scatterplots were obtained in this study.

8.1.1. Scatterplot of Test and Individual Assignment Marks

An overview of this scatterplot suggests that for both tests and individual assignments done

most of the students performed well. According to this scatterplot, the approximate range for

tests with most students ‘marks is 40 to 80, and that for the individual assignments is 50 to 90.

This suggests that students generally performed better in individual assignments than in tests.

Figure 3 demonstrates this.

Figure 3: Scatterplot of test and individual assignment marks

Source: Lall and Makombe (2020). A Predictive Model for the Determination of Academic Performance

in Private Higher Education Institutions

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 95

8.1.2. Scatterplot of Test and Group Assignment Marks

Figure 4 demonstrates the scatterplot which was obtained for both test and group assignment

marks. Figure 4 shows the proportion of students who did well in comparison to those who did

not do well.

Figure 4: Scatterplot of Test and Group Assignment Marks

Source: Lall and Makombe (2020). A Predictive Model for the Determination of Academic Performance

in Private Higher Education Institutions

8.2. Confusion Matrix Experimental Results

Results obtained in the experiment are provided in Table 2 for both the training and testing

dataset, also showing the accuracies and misclassification errors that were obtained using a

neural network which had specifically the simple learning rate algorithm.

Table 2: Neural Network Algorithm with simple learning rate confusion matrix results

Confusion

matrix

True

Positive

False

Positive

False

Negative

True

Negative

Misclassification

Error

Training data

5478

88

86

3636

0.0187338501

Test data

1223

17

23

1059

0.0172265289

8.2.1. Predictions of Neuralnet Using Weights Gained

Figure 5 shows the predictions of a sample of 6 elements from the dataset, 6 students. These

are the computed values which show the predicted value of whether a student will pass or fail

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 96

a module. The simple learning rate algorithm was used for these predictions. In Figure 5, the

predictions are given next to the numbers in square brackets, for example, [3,] shows a value

of 0.5961648 which means that the student is predicted to pass as the value is above 0.5.

Prediction values from 0 to 0.4999999 mean that a student will fail, whereas values above

0.5000000 mean that a student will pass.

Figure 5: output$net.result

Source: Lall and Makombe (2020). A Predictive Model for the Determination of Academic Performance

in Private Higher Education Institutions

9. Recommendations on the Research Findings

The researchers made the following recommendations based on the results obtained in the

research conducted:

• The neural network algorithm is recommended for use in a predictive model for

academic performances due to its performance compared to other algorithms.

• Results obtained in this experiment show that group assignments affect the students’

pass rate. As a result of this, private education institutes are encouraged to ensure that

their students complete and submit group assignments.

• It is suggested that private education institutions provide bursaries to deserving students

as the results demonstrate the effect of bursaries on academic performance.

• Extra classes should be made available to students who would have been predicted to

fail so that their academic performances can be monitored and improved.

• Psychological support should be made available to students who have been predicted

to fail so that they can be better prepared to perform better in their academic work.

10. Conclusion

For a more accurate assessment of a student’s academic performance, several factors should

be considered. The presence of adequately qualified lecturing staff, resources for conducting

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 97

research, administration services, and technology, all play a role in a student’s academic

performances. It is therefore recommended that these factors be a part of a future research to

provide a more accurate response to the research objectives. As result of low academic

performance statistics, private tertiary education providers are under pressure to improve their

academic performances.

References

Asif Raheela, Mahmood K. Pathan. (2014). Predicting Student Academic Performance at

Degree Level, A Case Study.

Ayodele (2017). Class attendance and academic performance of second year university

students in an organic chemistry course. Oduduwa University, Nigeria

Cotton, K. (1996). Affective and social benefits of small-scale schooling. ERIC Clearinghouse

on Rural Education and Small Schools, ED401088. WV: Charleston.

Eldon Y.Li (1994). Artificial neural networks and their business applications.

Kalles, D, Pierrakeas, C. (2006). Analyzing Student Performance in Distance Learning with

Genetic Algorithms and Decision Trees. Hellenic Open University.

Kirby, A, McElroy, (2003). The Effect of Attendance on Grade for First Year Economics

Students in University College Cork.

Lall, M., Makombe, F, (2020). A Predictive Model for the Determination of Academic

Performance in Private Higher Education Institutions.

(DOI): 10.14569/IJACSA.2020.0110949

Lanjewar, U, A., Chaware, A, (2014). ID3 Derived Fuzzy Rules for Predicting the Students’

Academic Performance. IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering 16(6):53-60

Larsen, J, (1999). Introduction to artificial neural networks. 1st Edition@Larson.

Mboweni L (2014). Challenges and factors contributing to learner absenteeism in selected

primary schools in Acornhoek.

Munoz R, Luiz Antonio Buschetto Macarini, Cristian Cechine, Matheus Francisco Batista

Machado, Vinicius Faria Culmant Ramos, (2019). Predicting Students Success in Blended

Learning—Evaluating Different Interactions Inside Learning Management Systems.

Mngomezulu S, Dhunpath R, Munro N. (2017). Does financial assistance undermine academic

success? Experiences of ‘at risk’ students in a South African university.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 98

Patel, S, Sajja, P, Patel, A. (2014). Fuzzy logic based Expert System for Students' Performance

Evaluation in Data Grid Environment.

Pierrakeas, C., Kalles, D (2006). Analyzing Student Performance in Distance Learning with

Genetic Algorithms and Decision Trees.

Pigott T, Kelly M. S, McCrea K. T, Maynard B.R., (2012). Indicated Truancy Interventions for

Chronic Truant Students: A Campbell Systematic Review.

https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1049731512457207

Reid, K, (2012).The strategic management of truancy and school absenteeism: Finding

solutions from a national perspective.

Roby, D, (2003). Research on School Attendance and Student Achievement: A Study of Ohio

Schools.

Sarker, M.T., Sanjida N., Acharjee, U.K. (2017). Basic application and study of artificial neural

networks.

Thomas Connolly, Olugbenga Wilson Adejo. (2017). An Integrated System Framework for

Predicting Students' Academic Performance in Higher Educational Institutions, University of

the West of Scotland.

Tymms, P., Merrell, C. (2007). Standards and Quality in English Primary Schools Over Time:

the national evidence (Primary Review Research Survey 4/1), Cambridge: University of

Cambridge Faculty of Education.

Yadav, S.R., Singh, V.P. (2012). Modeling Academic Performance Evaluation using Fuzzy C-

Means Clustering Techniques.

Yassein N.A., Helali R., Mohomad S.B. (2017). Predicting-student-academic-performance-in-

ksa-using-data-mining-techniques, Najran University, University of Bisha, Saudi Arabia.

Wall Mathew, GALIB. (1996). GAlib: A C++ Library of Genetic Algorithm Components.

Zou, K., O'Malley, J., Mauri, L, (2007). Receiver-Operating Characteristic Analysis for

Evaluating Diagnostic Tests and Predictive Models.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 99

Apathy: A Conundrum to Sustainable Community Development A

Reflection Based on Student Social Workers’Experiences in Community

Engagement Exercises in Zinyoka Village in Alice in the Province of the

Eastern Cape, South Africa

George Chikono

University of Fort Hare

chikonogeorge@gmail.com

The community development concept has conceivable benefits both at micro and macro levels

of development. Realistically, the developmental paradigm is seen as a model that is capable

to transform the livelihood of most South Africans. To date, communities have been involved

in various community work projects/programmes, for example, gardening, poultry, and

piggery among other projects. However, there are numerous confounding variables which

seem to interfere with the implementation of the derivative strategies designed to augment

community development/community work projects. To further understand community

participation in community work projects, the researcher conducted a study on community

members in Alice who were part of a garden project that he facilitated during his community

engagement commitment. The study followed an interpretive and descriptive design in which

data was collected through in-depth discussions with 10 community members who were

purposively selected from a garden project in Alice. The researcher then utilised thematic

qualitative techniques to analyse the data. Qualitative methodologies helped tremendously in

promoting a deep understanding of the factors underpinning the challenges encountered in

community development.

The findings revealed a lamentable resistance to community work programmes (CWPs),

especially among young people and grown men. Unlike before independence, when people

were sceptical about community development citing hidden colonial agendas, today’s

community members are simply not keen to participate in community projects despite their

essence as sources of knowledge and income. On the contrary, grandmothers are enthusiastic

about community development programmes, and their participation is far above that of youth

and men. For the grandmothers who were part of a garden project in Alice, community work

programmes have transformed their psychosocial well-being tremendously, as they get to

interact with their peers and at the same time work to make ends meet. Ironically, this

compromises their physical well-being considering their age and some of the tasks that they

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 100

undertake. To this end, this paper suggests that community developers, organisations, and

government institutions should stimulate collaboration and the inclusion of community

members in the designing and planning of community development programmes as this will go

a long way in promoting participation and transparency and curbing the challenge of

community apathy.

Keywords: Community work, apathy, dependence syndrome, community development,

sustainable development.

1. Introduction

Community and stakeholder participation lie at the core of community development (Mkhize,

Madumi and Manona, 2018). Adato and Haddad (2002) underscore that ever since the shift to

democracy, South African public works programmes have been considered to involve

community participation and targeting the poor. These programmes should inform and allow

the equal participation of community members in their planning and implementation (Republic

of South Africa, 1997). Put succinctly, the coming of democracy in South Africa ushered in

the alteration of ideologies in educational, medical, economic and social spheres. Public

platforms underwent rigorous review and were redefined and redirected to meet the needs of

all (Bortz, Jardine and Tshule, 1996). Promoting the involvement of community members

remains at the core of community work. Community work is a part of social work methods that

involves the work performed by social workers in communities. Social workers are trained to

work directly with community members in activities earmarked to transform their livelihoods.

Murray (1955, 39) describes community engagement as:

“a process by which a community identifies its needs or objectives, orders (or ranks)

them, develops the confidence and will to work at them, finds the resources (internal

and/or external) to deal with them, takes action in respect to them, and in so doing

extends and develops cooperative and collaborative attitudes and practices in the

community”.

Swanepoel (1992) describes community engagement/work as a fundamental aspect of social

work profession that involves the cooperation of individuals towards addressing identified

community needs. Community work entails consolidating the human and material resources of

the community to achieve a shared goal (Khawula, 2016).

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 101

Community work and community development are terms that are often used interchangeably,

but Swanepoel and De Beer (2013) assert that community development has been an integral

part of community work from the early 1900s. Accordingly, Mansvelt (2018) also reckons the

connection between the two concepts but argues that community development is sometimes

viewed as an ever-changing aspect which uses various techniques and skills to address people’s

needs. Regardless of their definitions, both ‘community work’ and ‘community development’

simply seek to address problems that often affect the psychosocial functioning of individuals,

groups and communities, such as poverty, unemployment, inter alia. Recognising drawbacks,

identifying resources appropriate to meet people’s needs, cultivating and establishing

individual and group relationships, and forecasting and performing actual programme activities

are some of the exact undertakings in community engagement (Bello, Lovelock, and Carr,

2017). This process requires a lot of training. Therefore, the community developer and/or social

worker’s proficiency in dealing with communities relies on their ability to balance their

individual and professional knowledge and other systematic obstacles that impact the lives of

service consumers.

1.1 Problem statement

The lack of participation and involvement of community members in community development

projects remains a major factor besetting sustainable development. Despite the contribution of

community development programmes in addressing poverty and other social ills, the uptake of

this community intervention strategy remains fragmented (Adato and Haddad, 2002). Many

community development initiatives lack continuity and tend to die soon after the departure of

community workers. Perhaps community members need to be conscientised about the essence

of community development projects to ensure sustainable development. This paper explores

the undercurrents of this phenomenon to ensure that poverty eradication strategies suffice.

1.2 Research objectives

• To investigate the factors that interfere with the implementation of strategies designed

to enhance community development/community projects.

• To explore challenges in community involvement in the implementation of community

work programmes.

• To examine the impact of community work programmes (CWPs) on community

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 102

members in Alice.

1.3 Research questions

• What could be the reason for the low uptake of community development projects?

• What hinders the success of community work programmes?

• In what way do community work programmes impact the livelihoods of community

members in Zinyoka village in Alice?

1.4 Study Aims:

This study sought to gain a pragmatic understanding of citizen participation in community

engagement programmes as seen through their attitudes and behaviours. Information was

obtained through observations and interviews with community members in Zinyoka village in

Alice in the Eastern Cape. These helped to reveal how the community members perceive the

notion of community development programmes in South Africa and could be treated as

feedback on the progress that has been made as far as community development projects are

concerned. This could be important for policymakers interested in Community Development

Work Programmes (CDWP), particularly those who are predisposed to the idea that these are

sufficient for poverty alleviation and development.

1.5 Contextualisation of Study

The present study took place during a range of community visits that the researcher carried out

in 2018 when he was facilitating a garden project to empower community members in Alice

both psychosocially and economically. Participants on the community work programme in

Zinyoka village were encouraged to grow vegetables and other crops to improve their diet and

generate extra income. The garden project and community work programme activities enabled

members of the community to engage in vegetable production while also allowing them to

exercise and converse on various aspects of life. Garden project participants in Alice were

encouraged to produce diverse vegetables (beetroot, butternut, cabbage, spinach, potatoes and

onions) that they could sell to retail operators in and around Alice. This increased the likelihood

of some households escaping from poverty and malnutrition. Although the community

gardeners expressed concerns over the recent seasonal variations, highlighting the problem of

water supply and general climate change which impacted negatively on their activities, overall,

the garden project offered community members, and women in particular, a new lease on life.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 103

Figure 1: Some of the participants who took part in the garden project

2. Literature Review

2.1 Education and participatory change

Community involvement remains a focal point for sustainable development. Hawkins and

Wang (2012) stresses that community workers should recognise the participation mechanisms

utilized by communities to improve the management and success of sustainable development

initiatives. Trevithick (2009) explains that social work students are taught to grasp social

challenges and intervention strategies such as casework (working with individuals), group

work (family interventions) and community work (large scale interventions). However, Tan

(2009) postulates that most emerging social workers often rely too much on casework or

working with individuals compared with other intervention strategies like community work

(Tan, 2009). Perhaps this inclination toward casework practice is the reason why community

work projects often die prematurely. Tan (2009) suggests that casework reliance by upcoming

social workers might have been informed by the way social work education is structured and

delivered, thus, community social work can be regarded as a method that is yet to achieve its

relevance among emerging practitioners. Regardless of this challenge, education remains

essential in empowering student social workers with relevant analytical and thoughtful

aptitudes to augment their capacities.

Institutions of higher learning, and the field of humanities in particular, should promulgate

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 104

clear career prospects for students to be able to think critically and to usher them to become

citizens with befitting aptitudes to transform their lives and those of people surrounding them.

Agi, Gbawa and Jaja (2019) emphasise on conscientising community members about

participation to ensure sustainability of community development programmes. Mansvelt

(2018) further asserts that community training is important for establishing interventions and

practices that address community needs. Social work education therefore expected to promote

people-oriented service delivery that results in discernible and sustainable development to

service consumers (individuals, groups and communities). Mansvelt (2018) further posits that

education and training are essential aspects for effective community development

interventions. Education on social, political and economical dynamics of an environment

should be considered as a starting point for development and community transformation.

Within the context of community emancipation, education incorporates sectors such as health,

life skills training, inter alia (Campbell, Ross and MacGregor, 2016).

In South Africa, community participation and the developmental paradigm concepts are clearly

articulated in the White Paper for Social Welfare where local government institutions have

been entrusted with the overall process of community transformation (Department of Social

Development, 1997). The Social Welfare White Paper provides guidelines on distribution of

resources and the active involvement of individuals, groups, families and communities in

processes of development (Department of Social Development 2013 p. 13). The guidelines

have been cascaded down to institutions of higher learning which offer social work training to

ensure synergy in the processes of training and community work activities. Social work

students at Fort Hare University are therefore required to work within the surrounding

communities. This experience is further intended to strike a balance between their theoretical

knowledge and practice.

3.2 Community development as a process

Community development may perhaps be described as the process of community capacitation,

furtherance and restoration (Swanepoel and De Beer, 1997). Swanepoel (1992) views

community work as an undertaking intended to develop communities through vigorous

involvement of members and implementation of community-driven strategies.

Mansvelt (2018) asserts that the model for community development received a cold response

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 105

across segments of the South African population before 1994 as people were sceptical about

change. This assertion is in line with Swanepoel and De Beer (1997) who explained that the

process of community development encountered huge structural impediments from the onset

of its implementation in South Africa. The authors describe how politicians and community

members strongly criticized community development initiatives, describing them as a colonial

tool meant to further foreign agendas. Mansvelt (2018) therefore states that in South Africa,

the process of community work required robust contextual analysis to meet widely held cultural

values to stand a chance of achieving its intended goals.

During apartheid, community engagement followed strict and asymmetrical (residual and

remedial) models of welfare provision. These models served to further and maintain

discriminative welfare services as they focused predominantly on white people (Moyane,

2016). In the mid-1980s, however, Swanepoel and De Beer (2013) point out that the provision

of welfare shifted from being entirely remedial to a more developmental process. However,

this strategy faced a general misconception from local communities who thought state

community development initiatives were a part of the then apartheid government’s plan to stifle

their reform initiatives (Phago and Molosi-France, 2018). On the other hand, the then regime

of apartheid did not institute practical basis for community development, thus stakeholders in

welfare struggled to shift from remedial to community development as the induction process

was poorly executed (Swanepoel and De Beer, 2013).

In some instances, the designing of community projects was often placed entirely in the hands

of professionals thereby neglecting community members. This reduced the likelihood of

community members’ involvement in the projects. Primarily, government initiatives for

development struggled to promote a sense of ownership among community members

(Swanepoel and De Beer, 2011). This validates the point made by Swanepoel and De Beer

(1997) - that the success of community work is deeply connected to grassroots participation.

Participation is critical in ensuring the sustainability of community projects. In addition,

Swanepoel (1997) highlights the significance of observing the principles of community

development throughout the stages of interventions. The principles include promotion of

people-oriented intervention, participation, empowerment, a sense of ownership and release,

learning, and transformation (Trevithick, 2009). Importantly, Swanepoel embraces Korten’s

(1990) people-centred stance to development which supports the involvement of community

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 106

members in planning and designing of development initiative. Perhaps this is what is lacking

currently in the execution of the development model in South Africa.

From a legal perspective, statutes have been put in place to support the execution of the

developmental conception. Key legal measures include the Municipal Systems Act (2000)

which promotes the enactment and utilization of mechanisms that spearhead the fulfilment of

people’s needs. Secondly, the White Paper on Social Welfare (1997) puts the general populace

of South Africa at the centre of development and emphasises the creation of clear enabling

opportunities for people to play an active role in projects that directly impact their lives. In this

respect, the Department of Social Work and Social Development at Fort Hare University has

an amicable relationship with its surrounding communities. The department annually deploys

third-year students to communities around Alice with a mandate to work in unison with

community members in various developmental projects. This paper aims to reflect on the

experiences of these student social workers in their community engagement exercises.

4. Theoretical Framework

3.1 Community Development Theory

Mansvelt (2018) points out that upcoming social worker tend to rely too much on casework

methods. This can be identified as one of the reasons why community social work seems to

struggle in achieving its relevance in some parts of the country, To this end, social workers

have been implored to consider their role as facilitators in the process of sustainable

development. Community development is rooted on the utilisation of community structures

and resources to respond to community needs and empower individuals (Mendes, 2009).

This study used community development theory to analyse and examine the process of

community work in the Zinyoka community in Alice because the theory promotes a

participatory approach whereby community structures are involved in development process.

Community development theory is deeply linked to the discipline of sociology, where the focus

is on societal or large-scale intervention which differs from psychology-based theories of

therapeutic social work practice (Tan, 2009). The theory hinges community development to

the involvement of community structures and the community’s people to achieve sustainable

development. It explicitly recognises the role of the social worker as a facilitator in community

development (Tan, 2009).

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 107

According to York (1984), the attentions of community development theory is the organisation

of community agencies, empowerment of community members, and mobilisation of resources

to achieve the desired developmental change. This theory is appropriate for exploring the

participation of community members in development projects in Zinyoka (Alice, Eastern Cape

Province of South Africa) as it promotes equal distribution of resources, community

participation and human development in the process of sustainable development and citizen

empowerment.

5. Research Methodology

4.1 Methods and Study Settings

The present inquiry utilised qualitative techniques, approach and design. The inquiry was

explorative and interpretive in the sense that the outcome is a product of the interpretations

made by the researcher. Creswell (2016) underscores that individuals are sophisticated beings

that experience and understand similar occurrences in very different ways, and their reaction

or actions in the world are thus often very different, thus an exploration of community

members’ response to community work projects was suitable for this study. The study inquiry

followed a case study design in which a relatively small sample was thoroughly probed to

solicit participants’ sentiments and observations regarding their acceptance of and participation

in community development projects. A sample was used, as assessing the overall participation

of the community members in the community development programmes was not feasible. The

researcher utilised a non-probability sampling methodology to select participants. Succinctly,

a purposively selected sample was used to answer research questions (Creswell, 2016). The

researcher aimed not at generalising the results, but to gain a comprehensive understanding of

the challenge of community apathy. This provides a starting point for further research using

either a quantitative approach or mixed design.

To gather data, the study employed a semi-structured interview guide/schedule as a research

instrument. The interviews consisted of open-ended questions. Ten in-depth interviews were

conducted with community members who were part of a garden project in Alice. These in-

depth interviews provided the researcher with an opportunity for further questioning, thus

allowing him to gather as much information from the research participants.

The study considered it pertinent to interview those who were involved in the garden project

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 108

and community work programmes, regardless of their gender. The researcher purposively

interviewed individuals that were accessible and knowledgeable enough to comprehend the

probing questions concerning the adoption and involvement of community members in

community development programmes.

Data collection was performed at the Alice community garden, and the data was collected over

a period of a few days. A commendable number of people are involved in the CWPs. The

researcher had a good relationship with most of the participants as he repeatedly visited them

during community engagement practices. The engagement visits are an academic prerequisite

for social work students. The research, therefore, is entrenched in the outcomes of community

engagement practices. The data collection was conducted in IsiXhosa and the principal

researcher can relatively comprehend and speak the language, therefore he consulted his fellow

local students to interview the participants of the study. With the consent of the interviewees,

the interviews were recorded and then catergorised for the purpose of analysis. The researcher

also employed his social work and research knowledge to evaluate the participants’ non-verbal

cues as they took part in the in-depth interviews. Creswell and Clark (2017) also recognise the

use of observation skills in research processes.

Only ten community members that were purposively selected from the garden project

participants were involved in the in-depth interviews. The researcher was guided by the

principle of saturation, which proved this number sufficient to answer the key aims of the study.

Sechelski and Onwuegbuzie (2019) posits that data collection in qualitative research utilises

the principle of saturation whereby the researcher stops data collection when they reach a point

of satisfaction. The information gathered from the participants was sufficient to substantiate

relevant conclusions on the subject under inquiry. This was further appropriate as the

qualitative research approach respects the quality of information generated more than the

quantity of the information gathered.

6. Data Analysis

The analysis of data followed the ethos and principles of the qualitative approach. Creswell

and Clark (2017) outline the principles and procedures that are involved in the process of data

analysis. Creswell (2016) establishes that data analysis entails the arranging and organising of

raw data into interpretable sets to meet the stated objectives of a study. In this respect, the

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 109

researcher used a content thematic analysis technique to make meaning of the collected data.

This technique employs a rigorous examination of the data and identifies themes that emerge

to answer to the research questions. According to Braun and Clarke (2006), the thematic

analysis technique helps the researcher in putting together piles and piles of raw data from the

field into well organised and coded data which will lead to themes. Thsis allowed the researcher

to thoroughly analyse data patterns. Thematic analysis can also be used to address various types

of data, from tributary sources (such as media) to transcripts of focus group discussions or

interview sessions. In this context, verbatim quotes and analogies from the participants,

together with the researcher’s understanding of the participants’ sentiments, were all used to

inform the assortment of themes. Archer (2018) supports the use of verbatim quotes to

substantiate research arguments.

7. Ethical and Legal Requirements

The study followed all stated research protocols to ensure that it was scientifically and

administratively sanctioned. Creswell (2014) emphasises that a scientific inquiry should be

ethically aligned. This resonates with De Vos et al (2011) who outlined some of the ethical

protocol that research has to observe to meet scientific standards. This research emanated from

the outcomes of community engagement practices carried out by the researcher to promote

community development in communities around Alice in the Eastern Cape. The researcher,

like other senior students, had a letter from the head of the Social Work Department at Fort

Hare University that allowed him to take part in the community engagement. The letter

provided ethical clearance for the exercise. The researcher had a good understanding of the

community’s leadership, which happens to have a good rapport with the institution of Fort

Hare, particularly in the context of students’ community engagement practices. As a way of

maintaining privacy and confidentiality, pseudonyms were used in the verbatim quotes from

the participants. BoVee-Akyurek, Chenail and Erolin (2019) point out the importance of

ensuring privacy and confidentiality of information disclosed by research participants.

.

8. Research Domain and Justification of Choice

The study information originates from the researcher’s community practices carried out in June

of 2018 in the Zinyoka Village (Alice, Eastern Cape). The area of study is located

approximately 3-5km from Fort Hare University and Alice’s administrative centre. A poor

community response to community engagement practices triggered the researcher’s interest in

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 110

examining the community members’ perceptions of community development programmes

(CDWPs). The aim was to explore whether they felt their basic needs were being addressed by

CDWPs and to assess to what extent their lives have been transformed by participating in

community projects. All of the members who were part of the garden project formed part of

the research domain.

9. Findings

This section presents the results related to the attitudes, views and knowledge of the ten garden

project participants who partook in the inquiry. The information shared was categorised using

the code method. This led to the development of the themes presented in the findings of this

study.

8.1 Demographics

Table 1 outlines the demographic information of the ten research participants.

Table 1: Demographic Profile of the Participants

Number

Pseudonym

Gender

Age

Level of education attained

1

Nomvula

Female

39

Grade 10

2

Buhle

Female

58

Grade 10

3

Babalo

Female

53

Matric

4

Sikhanyiso

Female

50

Matric

5

Thandi

Female

49

Grade 10

6

Lutho

Female

40

Grade 11

7

Simangele

Female

35

Grade 11

8

Thabo

Male

48

Matric

9

Khaya

Male

23

Grade 11

10

Dladla

Male

51

Matric

Table 1 reflects a gender disparity in the participating community members, where fewer men

participated in the initiative than women. This is not a coincidence but a true reflection of how

community development projects are perceived and accepted by community members. Men

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 111

involvement in community work projects remains problematic as some of them who are not

formally employed are preoccupied with alcohol in taverns (Mkhize, Madumi, and Manona,

2018). Despite the asymmetrical representation of gender, the researcher focused on the

participants’ ability to provide relevant and data-rich information. The age range of the

participants added to the research’s validity, reflecting how the youth are not so keen on

participating in community developments projects whereas elderly people are more

forthcoming. The study findings point out that youth participation in community work projects

is fragmented.

9.2 Study Themes

The themes derived from the data analysis exercise are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Study Themes

Number

Theme

1

Community apathy

2

Lack of men involvement

3

Older persons’ livelihood compromised

4

Lack of youth involvement in community development projects

9.2.1 Community Apathy

Community development projects are becoming increasingly important, both as a source of

psychosocial support and employment (Mkhize, Madumi and Manona, 2018). At the individual

level, community projects have improved the standards of living of the people that took part in

a garden project in Alice. Through community work programmes, many people are now able

to feed and clothe themselves. However, the outcomes are not uniform across the board as

some community members have not yet grasped the significance of these community work

programmes. There are some members that withdrew from the garden project and they were

not able to see the benefits of the garden project. This resonates with Kang’ethe’s (2014)

assertion that some community members lack the zeal to work for themselves. Kang’ethe

(2014) argues that the key obstacle to community development in some sections of the country

is dependence syndrome. Dependence syndrome is seen when people become reluctant to work

while relying on handouts and government support initiatives such as social grants. This

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 112

dependence syndrome has been aggravated by people’s misconceptions of government social

grants. Phago and Molosi-France (2018) express that social grants are good; however, some

segments of the population are relying too much on them that they are no longer keen to work.

Community members from Zinyoka village who participated in the garden project were asked

to share their views about community work programmes. One of the participants, Buhle,

shared the following:

“The garden project is essential to us as we are now able to feed our families and even

sell some of our products, but some members are no longer active ever since the

community development workers left. They are dispirited to continue working hence

some portions in the garden are idle”.

According to another participant:

“CWPs involve a lot of commitment and hard work, as such some people are not

interested in working, and they depend entirely on social grants. Abanye abafuni

kusebenza, so bayatya ezo grants zabantwana (some individuals think the child support

grant is enough for them, hence they are not interested in working)”.

The first narration attests to the impact of community development programmes. However, it

also reveals a dichotomy in terms of acceptability and participation. Some segments of the

population see the garden project as a conduit to financial freedom, while other in other sections

of the community it is yet to achieve its relevance.

The findings from the current study point to a problem of community apathy whereby some

individuals from Alice were not eager to partake in CWPs. Coupled with dependence

syndrome, community apathy has made some men and women docile and reluctant to change

their circumstances. They are reluctant to partake in community development projects. These

projects have nonetheless nourished many households. The garden project, for instance, has

allowed some community to sell surplus produce to retail outlets.

9.2.2 Lack of involvement of men

The research findings from the interviews that were conducted with 10 participants who were

part of a garden project in Alice established that the participation of men in community work

projects in that area is fragmented. However, the involvement of men in community

development projects is crucial considering that some of the tasks require physical strength and

tenacity. This is not to say that women are unable to perform these tasks, but having the whole

community working in unison is critical for sustainable development. Perhaps men need to be

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 113

conscientized and educated about the benefits of CWPs. Through CWPs, people can learn

vocational skills and become self-reliant. CWPs also provide networking opportunities. Men

are important in community development; first as heads of households, and secondly, as

participants in development (Leonard, 2019).

The community members of Zinyoka village were asked to share their views on the uptake of

community work programmes. One of the participants, Dladla, said: “Amanye amadoda

haafuni kusebenza, abanye bathi umsebenzi webafazi lona (Some men are just lazy to work,

and some think community projects are for women, hence they are not forthcoming)”. Another

participant, Lutho, revealed the following: “Amadoda afuna ‘white collar jobs’ so abafuni

kuenza eziCWPs (Most men are into white collar jobs; hence they are not willing to partake in

community work programmes)”.

The above portrayals on men’s reductants to participate in community engagement projects in

Alice Township reveal the challenges experience in CWPs. The findings reveal how the

patriarchy system has disempowered men because patriarchal privileges allocate a higher status

for men; thus, men think that by participating in CWPs they would have lowered themselves

(Puckett, 2018; Agi, Gbawa and Jaja, 2019). As such, the study notes a great need for the strong

conscientisation of communities so that they fully comprehend the essence of CWPs and are

able to develop a sense of ownership.

9.2.3 Compromised livelihoods of elderly people

The findings reveal that the elderly people are the driving force of community work projects.

Elderly are important for instilling morals and good values to the upcoming generation. They

are a yardstick of what is right in any given society (Kang’ethe, 2010a). The study findings

show a rather worrisome scenario because the elderly people should be resting and enjoy their

old age, but they are at the fore of community development projects. Mkhize, Madumi, and

Manona (2018) reports that the elderly people are leading in terms of participation in

community projects or development initiatives. They seem to be the age group that has most

fully grasped the significance of CWPs. Although these community development projects help

the elderly emotionally and psychosocially by allowing them the opportunity to meet with their

peers, it is perturbing to think that the elderly are the ones working flat out to provide for their

families when they should be resting and enjoying their old age. When asked about this, Granny

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 114

Babalo had the following to say, “Mina, ndisebenzela amaZukhulu bami (I work to provide for

my grandchildren). The money from the grant is not enough so I have to work.”

This paper applauds the wonderful work being done by the grandmothers across Alice but

laments the pain and challenges that they face in trying to provide for their families. Singh and

Srivastava (2014) mentions that the elderly people continue to make positive contributions to

community development. This entails that much work still needs to be done to cushion the

elderly and to link them with resources and facilities that can assist them, for instance some are

not receiving the old age grant.

9.2.4 Lack of youth involvement in community development programmes

The findings from the interviews that the researcher did with 10 participants in Alice indicate

that youth participation in community development programmes is far below expectations.

According to Marks and Erwin (2018) youth participation in community development projects

and programmes remains a concern for sustainable development. The study findings from

Zinyoka community established that youths are more interested in sport and office-based

opportunities. The youths in Zinyoka village in Alice are predisposed to the idea of earning a

lot of money, whereas community development projects offer more skills development and

capacity building. This is supported by Bello, Lovelock and Carr (2017) who expressed that

the youth are not patient and disciplined enough to nature a business initiative. Considering the

prevailing economic challenges, community work projects can be an alternative, the youth

remain adamant to participate in community projects. There is therefore a dire need for robust

intervention to address the problems of apathy before the situation gets out of proportion

(Campbell, Ross and MacGregor, 2016).

In this study, the participants were requested to share their opinions on the participation of the

youth in CWPs. One participant explained the lack of participation of the youth as follows:

“The youth are hypnotised with buying label clothes and classy commodities; hence they get

frustrated when they fail to purchase such things because CWPs mainly focus on skills

development”.

The participation of the youth in community work programmes is critical to the success of these

programmes as the youth are the future community leaders. There is a need for the robust

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 115

mobilisation of the youth for them to fully comprehend the significance CWPs. Puckett (2018)

also noted the importance of youth involvement in development initiatives.

10. Discussion of Findings

The outcomes of the study indicate that community engagement projects are helpful and

instrumental in assisting families in the Zinyoka village in Alice. Essentially, community work

projects promote community social functioning and psychosocial benefits, thus allowing

community members to sufficiently fulfil their basic needs of food, shelter and safety

(Kang'ethe, 2018). More so, they offer a platform for networking and interaction between

community members themselves. CWPs offer a platform for community members to meet and

work together while promoting personal wellness through sharing experiences. According to

Trevithick (2009), group processes have an empowering effect, and they are useful in driving

out the fear and nervousness associated with loneliness. The group concept offers community

members tangible opportunities to learn, support, counsel and/or even assist one another. This

implies that should the youth get involved in these projects, they will also get a chance to learn

good morals and values from the elderly and other participants of their age. Kang’ethe (2014)

argues that community work projects/programmes help human capital as they provide

participating members an opportunity to learn and develop communal capital.

The findings of this study indicated that community projects are helpful at various levels but

that there are some members of the community who share varying views of the projects. The

study findings indicated that community apathy is major challenge in the success of community

work programmes because a number of men and youths are reluctant to participate in

community work projects. Accordingly, Kang’ethe (2014) asserts that some community

members do not participate in CWPs because of personal challenges, while some just lack the

enthusiasm to work for themselves. The findings from the interviews also mentioned about

people’s overreliance on social grants as one of the reasons why community members in Alice

were not so keen on participating in the garden project. According to Khawula (2016), social

grants are a noble initiative to help citizens, but the problem is some segments of the population

have become reluctant to work. The findings of this study also pointed out that men

involvement in community work is low. Campbell, Ross and MacGregor (2016) affirm the

need for men to be involved in interventions like community work projects so that they can be

able to address their psychosocial needs. A great need therefore exists to better understand, and

devise means to overcome the barrier of apathy to ensure effective engagement in social

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 116

projects aimed at tackling community needs.

The findings of this research indicate that although the youths are struggling to find

employment, they are reluctant to participate in community engagement projects. As a

consequence of their reluctance to participate in CWPs, Ramukumba (2018) reveals that some

of the youths have turned to drug abuse and crime, which affects their psychological

functioning. According to Huppert (2009), psychological welfare is the combination of feeling

good and functioning efficiently. In the presence of perpetual unemployment, the youth’s

mental wellness is compromised, especially when life challenges are severe or prolonging and

interfere with a person’s capacity to function effectively (Huppert, 2009). Undoubtedly,

community engagement projects remain a conduit to psychosocial well-being, but apathy

remains a cankerworm that impacts negatively on the implementation of CWPs in South

Africa.

The study findings indicate that elderly people in Zinyoka village are being denied an

opportunity to enjoy their old age as they work relentlessly in CWPs to put food on the table

for their grandchildren. Elderly women continue to be the driving force in community work

projects. However, Kang’ethe (2010) asserts that in cultural African societies, the elderly are

respected both for their age and the roles they play as counsellors and intermediaries.

According to Manomano (2013), the elderly are supposed to be protected and provided with

basic needs such as food, shelter and clothing as per the provisions of the Constitution of the

country, which provides for the fulfilment of all the rights and freedoms of all people.

Kang’ethe (2018) relates the abandonment of elderly individuals to the ever-increasing poverty

levels in the nation of South Africa, as well as cultural decay. This paper points out that a

possible explanation for the prolonged challenges in community development projects is

apathy. As such, the phenomenon of community apathy needs to be accorded the attention it

deserves across the board.

11. Conclusion

Community participation in CWPs is pivotal to the achievement of sustainable development.

Therefore, it becomes pertinent that efforts and resources be channelled towards addressing

challenges of over reliance on social grants or dependence syndrome and community apathy.

This study established that apathy besets the success of community work programmes in Alice

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 117

in the Eastern Cape. The study revealed that the participation of men and youths in community

work programmes is fragmented despite the problem of high unemployment rate in the country.

Inadequate community participation pronounces a huge blow to sustainable development

initiatives in Zinyoka area of Alice. Ironically, the study findings showed a massive response

from elderly women who are supposed to rest and be left to enjoy their old age. Elderly people

should be afforded the respect and love they deserve within communities and across all sectors

of life. The researcher believes that an over-reliance on social assistance and/or donor driven

systems has hatched challenges for our communities, with members lacking the zeal to work

for their own development.

12. Recommendations

The study recommends, therefore, that community members should educated about the

importance and benefits of CWPs. Through education, community member participation can

improve. Community participation is central to community engagement process, thus student

social worker should device ways that promote adoption of community work prjects by

community members. The study also recommends that institutions of learning should provide

enough supporting structures to supplement student efforts during community work

engagements. Supporting structures will go a long way in building relationships between the

institution and the community. In addition, such structures will assist the students that will

takeover the projects when other students graduate. To address apathy, the study recommends

that all stakeholders including the government should establish community development

competence training to ensure facilitators and community are empowered to spearhead

sustainable community development initiatives. Governments and non-governmental

organisations should promote community solidarity among the youths, men, women and the

elderly to enhance the macro-level change of communities. Community apathy is an indicator

that there is need to increase public awareness about community work development. Lastly,

the study recommends that community workers recognise people’s problems and promote

participatory change.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 118

References

Adato, M. and Haddad, L. (2002). Targeting poverty through community-based public works

programmes: Experience from South Africa. Journal of Development Studies, 38(3), pp. 1-36.

Agi, W., Gbawa, B. and Jaja, B. (2019). Relevance of Community Based Counseling in

Enhancing Participation for Sustainability of Community Development Programs in Rivers

State. International Journal of Innovative Social Sciences and Humanities Research, 7(3), pp.

1-8.

York, A. S. (1984). Towards a conceptual model of community social work. British Journal

of Social Work, 14(3), 241-242-255.

Archer, E. (2018). Qualitative data analysis: A primer on core approaches. [pdf] University

of the Western Cape. Available at: https://www.psyssa.com/wp-

content/uploads/2018/10/ORIM-Chapter-2-Qualtitative-Data-Analysis_by-Archer-1.pdf.

Accessed on 12/06/2019

Moyane, N. B. (2016). Social workers' experiences of occupational stress: a study in the

Department of Social Development, Ehlanzeni District, Mpumalanga Province. University of

Witwatersrand, Faculty of Humanities. (PhD dissertation).

Bello, F.G., Lovelock, B. and Carr, N. (2017). Constraints of community participation in

protected area-based tourism planning: The case of Malawi. Journal of Ecotourism, 16(2),

pp. 131-151.

Hawkins, C.V. and Wang, X., 2012. Sustainable development governance: Citizen

participation and support networks in local sustainability initiatives. Public Works

Management & Policy, 17(1), pp.7-29.

Bortz, M.A., Jardine, C.A. and Tshule, M. (1996). Training to meet the needs of the

communicatively impaired population of South Africa: A project of the University of the

Witwatersrand. European Journal of Disorders of Communication, 31(4), pp. 465-475.

BoVee-Akyurek, A., Chenail, R.J. and Erolin, K. (2019). Exploring Relationships between

Needs and Solutions in Solution Focused Brief Therapy: A Recursive Frame Analysis. The

Qualitative Report, 24(7), pp. 1618-1635.

Braun, V. and Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in Psychology. Qualitative Research

in Psychology, 3, pp. 77-101.

Campbell, L.M., Ross, A.J. and MacGregor, R.G. (2016). The Umthombo Youth

Development Foundation, South Africa: Lessons towards community involvement in

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 119

health professional education. African Journal of Health Professions Education, 8(1), pp.

50-55.

Creswell, J.W. and Clark, V.L.P. (2017). Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research.

3rd Edition. Sage Publications: Los Angeles.

Creswell, J.W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods

Approaches. 4th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Ltd.

Creswell, J.W. (2016). Reflections on the MMIRA the future of mixed methods task force

report. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 10(3), pp. 215-219.

De Vos, A.S., Delport, C.S.L., Fouché, C.B. and Strydom, H. (2011). Research at grass roots:

A primer for the social science and human professions. Van Schaik Publishers: Cape Town.

Department of Social Development. 1997. White Paper for Social Welfare. Pretoria:

Government Printers.

Tan, A. (2009). Community development theory and practice: Bridging the divide between

‘micro’and ‘macro’levels of social work. Botsford: North American Association of Christians

in Social Work. Available on

https://www.nacsw.org/Publications/Proceedings2009/TanACommunity.pdf

Department of Social Development. 2013. Framework for Social Welfare Services. Pretoria:

Government Printers.

Huppert, F.A. (2009). Psychological well‐being: Evidence regarding its causes and

consequences. Applied Psychology: Health and Well

‐

Being, 1(2), pp.137-164.

Kang’ethe, S. M. (2010a). The effect of ageing on the quality of care giving in Botswana.

Botswana Notes and Records (BNR) Journal. 2009. Vol. 41:76-82

Kang’ethe, S.M. (2010). Occupational Care Giving Conditions and Human Rights: A Study of

Elderly Caregivers in Botswana. Indian Journal of Palliative Care, 16(2), pp. 79-82.

Kang’ethe, S.M. (2014). Social Capital from Informal Networks Can be a Fertile Niche to

Mitigate HIV/AIDS and Poverty Effects: Examples from South Africa and Botswana. Journal

of Human Ecology, 47(2), pp. 185-192.

Kang'ethe, S. (2018). Violation of human rights of older persons in South Africa. The case of

Lavela Old Age Centre, Ntselamanzi, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Social Work,

54(3), pp. 283-295.

Khawula, B.M.S. (2016). An evaluation of community participation in the integrated

development planning (IDP) process: A case study of Umzumbe municipality in the province

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 120

of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. PhD. University of KwaZulu-Natal

Korten, D.C. (1990). Getting to the 21st Century: Voluntary Action and the Global Agenda.

West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press, p. 2.

Leonard, L. (2019). Traditional leadership, community participation and mining development

in South Africa: The case of Fuleni, Saint Lucia, KwaZulu-Natal. Land Use Policy, 86, pp.

290-298.

Manomano, T. (2013). The perceptions of the Reconstruction and Development Program

(RDP) housing beneficiaries in South Africa on the extent to which the project meets their

housing needs: The Case of Golf Course Estate in Alice Town, Eastern Cape Province. South

Africa. MSSc. University of Fort Hare

Mansvelt, N. (2018). Implementing ABCD tools and processes in the context of social work

student practice. Social Work, 54(1), pp. 133-143.

Marks, M. and Erwin, K. (2018). Interfering politicians: the underbelly of local community

development within a South African context. Community Development Journal, 53(1), pp. 25-

41.

Mendes, P. (2009). Teaching community development to social work students: A critical

reflection. Community Development Journal, 44(2), pp.248-262.

Mkhize, M.C., Madumi, P.P. and Manona, W.W. (2018). Community Participation: A Catalyst

for Sustainable Development? Pitfalls and Opportunities for Post-Apartheid South Africa. In

Handbook of Research on Sustainable Development and Governance Strategies for Economic

Growth in Africa (pp. 222-243). IGI Global.

Ross, M.G. (1955). Community organisation: theory and principles. New York: Harper and

Brothers.

Phago, K. and Molosi-France, K. (2018). Reconfiguring local governance and community

participation in South Africa and Botswana. Local Economy, 33(7), pp. 740-756.

Puckett, R.F. (2018). ‘The space to be themselves’: Confronting the mismatch between South

Africa’s land reform laws and traditional San social organisation among the ǂKhomani. Senri

Ethnological Studies, 99, pp. 283-342.

Ramukumba, T. (2018). Limits to Community Participation in Tourism: A Case Study of

Amathole District Municipality, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Euro Economica, 37(2),

pp. 35-46.

Republic of South Africa (2000). Local Government Municipal Systems Act (No. 32 of 2000).

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 121

Pretoria: Government Printers.

Republic of South Africa (1997). White paper for social welfare. Government Gazette Notice,

386(18166).

Republic of South Africa (1996). Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Pretoria:

Government Printers.

Sechelski, A.N. and Onwuegbuzie, A.J. (2019). A call for enhancing saturation at the

qualitative data analysis stage via the use of multiple qualitative data analysis approaches. The

Qualitative Report, 24(4), pp. 795-821.

Singh, K. and Srivastava, S.K. (2014). Loneliness and Quality of Life among Elderly People.

Journal of Psychosocial Research, 9(1), pp. 11-18.

Swanepoel, H. (1992). Community Development. 2nd ed. Kenwyn: Juta and Co, Ltd.

Swanepoel, H. 1997. Community Development: Putting Plans into Action. 3rd ed. Cape Town:

Juta and Co, Ltd .

Swanepoel, H. and De Beer, F. (1997). Introduction to Development Studies. Johannesburg:

International Thomson Publishing.

Swanepoel, H. and De Beer, F. (2011). Community Development: Breaking the Cycle of

Poverty. Lansdowne, Cape Town.

Swanepoel, H. and De Beer, F. (2013). Community Development: Breaking the Cycle of

Poverty. 5th ed. Lansdowne: South Africa.

Trevithick, P. (2009). Social Work Skills and Knowledge: A Practical Handbook. England:

McGraw Hill House, Open University Press.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 122

The Economic Significance of Taxi Rank Businesses: A Narrative of

East Rand Mall Taxi Rank Businesses

Thabiso Mathabathe

Damelin College

Thabiso.Mathabathe@damelin.co.za

The taxi industry in South Africa is a topic that has dominated social conversations since the

Apartheid era. The industry has also seen a lot of changes in terms of governance, ownership,

associations, and safety and security. The industry has grown considerably over the years with

an upsurge of new settlements, new malls and plazas, and South Africans’ growing need for

public transport to take them from home to work and schools.

The taxi industry's contribution to the economy of South Africa should not go unnoticed as it

hires thousands of people as drivers to ferry people from their homes to work on a daily basis.

More so, it should be highlighted that the taxi is one of the most affordable, flexible, and

convenient mode of transport for many South Africans. Notwithstanding all the positives

associated with the taxi industry, there are many challenges that need to be surmounted for the

industry to grow and contribute more to the economy of the country and to also be a safe

business to operate.

Taxis, under various taxi associations, operate in various spaces in ferrying people from

different places across the country. One of these places are taxi ranks, wherein one can find

various people running businesses to serve awaiting passengers. The various businesses found

in taxi ranks across South Africa exist to serve customers. These businesses, like the taxi

industry, contribute a lot to the economy of South Africa. This study is ethnographic in nature.

Using the East Rand Mall taxi rank as a point of departure, this research incorporates

responses from business owners at the taxi rank in its findings.

Keywords: Business, commuters, economy, industry, rank, mall, passengers, transport.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 123

1. Introduction

The taxi industry in South Africa plays a significant role in ensuring people are able to travel

to and from home and work on a daily basis. (Abuhamoud, Rahmat & Ismail, 2011: 51). Its

importance can therefore not be overemphasised. But the problems associated with the industry

can also not be ignored. There are many stakeholders in the taxi industry. These stakeholders

include taxi owners, drivers, passengers, communities, shopping centres, businesses (those in

and round taxi ranks), the government, and investors. (Woolf & Joubert, 2013: 6&7; Maeko

2020; Mmadi, 2012, 30). Most of the stakeholders work together to ensure the stability and

efficiency of the taxi industry by contributing to it in various ways.

There is no doubt that a taxi business is a lucrative business, particularly in developing

countries where millions of people use public transport to travel to and from home and work

every day. The Department of Transport (2020: 04) in its Taxi Industry Empowerment Model

noted that “the taxi industry generates about R50 billion in revenue annually and spend more

than R20 billion on fuel alone”. The taxi business therefore provides a source of livelihood to

taxi owners and drivers, and by extension, the passengers and the families of these stakeholders.

It is not only the taxi owners, drivers, and passengers who benefit from the taxi industry but

also businesses in and around the taxi ranks. There are several businesses situated around taxi

ranks across the country. This study will focus on one taxi rank: The East Rand Mall taxi rank.

To demonstrate the significance of a phenomenon, it is important to use a recognisable place,

person, event or period or relevant example. For instance, when demonstrating the importance

of sports in social cohesion and nation building one can refer to the 2010 FIFA World Cup in

South Africa which brought not only South Africans together but Africa as a whole. When one

tries to demonstrate how to make peace with the opposite site one can refer to the likes of

Nelson Mandela and Chinua Achebe as one had leadership skills and the other influential in

his writing. In this study, the East Rand Mall taxi rank was adopted as a case study to discuss

and demonstrate the importance of taxi ranks to the economy of South Africa. The study is

explorative and descriptive in nature as it explores the economic significance of taxi rank

businesses and describes the nature of their existence.

There is no doubt that taxi ranks play a vital part in economic growth. (Department of

Transport, 1999; Mmadi, 2012: 137). It is the opinion of the author that the East Rand Mall

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 124

taxi rank demonstrates just how important taxi ranks are as spaces for economic activity. The

rank encompasses various informal businesses which include taxi transport, a barber stall,

various food providers, fruit and vegetable stalls, an ice cream seller, pool soccer, and

independent car washers. All these businesses are discussed in detail in the study to provide a

better understanding of how each contributes to the economy. First, a literature review is

provided which details the background of the South African taxi industry, the issues

surrounding the taxi industry today, and how these issues are being dealt with. It is important

to provide this literature review as it outlines how academics have reported on these matters

and it justifies why their studies could have focused taxi rank businesses in any shape or form.

2. Objectives

This study is informed by the following objectives:

Primary objective:

• To highlight and emphasise the economic significance of taxi rank businesses to the South

African economy.

Secondary objectives:

• To present the nature of taxi rank businesses in South Africa.

• To theoretically highlight the socio-economic importance of taxi rank businesses.

• To demonstrate the ways in which taxi rank businesses have changed the lives of many

people.

• To emphasise the need to encourage young people in South Africa to start their own

businesses.

3. Literature review

The South African taxi industry is a diverse, multifaceted and complex industry because it has

various stakeholders with different vested interests.

4. The nature of the taxi industry in South Africa

Woolf and Joubert (2013, p.2) note that there is a plethora of literature on the South African

taxi industry, specifically concerning its detailed operations. Some of the early work on the

South African taxi industry comes from Dugard (1996, 2001), Khosa (1994), McCaul (1990)

and Pirie (1992), all of whom provide historical contexts for the emergence of the taxi industry

and its relationships with other modes of transport (e.g., bus and train) and the government

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 125

(Woolf and Joubert 2013, p. 2). Schalekamp and Behrens (2010) and Venter (2011) provide a

critical view of the government's failed measures to engage with the taxi industry in its

formalisation attempts. Some of the ramifications of these failed attempts are currently evident

as the country grapples with the challenges of the Coronavirus (Covid-19).

In April (2020), the government announced that taxi drivers would only be allowed to carry a

maximum of seven passengers. Government introduced this measure in the hope of curbing the

spread of the virus. This was met with widespread criticism by many taxi owners and drivers

who alleged that they were not properly consulted prior the announcement of the regulation.

The taxi owners and drivers' concern around the socio-economic ramifications of that April

regulation was evident in the sense that they could no longer generate what they normally

generate daily in normal times. They then resorted increasing taxi fares to make up for the lost

seats. Maeko (2020) reports that some operators have begun inflating taxi fares during level 5

of lockdown. This was found to be notable in Limpopo, KwaZulu-Natal, and the North West

provinces.

A taxi is the most dominant mode of public transport in South Africa as people see it to be

more convenient than other public modes of transport. Many South Africans consider taxi fares

to be reasonable and even if there are price hikes, many get used to the new prices as time goes

by. As such, the taxi in South Africa is one of the top on the list of modes of transport used to

travel to work, for visits and for business purposes. (Mmadi, 2012: 63, 81). The taxi follows

the private car with 24.0% with the latter accounting for with 33.7%. (South African

Government, 2020). This also provides taxi rank businesses with customers. At taxi ranks,

commuters are able to pay for various products and services while they wait for their taxi to

leave.

The South African Taxi Business Overview of 2018 indicates that taxis operate an unscheduled

service on fixed routes, meaning that they do not operate like busses in terms of departure times

(e.g., Putco busses traveling from Dennilton in the Limpopo Province to Pretoria start at 03h00

and end at 08h00, and then resume at 12h00 until 18h00) (SA Taxi 2018, p. 12). The taxi routes

are managed by taxi associations and taxis normally depart from fixed terminals but stop

anywhere along their route to pick up and drop off passengers SATaxi 2018, p. 12).

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 126

As indicated earlier, the main terminals for taxis in South Africa are taxi ranks (normally

located near malls, plazas, and shopping complexes) where a lot of businesses can be found.

According to the 2018 South African Taxi Business Overview, the taxi fares for each route are

determined by regional taxi councils (SA Taxi 2018, p. 12). As previously indicated, taxi fares

are affordable as the industry services the lower income population of the country (SA Taxi

2018: 12) and these fares are paid in cash. To a certain extent, the relationship between taxi

owners and taxi drivers determines the nature of the taxi industry in South Africa. This is

unpacked in one of the sections in this part of the study.

According to SA Taxi (2018), in 2018, the average minibus taxi fare was R16.00, as compared

to a train ticket at R9.50 and bus ticket at R17.80. An Uber ride can cost anywhere between

R200 and R280 travelling between the East Rand and Johannesburg. For many years, in some

areas of the country, taxi owners opted to employ conductors to manage fares (however very

seldom nowadays). This is done differently in other parts of the country, passengers themselves

manage the cash from all passengers in the vehicle and pass the cash on to the driver (SA Taxi

2018: 12). The latter is now a daily practice by passengers who also organise change amongst

themselves so that the taxi driver doesn’t have to look for change while driving. According to

SA Taxi (2018), as cited in Wasserman (2019), minibus taxis is the most used modes of

transport to work, schools and universities in South Africa.

5. A look at taxi violence

This section of the study contextualises taxi violence in relation to taxi ranks. Taxi ranks

determine to some extent the routes that taxis under a specific association use. There is a risk

that goes with this approach as it not regulated and as such when violence erupts, some taxi

drivers may block the routes and entrances to selected taxi ranks.

Taxi violence is manifested in various ways that negatively impact stakeholders (taxi owners,

taxi drivers, passengers, and the general community). Taxi violence is fuelled by various social

elements that most South Africans are exposed to daily. Dugard (2001,1) explored the various

contexts in which taxi violence manifests itself. These scenarios are revenge violence and

vigilantism, hostels and hostel residents, ex-combatants, and state security forces (police and

military).

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 127

Dugard's study (2001) is important because it provides an outlook on taxi violence from the

1980s to the early 2000s. Dugard (2001, 5) starts by referring to the Cape Peninsula taxi war

which lasted three years (1990-1992), before providing a timeline for instance of a type of taxi

violence cases. The Cape Peninsula taxi war took place between the Langa, Gugulethu, and

Nyanga taxi associations. Again, Dugard’s (2001) study is important because it provides a

historical background to the taxi violence in the Western Cape Province today which arises

when various associations with a particular vested interest compete against each other for travel

routes.

Dugard’s (2001) study can be related to a study by Piper and Wheeler (2016), as both studies

explore the nature of taxi violence in the townships of the Western Cape. Piper and Wheeler

(2016, 31) report that taxi violence in the townships in the Western Cape centre around the

licencing process and access to lucrative taxi routes, with the more established association

refusing entrance to other associations. Piper and Wheeler (2006:11) provide a succinct

example of how taxi violence manifests by explaining how when a second, less formalised

association begins to operate taxis in a lucrative route, the more formal group retaliates by

attacking their cars or even committing murder. This type of a situation then spirals into a series

of retaliations and counterretaliations between the different taxi groups (Piper and Wheeler

2016, 31).

It has to be borne in mind that taxi ownership is a considered a lucrative business in South

Africa. Some of those involved in the business may therefore feel compelled (based on their

own assertions) to do whatever it takes to protect their business interests. This speaks to the

issues around ‘third forces’ involved the taxi violence between various taxi associations in

South Africa, as is discussed later in another part of this section.

Barrett (2003, 8) indicates there are no reliable police statistics on casualties associated with

taxi violence. However, Barrett (2003, 8) highlights a series of major conflicts: in areas of the

Northern Province in the vicinity of Polokwane, in Soshanguve outside of Pretoria, in the

Eastern Cape in East London, in Empangeni in KwaZulu-Natal, and in Soweto. The main

concern raised by the Mail and Guardian (1998; in Barrett 2003: 8) regarding violence in the

taxi industry is that taxi drivers and passengers have always been the main victims of taxi

violence, although many taxi owners are known to have been at the receiving end too.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 128

6. Legislation and policy on taxi industry and businesses

Every economic sector or industry is governed by legislation to ensure fair labour practices, to

ensure fair competition, and to protect taxi businesses and customers. The type of legislation

set to promote the above principles are basically meant to level the playing field in the taxi

industry. Barrett (2003,10) indicates that employees in the taxi industry (drivers) and marshals

are protected under the Basic Conditions of Labour Relations Act (BCEA) of 1997. More so,

Barrett (2003,10) posits that those employees employed by the minority of owners who own

more than ten vehicles are also, in principle, covered by the Wage Determination 452 for the

Road Transportation Trade in Certain Areas of July 1988. All taxi industry workers are

protected under the Labour Relations Act of 1995 (LRA). In accordance with this Act, taxi

drivers have the right to join any bargaining council of their choice, the right to access the

dispute-resolving mechanisms set up by the LRA, and the right to external facilitation on

matters concerning their employment arising from the employer (Barrett 2003,10).

Fobosi (2019,102) describes a challenging scenario facing taxi drivers and it relates to their

rights as employees. According to Fobosi (2019), the South African Transport and Allied

Workers Union (SATAWU) finds it impossible to organise the minibus taxi industry

employees because taxi drivers continue to face intimidation from taxi owners. This problem

is exacerbated by the fact that SATAWU is required to go beyond traditional workplace

concerns. For instance, it is expected to approach taxi drivers and other concerned parties and

hear their daily concerns i.e their social conditions and other demands. (Fobosi 2019,102).

Fobosi (2019, p. 102) further notes that SATAWU has, without intention, contributed towards

the growth of precariousness in the industry by remaining focused on the workers in the formal

public transport sector.

7. The behaviour of taxi drivers towards passengers

In South Africa, there have been lot complaints about taxi drivers by people who use taxis on

a daily or frequent basis. These complaints relate to issues of speeding, the issuing of change

to passengers, long queues, the untidiness of taxis, overloading, the taking different routes

without consulting passengers, playing loud music, among others (Arrive Alive, 2020; SABC

News, 2020; Barrett 2003: 27, 38).

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 129

To better understand the issues raised above, it is important to provide a clear picture of what

passenger’s experience daily when travelling by taxi. Speeding and sneaking in between cars

when trying to reach a destination in time to return to take another load is one of the issues

raised by passengers over the years. At times, it is difficult to tell a taxi driver to drive safely

and avoid sneaking in between cars because that may lead to a scuffle between them. Other

taxi drivers may be considerate and gentle in their response. The manner in which taxi drivers

behave towards their passengers is not only compounded by the socio-economic situation many

taxi drivers find themselves in but can also be influenced by the arrangement made with their

employers (Schluter et al. 2020, pp. 2-10).

Issuing change can also cause an argument between the taxi driver and the passenger(s). The

taxi drivers do not get fully involved in giving change once the taxi has left the rank. The person

who sits in the front is supposed to give change to the other passengers. In some cases, people

come with big bank notes like R100 or R200, making it difficult to issue change. This can also

be experienced when passengers get into the taxi along the route and sometimes carry large

amounts of money with them (and having note left with the taxi from the rank), making it more

difficult to give change. Normally, these passengers hitchhike because they struggle with

transport where they stay or just do not want to go to the taxi rank to catch a taxi (Statistics

South Africa, 2003).

The long queues in the morning to catch a taxi to work can be a major borne of contention it

can be argued between taxi drivers and passengers. In the morning, passengers flock to the taxi

ranks and hotspots in the morning to catch a taxi to work. The long queues that await them are

a bone of contention between these passengers and the taxi drivers. Passengers often also get

frustrated when they have to wait until the taxi is full for them to be ferried to work. This

happens when the taxi drivers prioritise the rules of their association over their passengers’

time (Statistics South Africa, 2003; Barrett, 2003).

Passengers sometimes tell taxi drivers to keep their taxi tidy. This is something that does not

always go down well with the taxi drivers. It should be said, however, that this is good advice.

Passengers deserve to travel in a clean and tidy taxi for health and safety reasons. The taxi

drivers are aware of this and so it should not take a passenger to remind them of this (Ntshingila,

2020).

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 130

Overloading is a major concern for passengers as it poses a safety risk. Overloading a taxi is

even more dangerous when a taxi driver speeds and can be an indication that the driver does

not take the safety of the passengers into consideration. Overloading is also a transgression of

traffic rules. Although every driver should know this, common sense should also apply. If an

accident occurs, the passengers could hurt one another in the process, whereas filling the taxi

to an acceptable level can at least limit the impact of an accident (Arrive Alive, 2020).

Overloading also poses health risks to passengers as oxygen can be limited crowded spaces.

The passengers may not have access to sufficient oxygen when they are forced to sit in groups

of five instead of groups of four (Arrive Alive, 2020).

8. The relationships between taxi owners and their drivers

Barrett (2003, p. 9) reports that drivers account for the most workers in the taxi industry, and

further notes that wage-employed drivers are employed by individual owners, operate

differently from owner-drivers, and are paid in four different ways. Barrett (2003, p. 9) lists

these as follows:

• Some drivers receive no basic wage but pay a fixed percentage of the week’s takings to

the owner, keeping the rest as income.

• Under the ‘wage/plus system’, the driver receives a basic wage and pays a portion of

the takings to the owner, keeping the rest as income.

• A fairly uncommon system is where all the takings are handed to the owner and the

driver receives a regular wage.

• The driver may hand over all takings to the owner, except the takings of one designated

day in the week.

The manner in which drivers are compensated determines the relationship between them and

the taxi owners. The initial agreement entered into at the start of the business relationship

between the drivers and the employers is not followed upon as set in the agreement, not because

it is in most cases entered into formally, but probably and primarily because of socio-economic

factors. (Mmadi, 56,63,80,81) The owners and the drivers don’t always maintain a good

working relationship and often accuse one another of unjust or unfair labour practices. Barrett

(2003, 9) attests to this, reporting that taxi owners claim that almost half of their takings are

stolen by drivers. Taxi owners therefore very often publicly justify the low wages paid to

drivers by arguing that the drivers pocket large sums of cash. The drivers, on the other hand,

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 131

claim that owners get to take more than what is generated (Barrett 2003, 9). Mndebele and

Cabe (2019) cite Fobosi (2019) the Department of Employment and Labour should have labour

inspectors enforcing labour regulations in the taxi ranks and ensure compliance with the

sectoral determination for the taxi sector. All taxi owners should ensure that employees have

contracts of employment and that fair labour practices are enforced. (Mndebele and Cabe,

2019).

9. Research methodology

In this study, the researcher employs both qualitative quantitative methods of participant

observation as the main methodology for his research. Hossain (2011) acknowledges the

emergent nature of qualitative research, and posits that as opposed to predetermined design, it

provides for the process and the outcomes of the research to evolve. The research is mainly

concentrated on semi-structured interviews with the business owners at East Rand Mall taxi

rank in Boksburg.

The research is also informed by other data collection techniques, such as:

• Observation

• Convenient sampling among respondents in the form of conversations

• Desktop research

This study followed a constructivist approach. Creswell (2014,8) notes that the goal of the

research that takes this approach is to rely as much as possible on the participants’ views of the

situation under study. The questions become broad and general so that the participants can

develop their own meaning and understanding of a situation in discussions or interactions with

others. Mertens (2009) is of the view that under the theory of social constructivism, individuals

seek to understand of the world in which they live and work. In this instance, the researcher

refers to taxi rank business owners, more specifically those at the East Rand taxi rank. The taxi

rank business owners at the study area started by gaining an understanding of the context they

are operating in (by context the researcher refers to the taxi industry); the environment,

challenges, opportunities, and demand their products. They still have grapple with the constant

changes in the business environment they are operating in particularly in terms of demand for

their products in times Covid-19. The East Rand Mall rank is not always busy as it would

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 132

during normal times. As such, the business owners at the rank have to adopt to the changes

posed by unforeseen events like the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic.

10. Research design

A qualitative approach was adopted for this study. The information generated through the

researcher’s observations and narratives from the target population yielded numerical data.

10.1 Target population

A ‘target population’ refers to the individuals a researcher is interested in (Explorable, 2017).

The individuals of interest in this study possess varying characteristics in the sense that they

operate different businesses. The target population for this study consists of the businesspeople

at the East Rand Mall taxi rank. These include fruit and vegetable sellers; pap and vleis sellers;

barbers; employees at the food and drinks kiosk, bakery container and poll soccer corner; shoe

repairers; and vehicle washers.

10.2 Data analysis

The data gathered/generated by this study can be summarised into numbers and or percentages.

This numerical data is then turned into qualitative information by analysing this data and

explaining what it means to the businesses at the East Rank Mall taxi rank.

10.3 Validity and reliability

‘Validity’ refers to how accurately a concept is measured. To ensure reliability in the study,

observations were made of businesses at East Rand Mall taxi rank. Voluntary narratives were

then noted down to compare with and supplement what the researcher had observed.

11. Findings and discussion

At the East Rand Mall taxi rank, one can find various informal businesses that serve

commuters. These include fruit and vegetable sellers, pap and vleis sellers, a barber stall, a

food and drinks kiosk, a bakery container, poll soccer a shoe repairer and vehicle washers.

These types of businesses can be classified under the category of survivalist businesses.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 133

The fruit and vegetable sellers at the East Rand Mall taxi rank sell various vegetables, including

sweet potatoes, tomatoes, cabbage, beetroot, lettuce, green and red peppers. Fruits on offer

include almost everything, like oranges, bananas, pawpaws, assorted citrus fruits, peaches,

guavas, mangos, and many others. There is one big seller of fruits and vegetables at the rank.

By selling fruits and vegetables, he can support and sustain himself and his family. This seller

contributes to the economy of Ekhurhuleni because he purchases his stock in bulk at the one

of the fruits and vegetable markets in Gauteng. There is a demand for these fruits and

vegetables both at the market where he buys his stock and at the taxi rank. The fruit and

vegetable seller pays for transport to get his products to the taxi rank. Taxi commuters buy

fruits and vegetables from him every day because food is a basic need. The commuters need to

work to be able to buy his fruits and vegetables. The fruit and vegetable business at the East

Rand Mall taxi rank is very lucrative because there a lot of people who commute from the rank

every day. These commuters include workers, students, and other businesspeople. As a result,

the seller is able to create jobs. He has hired two people to help him while he attends to other

business matters. The two people that work under him earn some money to pay for their basic

needs and support their families.

The businesses that provide pap and vleis are very much profiting from the commuters, taxi

drivers, other business owners and their workers, and the employees of the East Rand Mall.

The demand for pap and vleis is always high at the East Rand Mall taxi rank as people flock

during lunch time to get pap, beef stew, chicken, salad, gravy, and even drinks. This means that

the business owner must prepare enough food based on the measured and existing demand for

these types of foods. The owners of these businesses at the mall employ about two people to

assist them in preparing and cooking the food. In this way, the owners create jobs for others,

allowing them to earn an income and support their families. Most of the business owners and

workers at the rank are come from other provinces. The majority originate from Limpopo and

KwaZulu-Natal. The customers of the pap and vleis businesses at the rank want fresh and warm

food and know they are guaranteed that type of a meal. The provision of pap and vleis is very

profitable, and on some days, the demand exceeds the supply. The following table outlines the

prices of the food offered at the East Rand Mall taxi rank.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 134

Table 1: Cooked food prices at the East Rand Mall taxi rank

PRODUCT

PRICE

Pap

R 10

Chicken

R 15

Pap and chicken

R 25

Beef stew and pap

R 45

Salad

R 10

Gravy

R 10

Beetroot

R 10

Can of cooldrink

R10

The pap and vleis businesses at the East Rand Mall taxi rank contribute to the South African

economy by adding to the demand for raw food from South Africa's vegetable and meat

markets. The raw food bought from meat and vegetable businesses is taken to the taxi rank

where it is cooked and turned into finished products before being sold to customers at the rank.

The business transactions they make by selling food can only happen if there is a demand for

food. These businesses pay tax and contribute to the country's gross domestic product (GDP).

As previously indicated, they also employ two people, who in turn go and spend their earnings

on other basic goods and pay tax in the process.

The bakery business owners provide baked goods to the taxi drivers, other taxi rank business

owners, commuters, and the mall workers. They provide for commuters, taxi drivers and other

taxi rank business owners food that they would not always be able to prepare in the morning

before leaving home. Most customers find it more convenient to carry some extra cash with

them to buy bread, scones, vetkoeks, tea and coffee at the mall before starting work. This

triggers a high demand for the morning food. The taxi drivers account for the highest

percentage of the demand for baked foods in the morning and for pap and vleis. This is no

surprise as many taxi drivers live in the townships and have to be up early (by 04h00 at least)

to start operating and only go home at around 22h00 (at the earliest). As such, they do not have

time to prepare food in the morning or for lunch. The bakery stall at the East Rand Mall taxi

rank is very busy between 05h00 to about 11h00. The following shows the amounts charged

for baked food at the East Rand Mall taxi rank.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 135

Table 2: Prices charged for baked food at the East Rand Mall taxi rank

PRODUCT

PRICE

Vetkoek

R2

Bread

R 8

Scones

R 1

Tea

R 5

Coffee

R 6

At the bakery container, one can find two female entrepreneurs who are passionate about the

food they offer. Their prices (reflected above) reflect who they are targeting taxi drivers, other

taxi rank business owners, commuters, and the mall workers. Much like the pap and vleis

providers, they are aware that these are the prices that customers are willing to pay for food

sold on the streets. It must be said that in winter, the demand for these ‘morning foods’

increases significantly; for instance, many people resort to drinking a lot of coffee in winter.

Some may drink a cup at home and then buy another at the taxi rank as it comes with free milk.

The profitability of the bakery businesses at the East Rand Mall taxi rank means that they play

an important role in growing the economy of the East Rand while improving the livelihoods of

themselves and their families. They also pay taxes through the procurement and purchase of

the raw materials they use to bake the food they provide. The bakery container owners buy

most of their raw material at the Trade Centre, situated across Rietfontein Road and North

Road. The high demand for their products means they have to stock up almost all the time.

They pay taxes in the purchase of goods and services so that they themselves can also provide

people with a service.

There are vehicle washers at the East Mall taxi rank. The vehicle washers are mainly young

men from various townships around Boksburg. They provide car wash services inside the rank.

They mainly serve taxi drivers, but they also accommodate people with private cars. These

vehicle washers charge various prices for washing taxis and cars, depending on what the owner

of the car wants. A complete wash is normally done for R70. This is a reasonable fee as

compared to prices elsewhere. The ‘wash and go’ is R40. This is for when a driver just wants

to remove dust from their taxi or car and continue with their trip. As with many car washes

services elsewhere in the country, the car washers at the rank are flexible in the sense that they

are considerate of what the customer can afford as they themselves are providing car wash

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 136

services as a means for survival. For most of the East Rand Mall taxi rank car washers, washing

cars is their only economic activity for survival. They also fall within the category of a

survivalist type of sole trader in terms of the types of business ownership. The car washers at

the rank are informal service providers. By washing cars, these car washers are able to put food

on the table and pay for other basic necessities they might need at any given time. They also

buy food from the food sellers at the East Rand Mall taxi rank. They contribute to the South

African economy through the purchase of car wash materials at various supermarkets and other

tuckshops in the East Rand. The car washers are also able to assist their families back home as

like many of the business owners at the taxi rank, some of the car washers come from other

provinces.

Table 3: Car wash prices at the East Rand Mall taxi rank

Complete Wash

Outside Wash Only

Wash and Go

R70

R45

R30

Then there is the barber, shoe and clothing repairmen, and the ‘haircut and shoe fixer men’, as

they are known. These three men operate under a green tent and provide a haircut and shoe

repair service. They have been operating at the East Rand Mall taxi rank for some time now

and are known to be reliable as they service taxi drivers and commuters at the rank. They charge

a price according to the hair cut requested by the customer. They do not specialise in hairstyles

like ‘straight back’, ‘straight line’, or ‘dabrats’, but offer a chiskop, cut, and trimming. The

chiskop is done for R15, a cut is R20, and a trim is R6. The demand for their services,

particularly for the chiskop, is always high.

They are able to make almost a thousand rand each day with the low prices they charge. These

men also fix torn trousers, jeans, shirts, and t-shirts. The prices they charge to fix these depends

on the level of damage on one's clothing. The lowest they may charge is about R15 to repair a

torn pair of trousers or jeans. These men are able to fend for themselves and their families back

home. They contribute to the economy of the East Rand by providing barber and clothing repair

services. While they may not operate a formal business, the men provide good services. They

satisfy their customers, and this is reflected in the high demand for their services on a daily

basis. The table below provides a better breakdown of prices the three men operating under the

green tent charge their customers.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 137

Table 4: Prices for haircuts and shoe and clothing repairs by the ‘green tent men’ at the East Rand Mall

taxi rank

Service

Price

Chiskop

R 15

Cut

R 20

Trim

R 6

Clothing repair

R10-30

Shoe repair

R10-15

There are other businesses at the East Rand Mall taxi rank that sell chicken and various

household goods. They sell washing liquids, soaps, salt, cutlery, baskets, steel wool, reflectors,

etc. These traders can normally be found just outside the taxi rank, where people normally stop

to buy whatever product they might need from them. They charge reasonable prices for their

goods and are therefore popular with most of the East Rand Mall taxi rank taxi drivers,

commuters, fellow businesspeople, and mall workers.

12. Conclusion and recommendations

The study discovered that even though the businesses at the East Rand Mall taxi rank might

not have a major impact on the country’s economic growth, they still contribute significantly

to improving the socio-economic standard of many ordinary South Africans. The East Rand

Mall taxi rank businesspeople are able to survive and send their children to school with the

earnings they make by providing products and services to people at the East Rand Mall taxi

rank. The contribution of the East Rand Mall’s taxi rank businesses to the economy and to the

improvement of the livelihoods of other South Africans suggests that taxi ranks perform an

important economic function. The socio-economic impact of taxi rank businesses discussed in

this research provides an argument for why the government should provide stimuli to support

taxi rank businesses such that they can grow and yield more jobs. The example of the East

Rand Mall taxi rank businesses further justifies the need for greater investment in taxi rank

business across the country - by not only the government but also the private sector and families

themselves. The study therefore recommends that the government and the private sector

provide more funding to taxi rank businesses so that they can grow alongside the increasing

number of people using public transport and the resulting business opportunities this provides.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 138

The South African taxi rank businesses are very important to the South African economy as

they not only generate jobs but also trigger the start of other businesses. As the most preferred

mode of public transport in South Africa, taxis ferry millions of people to various places of

work every day, and these people need to be provided with basic goods and services prior to

their journey. There is therefore a demand for these goods and services at taxi ranks across

South Africa. Many people are even serviced by businesses across the road from the rank before

boarding their taxis. The taxi industry has indirectly allowed people to start businesses and

operate them at various taxi ranks across the country so that they can support their families.

These businesses always need resources to operate and as such, have to stock goods. In turn,

they are able to generate revenue through the provision of products and services to those at the

taxi ranks.

References

Abuhamoud, M. A. A., Rahmat, R. A. O. K & Ismail, A. (2011). Transportation and its

Concerns in Africa. A Review in The Social Sciences, 6 (1): 51-63.

Arrive Alive. (2020). Overloading and Road Safety. [Online] Available at:

https://www.arrivealive.mobi/overloading-and-road-safety. [Accessed: 04 October 2020].

Arrive Alive. (2020). Overloading and Road Safety. [Online]. Available at:

https://www.arrivealive.co.za/Overloading-and-Road-Safety. [Accessed: 03 October 2020].

Ntshingila, B. (2020). 3 local taxi commuters tell us about their experiences with public transport

during Covid-19. [Online] Available at: https://www.news24.com/drum/news/local/taxi-fears-

overloaded-and-overpriced-20200721. [Accessed: 05 October 2020].

Barrett, J. (2003). Organising in the informal economy: A case study of the Minibus Taxi

Industry in South Africa. SEED Working Paper, 39, pp. 1-34.

Creswell, J.W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods

Approaches. Los Angeles: SAGE.

Department of Transport. (1999). Moving South Africa: the Action Agenda: a 20-year Strategic

Framework for transport in South Africa. Pretoria: Department of Transport.

Department of Transport. (2020). Taxi Industry Empowerment Model: Re-Imagining

tomorrow’s Taxi Industry. Version 1, 11 September 2020.

Dugard, J. (1996). Drive-on? An analysis of the deregulation of the South African taxi industry

and the emergence of the subsequent “taxi-wars”. Master’s thesis, University of Cambridge.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 139

Dugard, J. (2001). From low intensity war to Mafia War: Taxi violence in South Africa (1987-

2000). Violence and transition series, 4, pp. 1-46.

Explorable. (2017). Non-Probability Sampling. [Online] Available at:

https://explorable.com/research-population. [Accessed: 03 October 2020].

Fobosi, S. (2019). Employment Practices within the Minibus Taxi Industry in Johannesburg:

A Study of Precariousness of Jobs in South Africa. Sociological Review, 23(2), pp. 99-199.

HOSSAIN, D., M., (2011) Qualitative Research Process, in Postmodern Openings, Year2,

Vol.7, September, 2011, pp: 143-156.

Khosa, M. (1994). Accumulation and labour relations in the taxi industry. Transformation,

24, pp. 55-71.

Mmadi, M.M. (2012). Mobile workplace: work conditions and family life of taxi drivers.

Masters’ thesis, University of Pretoria.

Mertens, D. (2009). Transformative research and evaluation. New York: Guilford.

McCaul, C. (1990). No easy ride: The rise and future of the black taxi industry. South African

Institute of Race Relations. Pretoria: South African Institute of Race Relations. 1st ed.

Mndebele, M. and Cabe, M. (2019). In: New Read. 2019. Long read: Taxi industry exploits

drivers. Mail and Guardian, 4 February, 1998, National.

Mndebele, M. and Cabe, M. (2019). How South Africa’s minibus taxi industry exploits its

drivers. [Online] Available at: https://mg.co.za/article/2019-12-20-00-how-south-africas-

minibus-taxi-industry-exploits-its-drivers/. [Accessed: 06 October 2020].

Ndou, C. and Sapa. (2005). Taxis ‘run by mafia, hit men [Online] Available at:

http://www.news24.com/World/News/Taxis-runby-mafia-hit-men-20050906. [Accessed: 11

July 2020].

Pirie, G.H. (1992). Travelling under Apartheid. In: Smith, D.M. ed., The Apartheid city and

beyond: urbanization and social change in South Africa. Cape Town: Routledge.

Piper, L. and Wheeler, J. (2016). Pervasive, but not politicised: Everyday violence, local rule

and party popularity in a Cape Town township. SA Crime Quarterly, 55, pp. 31-39.

SABC News. (2020). Taxi driver arrested for contravening lockdown rules. [Online] Available

at: https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/taxi-driver-arrested-for-contravening-lockdown-

rules/. [Accessed 04 October 2020].

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 140

South African Government. Transport. (2020). [Online] Available at:

https://www.gov.za/about-sa/transport. [Accessed 19 January 2021].

Schalekamp, H. and Behrens, G. (2010). Engaging paratransit on public transport reform

initiatives in South Africa: A critique of policy and an investigation of appropriate engagement

approaches. Research in Transportation Economics, 29(1), pp 371-378.

Schluter, J., Frewer, M., Sorensen, L. and Coetzee, J. (2020). A stochastic prediction of minibus

taxi driver behaviour in South Africa. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 7(13),

pp. 1-12.

Statistics South Africa. (2003). South Africa - National Household Travel Survey 2003.

[Online] Available at: https://www.datafirst.uct.ac.za/dataportal/index.php/catalog/569.

[Accessed: 05 October 2020].

SA Taxi. (2018). SA Taxi Business Overview. [Online] Available at:

https://www.transactioncapital.co.za/downloads/FY18_SA%20Taxi%20Funder%20Prospect

us.pdf. [Accessed: 21 July 2020].

Wasserman, H. (2019). The SA minibus taxi industry is absolutely massive – here’s

everything you need to know, Business Insider S.A.

Woolf, S.E., Joubert, J.W. (2013). A people-centred view on paratransit in South Africa. Cities,

35, 284–293.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 141

Challenges facing the implementation of public policies in South Africa

since the dawn of democracy.

Thato Seopetsa

Damelin: Braamfontein

Thato.Seopetsa@damelin.co.za

This article discusses the challenges facing the implementation of public policies in South

Africa since the dawn of democracy. Public policy plays an important role in any regime,

whether it be a monarchy, aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, theocracy,

dictatorship, or tyranny. Countries with democratic governments are more progressive than

countries with non-democratic governments. Democratic governments associate democracy

principally with development (in terms of entitlement to rights, health, equality, level of

education, employment, and income) more fully than other forms of government do. These

indicators are crucial and influential in the formulation of policies. The dawn of democracy in

South Africa, for example, not only represented a political shift but also the hope of

transforming the lives of millions of South Africans. Because of this, the article supports the

notion that public policy strengthens democracy. Based on this idea, democracy’s desirability

in South Africa is derived from its ability to have public policy. The essence of public policy is

to capture the intentions of the government. Without a public policy, there can be no

governance. To govern, there must be a set of guidelines. Public policy provides those

guidelines.

This study followed a qualitative research method, which enabled the researcher to interact

with the research participants. The researcher purposively sampled forty-five (45) research

participants for semi-structured in-depth interviews. The data obtained from these interviews

was analysed using thematic analysis. The results of the study showed that there are numerous

challenges in the implementation of policies. These include the government’s inability to

involve the public in policy planning, formulation, and implementation, the public’s failure to

follow public policies, the exclusion of people’s cultural and value systems, a lack of trust in

leadership, insufficient capacity, bureaucratic systems, setting unrealistic goals, and

corruption. The implications of the findings were examined, and recommendations were made

for improved policies and practices in this area. The article concludes that studies show that

when the government makes policies, they should be guided by the needs of the community as

such policies are intended to address community problems.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 142

Keywords: Public policy; implementation; democratic; dispensation

1. Introduction

South Africa is still considered as a new democracy and a developing country (Tebele,

2016:10). “The birth of a democratic state founded on the values of human rights and equality

following the end of the apartheid system in 1994 necessitated a government that would be

accountable, open, and responsive to the needs of the people of South Africa” (Thipanyane,

2016:126). The period between 1994 and 1999 can be characterised as the country’s transition

to democracy. Nelson Mandela held the presidency in during this period. According to the

South African Human Rights Commision (2006: 1), the Mandela government encouraged

policymaking, nation building and reconciliation

Since the democratisation of the country, the South African government has been relatively

involved in both making and implementing policies to meet the transformation agenda of every

administration towards the achievement of a better life for all (Gumede, 2015:8). The study

conducted by Freedman (2013) acknowledges this reality by pointing out that the South African

government is built on a foundation of democracy. For this reason, the democratic practice

goes beyond elections to improving citizens’ lives. Teshome (2008) agrees that

democratisation is more than the mere expansion of political rights.

The democratic government based its legitimacy on the concept of constitutionalism, where all

people, representatives of the people, and institutions would be subject to the Constitution of

the country. The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act No. 108 of 1996) was

promulgated in 1996 and was the basis upon which the democratic South Africa would function

and be governed (Lues, 2014:792). Section 195 (1) (e) of the 1996 Constitution supports this

viewpoint by stating that people’s needs must be responded to through policymaking.

However, it is also imperative to remember that without proper implementation, good written

policies serve no purpose (Maphalla, 2013:8).

Given South Africa’s history of polarisation and racism, violent political conflict, and extreme

antidemocratic tendencies, twenty-six (26) years of democracy have not fully met the

expectations of the citizens. As a result, many citizens are not satisfied with the government’s

implementation of policies (Linde and Peters, 2020:292). Because of the current social ills

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 143

facing South Africans, it is important to discuss the challenges facing the implementation of

public policies in South Africa since the dawn of democracy. This paper seeks to bring these

challenges to the attention of the government.

2. Problem Statement

According to Tebele (2016), public policies are needed to address the public problems that the

country still faces today. This is confirmed by Makhetha (2015), who states that every public

policy should look towards the present and future and aim to lessen, if not eradicate, the social

ills faced by South Africans. According to Mthetwa (2014:1), with the transition of South

Africa from a once Apartheid regime to democratization, old policies required reformulation

to reflect the new democracy which included the new founding provisions of the South African

Constitution Act 108 of 1996 (Cloete, 2011:75). Since South Africa is a developing country,

there are many factors that must be taken into consideration when drafting and implementing

its policies. These factors include considering the socio-cultural, socio-economic, and socio-

political aspects (ibid, 2011:70). The study conducted by Tebele (2016) suggests that, South

Africa needs to consider and re-evaluate the developmental policies in order to deal with

contemporary issues at the core of meeting citizens first.

Therefore, in one of the African National Congress (ANC)’s policy documents, they address

policy problems that the country still faces today. Some of these problems include “extreme

levels of impoverishment and chronic diseases in the country, prevailing inequality, and

educational backlog” (Tebele, 2016:10). “However, reports from the former Public Protector

Thuli Madonsela stated that in spite of the fact that the ANC as government has policies set up

to eradicate South Africa’s social ills, it has signally failed in the implementation of its policies”

(Tebele, 2016:11). The former Public Protector Thuli Madonsela stated that regardless of large

investments in infrastructure and services, delivery rates and quality have often been

inadequate and unfair (Cook, 2019:10). Examples of this include shortages and the incorrect

supply of school workbooks by the National Department of Basic Education to Eastern Cape

schools. This failure meant that certain rights of pupils were violated (Kota, Hendricks,

Matambo and Naidoo, 2017:3). Another example of the government’s failure in implementing

policies is shown in the Public Protector’s report on systematic investigations into allegations

of poor service delivery and maladministration by the municipalities which have given rise to

community protests (Masuku and Jili, 2019:1).

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 144

The exacerbating problem is that the South Africans still struggle with issues of quality

housing, electricity (maintenance and stability), potholes, and a high level of youth

unemployment (Public Protector South Africa, 2016). From these few examples, it is evident

that South Africa’s new political regime does indeed have problems and challenges related to

the implementation of its public policies. “The problem with these policies seems to be that

although they describe the ‘what’, they do not explain the ‘how’. It is crucial for policymakers

to explain the ‘how’ because the primary focus of public policy implementation is putting

policy into effect” (Tebele, 2016:12). “As such, there needs to be course of action put into place

in terms of how to go about implementing policy” (Think Tanks and Civil Societies Programs,

2014:21). “For instance, the National Development Plan (NDP) is a well-designed national

policy formulated to eradicate social ills that have been plaguing South Africa as a country”

(Executive Summary-National Development Plan 2030, 2012).

“However, there is no course of action presented as to how to go about implementing these

policies” (Executive Summary-National Development Plan 2030, 2012). “The only item

offered in the document are the goals that this particular policy aims to achieve, the duration

that it should take for the NDP to be correctly implemented and yield results, and a description

of the stakeholders” (Tebele, 2016:12). “It is therefore generally accepted by the government

and its critics alike that the policy scene in South Africa in the period since 1994 has been

characterised by poor execution” (Paul, 2010: iv). “Poor policy implementation continues to

complicate the existing problems” (Bidandi, 2007).

3. Research objectives

The following are the objectives of the article:

• To determine whether public policy implementation can positively serve as a tool for

strengthening democracy.

• To evaluate the impact of public policy implementation on citizens’ welfare.

• To identify the challenges of implementing public policy in South Africa since the dawn

of democracy.

• To recommend mechanisms that can be used to overcome the challenges of

implementing the public policy.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 145

4. Research questions

The following are the research questions of the article:

• What can the government do to ensure that the implementation of public policy

positively serves as a tool for strengthening democracy?

• What is the impact of the implementation of public policy on the welfare of citizens?

• What are the challenges of implementing public policy in South Africa since the dawn

of democracy?

• What mechanisms can be used to overcome the challenges of implementing public

policies?

5. Literature review

5.1 Reasons why the South African government fails to implement public policies

successfully

It is important to consider relevant studies that have been done on the failure of the

implementation of public policies. This may inform policy changes and help to identify key

messages for policy practitioners in South Africa. Hence, a better understanding of the reasons

why the South African government fails to implement public policies successfully is of

paramount importance. This may assist in overcoming and preventing these failures to

implement public policies successfully. According to Maluleke (2015), there are numerous

reasons for the failure of implementing policies. Some of these are discussed below.

5.1.1 Time factor

Time is the most important resource which determines the success of the implementation of

public policy (Signe, 2017:20). Khan and Khandaker (2016:539) point out that, public policy

is defined as a series or pattern (of government activities) or decisions that are intended to solve

relevant social and economic issues. Stewart, Hedge and Lester (2008) emphasisize the proper

implementation of public policies for public benefit, with Khan and Khandaker (2016:539)

stating that a successful policy provides a positive correlation to its implementation. Policy-

implementors do not have enough time at their disposal to investigate the problems encountered

by citizens which have to be addressed through the implementation of policy. These problems

should be clearly identified for the successful implementation of policy.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 146

Silima (2017) is of the view that officials should always conduct research in the communities

to find out what problems the communities are facing. Maluleke (2015) asserts that, “this

requires a shared understanding among participants concerning the implied presuppositions,

values, and assumptions that underlie the whole implementation process”. Silima (2017)

further points out that the disadvantage of collecting information is that it is time consuming,

expensive, and unrelated to community values. In this regard, Brynard, Cloete and De Coning

(2011:138) argue that, “public policy implementation fails because of the fact that it is time-

consuming and challenging to implement in such a manner that will gratify everyone involved,

namely, the relevant stakeholders, politicians and the general public”. Marzuki (2015) posits

that participation is time consuming and has the potential to slow down decision making. This

leaves the government with no choice but to implement policies without reaching the

agreement with the public and relevant stakeholders. This might lead to the public’s

dissatisfaction and disapproval over the implementation of the policy, especially concerning

the issue of quality.

Quality service delivery is compromised in the implementation of public policy. This statement

is supported by Bob (2018) who pointed out that potable flushable toilets in Khayelitsha,

Makhaza area were installed by the City of Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality after the

public demanded the provision of sanitation. According to Robins (2014), “in the early

springtime of 2011, an occurrence known as the ‘toilet wars’ erupted. In the course of the run-

up to the local government elections, photographs spread in the media of uncovered flush toilets

in poor township locations” “The campaigners recognised that they had toppled onto a political

goldmine and started organising around the problem of open toilets, opposing that people had

to hide themselves in blankets while using the toilets in public” (Robins, 2014).

5.1.2 Public view coupled with a lack of public consultation

McNabb (2010:141) asserts that, “the traditional public administration approach has been of

the view that public officials merely implement policies that are formulated by the elected

leaders, the congress, and the president”. “The contemporary view of public administration

demands that public officials and the public should participate in the influencing and shaping

of public policies” (McNabb, 2010:141). South Africa is a democratic country, and everyone

can get involved and take part in the implementation of public policy (McNabb, 2010:141).

Malakoane, Heunis, Chikobvu, Kigozi and Kruger (2020) point out that, “since the advent of

democracy, the South African government has been putting policies in place to strengthen

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 147

public institutions and deal with public concerns”. Cochran and Malone (2014) agree that,

“public policy entails decisions and actions designed to deal with a matter of public concern”.

Lekalake and Nkomo (2016) are of the view that, “both perceptions of the extent of democracy

in South Africa and public satisfaction with its implementation have declined significantly

since 2011”. When the public is involved in the implementation of policies, problems usually

occur because people have different needs and demands. Conflict can occur when the people

and the government have differing views and opinions. This can result in the failure of the

implementation of public policy. Cochran and Malone (2014) further state that, it is evident

from public opinion that people worry about their economic well-being the most. The e-tolling

policy was implemented on Gauteng roads in 2013 and was followed by much controversy.

TollfreeGP (2011) criticises the system as it is very costly, too complex and therefore not

correctly implementable, as well as being a threat to the general economic wellbeing of the

province.

Labour unions, car rental companies and motorists are against the implementation of this policy

and the policy-implementors are now busy reviewing the policy to find a solution. The public

was not consulted by the government during the planning of the e-tolling policy. “Citizen

engagement is crucial in directing policy to the most pertinent issues within the receiving

locality” (Imurana, Haruna and Kofi, 2014:1). Oginni and Moitui (2015) believe that, in

democracies citizen engagement is valued, which enables a smooth, consultative public policy

process. As a result, this smooth consultative process ensures quality inputs, better decision-

making processes, and effective implementation as well as making provisions for good

feedback mechanisms (Oginni and Moitui, 2015).

5.1.3 Human resources

According to Marume, Mutongi and Madziyire (2016), “policies cannot be declared as being

effective in themselves, nor can they be implemented by their mere statement, that is, they are

not self-executing, without staff, access to information, and authority”. In other words, a lack

of human resources (people, expertise, and experience) makes the implementation of public

policy fail. Consequently, policy-implementors fail to implement policies because of their

inability to understand the intentions of the policy. This statement is supported by Koma (2010)

who pointed out that without the requisite knowledge and skills, human resources fail to

implement policies effectively. FitzGerald, O’Malley and Ó Broin (2019) assert that,

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 148

“incompetence refers to another form of human error, where the political actors do not have

the skill set to achieve the preferred outcome.”

Nepotism is no exception to incompetency in public institutions. Gjinovci (2016) supports this

viewpoint by stating that, “nepotism is a common accusation in politics when a relative and

close friend of a powerful political figure raised to power, not possess the necessary skills and

knowledge, which are necessary for positions”. Nwankwo (2017) argues that “in the Republic

of South Africa, nepotism is viewed seriously as the cause of positioning incompetent recruits

to the high positions of strategic nature as well as the cause of the lack of successful public

policy implementation”. Twala (2014) posits that, “in South Africa’s post 1994 constitutional

democracy, the African National Congress (ANC) dominated tripartite alliance has

consistently utilised the practice of cadre deployment in public institutions”.

Shava and Chamisa (2018) are of the view that, “the positive policies that were designed to

improve the country’s economy were accompanied with a policy of cadre deployment that

advocated for ANC party loyalists to occupy prominent positions in the public sector. This

political patronage implemented via state jobs led to poor performances in government

institutions and in the nation as a whole”. Booysen (2012) reiterate that, “the election or

appointment of public functionaries who are not adequately qualified and based on political

patronage and nepotism is a constraint on the efficient and effective performance of

government institutions”. These are the challenges mostly experienced in local government.

Reddy (2016) believes that, “the local sphere of government is particularly crucial as it signifies

grassroots governance and local democracy, which are considered to be closest to the people,

and more importantly, it is at the coalface relative to the delivery of services”. However, Habib

(2015) indicates that, “traffic lights are often not functioning; water pipes are constantly broken

or even leaking; portholes are multiplying; telephones are often unanswered and there is

widespread urban decay throughout the municipal areas resulting in a depreciation of property

values and loss of potential income for the municipalities”. “The quality of material used for

constructing the Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP) houses is usually poor-

quality material” (Mashwama, Thwala and Aigbavboa, 2019:1698). Reports done by Moolla

and Block (2011) show that, “roofs, walls, doors, floors, and windows are mostly of a poor

standard and that most are reported to be crumbling, pulling off, and breaking without any

external influence due to poor material and workmanship”.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 149

This is evidenced by Chirume (2018) who reported that during 2018, Port Elizabeth residents

received poorly built RDP houses from the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality. “Residents of

Jacksonville, Port Elizabeth, said that they have been living in temporary homes in the yards

of their RDP houses for years because their houses were substandard, and some were built on

a waterlogged site” (Chirume, 2018). People’s furniture and other valuables were severely

damaged by water that was seeping up from the ground. Some units had leaking roofs. This is

evidence of the government’s failure to implement the RDP houses skilfully and

knowledgeably. “The aim of the RDP is to have an integrated, coherent socio-economic policy

that would address problems brought about by the lack of equitable development under

apartheid. The issues are poverty, unemployment, health, provision of water, electricity, and

good education. In addition, the construction of housing for the millions who, due to legacy of

apartheid, could not afford to own properties” (Parliamentary liaison office, 2017).

5.1.4 Financial resources

Without money, policy is unimplementable and is simply a government’s democratic promise

to improve the welfare of the public. Maluleke (2015) acknowledges this reality and points out

that, “many policies remain impossible dreams that are incapable of implementation because

of an absence of financial resources” (Morris and Scott, 2003:2). According to Marume,

Mutongi and Madziyire (2016:2), a lack of financial resources not only hinders policymaking,

but it also limits the effective implementation of policies. The study conducted by Qiu,

Sawadogo-Lewis, Ngale, Cane, Magaço and Roberton (2019) reiterates that limited financial

resources severely impact the implementation of policies.

The failure of policy implementation affects development in developing countries. Mavhungu

(2011) is of the view that, “the non-payment of services continues to pose a serious financial

challenge to municipalities. These services have a direct and immediate effect on the quality

of lives of the people in South Africa”. Hence, the non-payment of services undermines quality

service delivery and the infrastructural development which sustains a high standard of living

for South Africans. For example, “South Africa is a water scarce country, the demand for water

is on the increase” (Viljoen and Van der Walt, 2018). “Poor water infrastructure increases the

use of water in the agricultural sector and in some regions, water lost during conveyance may

be as high as 40 per cent” (Sleet, 2019). “South Africa’s water infrastructure is poorly

maintained and at risk of failure” (Sleet, 2019). “This is due to a variety of factors, including a

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 150

lack of funding which compromises the provision of water that is already of a poor quality”

(Sleet, 2019).

5.1.5 Corruption

“The word corruption is derived from the Latin word corruptus, which means corrupted and,

in legal terms, the abuse of a trusted position in one of the branches of power (executive,

legislative and judicial) or in political or other organisations with the intention of obtaining

material benefit which is not legally justified for itself or for others” (Šumah, 2018). In its

simplest form, “corruption is commonly defined as the abuse of public power for private gain”

(Cuervo-Cazurra, 2014). Corruption has contributed greatly to the failure of policy

implementation in developing countries. According to Ntoyanto (2019), “corruption in South

Africa is a cancer which has persistently eroded at, and undermined socio-economic

development efforts, poverty alleviation and good governance in the country”. This statement

is supported by Naidoo (2013) who pointed out that, “South Africa’s political transition to a

non-racial democracy has been blemished by frequent incidents and allegations of government

corruption, involving elected officials and public servants”.

The study conducted by Jetter, Agudelo and Sramirez (2015) found that, “there is a relationship

between corruption and democracy. Corruption also leads to inequality”. “Corruption

undermines national development; it is not only in the implementation of government projects

or programs but all other parts of governance of the country” (Damoah, Akwei, Amoako and

Botchie, 2018:25). Graycar (2017) believes that, “corruption demoralises government and

weakens the whole endeavour of policy formulation and its implementation. It diminishes

services and causes fiscal stress, but most of all it undermines trust and corrodes legitimate

community expectations”. Corruption allegations in South Africa dominate through theft and

greed. For example, “implementation failure may arise in a situation where huge amounts are

earmarked for a project but the officers in charge of implementation steal such amounts (or a

substantial part of the amounts)” (Makinde, 2005).

Policy-implementors may be tempted to steal public money for their own benefit rather than

using the money allocated for implementing the public policy. For example, in 2012, the former

African National Congress (ANC) premier Cassel Mathale of the near-bankrupt province of

Limpopo was alleged to have used public money for personal gains rather than for providing

services to the public. This is despite having spent millions of rand of taxpayer’s money to buy

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 151

expensive vehicles for use on official trips. Mathale has bought two expensive cars during the

two years he has been premier. Regardless of these allegations, Mathale still works for the

government (Bailey, 2013).

5.1.6 Values of the people

The values of the people should be considered and respected when the government implements

public policies. This includes the culture, tradition, and beliefs which the democratic society

upholds (Abolafia, Dodge and Jackson, 2014:1). This statement is supported by Muers (2018)

who pointed out that, “value systems are very closely linked to culture and are the set of

fundamental beliefs held by an individual or group about what is valuable, what is fair, what

constitutes right and wrong, who deserves what, and similar ethical matters”. FitzGerald et al.

(2019) agree that public policies are the instruments through which values are authoritatively

allocated in society. Muers (2018) further asserts that, “culture and values need to be at the

heart of thinking about public policy”. “Democracies have become accommodative and

sometimes managed to achieve stability by effectively prioritising cultures and value sets”

(Muers, 2018).

Muers (2018) reiterates that, “culture and values drive policy outcomes. This is because in

a democratic system, the government is forced to give independent value to the idea that

a policy has been developed and implemented in a way that accords with people’s accepted

standards of behaviour and fairness”. For example, the study conducted by Mkhize, Taylor,

Udert, Gounden and Buckley (2017) revealed that, “in South Africa, 15 million people, most

of whom live in rural areas, have no access to basic sanitation”. Statistics South Africa (2011)

confirmed that, “approximately 749,000 households in the country have no toilet system at all,

while approximately 8,240,000 have flush toilets connected to a sewage system”.

According to United Nations Water (2015), about 7 out of 10 people without improved

sanitation are based in the rural areas. Some 2.4 billion people remained without access to

improved sanitary facilities and services in 2015. Both situations have serious health impacts.

The KwaZulu-Natal province is not exempt from these problems. Therefore, the provision of

toilets to the KwaZulu-Natal people is not debatable. Mkhize et al. (2017) further state that,

“the sanitation policy of South Africa emphasises that sanitation is more than just the provision

of toilets, but is a cohesive approach that embraces organisational, technical, financial,

environmental, social and educational frameworks”. McConville and Rosemarin (2012)

emphasised that the latter can only be realised if people are part of proper planning and are

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 152

involved in choosing the sanitation process. It is only then that sanitation sustainability can be

realised. Providing people with toilets is insufficient, since measures also need to be taken to

ensure that people accept, understand, and properly use and maintain the toilet.

However, providing toilets to some families in the deeply rural areas of KwaZulu-Natal

becomes problematic. This is because such families still uphold to their cultural values wherein

daughter-in-laws are prohibited from sharing a single communal toilet with their mother- or

father-in-laws (Kaufmann, 2017:1). This means that the Department of Human

Settlements, Water and Sanitation would fail to implement the sanitation policy effectively and

efficiently as they will have to provide two toilets to every household. Muers (2018) moreover

points out that, “values and culture are extremely powerful in determining outcomes”.

6. Research Methodology

This study used a qualitative research methodology to arrive at an in-depth understanding of

the challenges facing the implementation of public policies in South Africa since the dawn of

democracy. This is because the goal of qualitative research is a deep understanding of the

particular (Carter, Lubinsky and Domholdt, 2011:61). Bloomberg and Volpe (2012) support

this view by pointing out that the qualitative study is described as a method that seeks to

promote a deep understanding of social activities. Consequently, qualitative methods are used

to answer questions which seek explanations by the research participants. “Qualitative research

is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a particular social phenomenon, or

program, operates as it does in a particular context’’ (Mohajan, 2018:2). This method generally

allows the explanation of words, emotions, and the reactions of the respondents to be reported

‘as is’ (Merriam and Tisdell, 2016:1). Respondents in this study were requested to elaborate

on specific questions. These comments and answers were analysed qualitatively to build and

add value to the research objectives. The aim was to arrive at a generally acceptable conclusion

within the research study.

6.1 The target population and sampling process

The researcher conducted research and drew conclusions from the target population. A sample

was required to be representative of the targeted population selected, since the study was

designed to make a qualitative analysis. The sampling technique which was adopted in the case

of this research study was purposive sampling. The main goal of purposive sampling is to focus

on particular characteristics of a population that are of interest, which will best enable the

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 153

researcher to answer the research questions (Ellene and Kumar, 2019:23). The researcher used

the purposive sampling technique to select four sets of participants for the study. These sets

included: the general public, contractors, government officials leading and/or involved in

government projects, and project management practitioners. The participants were selected

based on two criteria: first, their knowledge of policies and government policies and project

failure in South Africa; and second, their experience in strategic planning and operational

processes in public institutions.

6.2 Sample size

The sample size refers to the number of participants included within in a study (Institute for

Work and Health, 2008). The sample size for this study is forty-five (45). The sample size per

each category is as follows: senior management = five; middle management = thirty and the

public = ten. The researcher targeted the general public because they are the main beneficiaries

of government policies, and even though some of them might not possess technical know-how

in the implementation process, they follow the implementation and the outcomes of

government project closely; hence, their perceptions of project performance are important. The

Gauteng Department of Health, the Limpopo Department of Education, and the Bushbuckridge

Local Municipality were selected for this study.

6.3 Data Collection

The study adopted a qualitative research method. The qualitative data was collected by means

of semi-structured interviews, where participants were required to answer all of the research

questions. Semi-structured interviews allow participants the freedom to provide an in-depth

knowledge and location-specific data for a study(Damoa, Akwei, Amoako and Botchie,

2018:21). Choy (2014) is of the view that conducting in-depth interviews is one of the most

common methods of carrying out qualitative research. One of the main advantages of this

method is that the interview becomes broad and open-ended, allowing the participants to raise

issues that matter most to them. The interviews were conducted in participants’ offices and on

Skype by pre-booking an appointment. The initial idea was to conduct all interviews face-to-

face, but some of them had to be conducted through Skype and telephonically because of the

busy schedules of some participants during the daytime. Each interview lasted between 45 and

60 minutes. The interviews were recorded for later analysis.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 154

The interview guide was designed to include the scope and capacity for answering the research

questions that were to be examined (Morris, 2015:1). The interview guide consisted of

questions that helped the interviewer to remain on track and remain consistent throughout the

interviews with different respondents. Once the interviews were finalised, the information

sourced from the interviews was classified and analysed to support the objectives of the study.

6.4 Data Analysis

According to Sileyew (2019), “descriptive research portrays an accurate profile of persons,

events, or situations. This design offers researchers a profile of described relevant aspects of

the phenomena of interest from an individual, organisational, and industry-oriented

perspective”. Therefore, this research design enabled the researcher to gather data from a wide

range of respondents on the challenges facing the implementation of public policies in South

Africa since the dawn of democracy. This helped in analysing the responses obtained on how

it affects the welfare of citizens. Data analysis is central to a credible qualitative study (Maguire

and Delahunt, 2017:3351).

Codes in research study refers to a short word or phrase which describes the meaning and

context of the whole sentence, phrase, or paragraph (Saldaña, 2015:3). When researchers code

data, they analyse individual sentences and paragraphs of the data and decide on its

interpretation (Linneberg and Korsgaard, 2019). Malek, Lim and Tahir (2019) agree that,

“analysing data requires one to transcribe the interviews, read and reread them, and interpret

meaningful open codes”. Then one must look for any similarities or differences, or plausible

and spurious data, as well as classify the interviews into the themes. This is what is termed

‘thematic analysis’, wherein the data is collected through interviews is analysed.

Themes underline the concepts, patterns, and ideas of what the participants have said during

interviews. The patterns that emerge provide significant information about the research

questions. Braun and Clarke (2013) support this statement by pointing out that, “thematic

analysis is a flexible data analysis plan that qualitative researchers use to generate themes from

interview data”. Themes explain a large portion of the data. They do not summarise the

participants’ answers but provide bigger and broader interpretations of these. In this study, the

emergent themes were presented as the final and most important output to help the researcher

to identify patterns in the data. The research questions which researchers use in their interview

schedule become their themes.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 155

The researcher chose to use thematic analysis as it was thought to be the best method for

analysing the challenges facing the implementation of public policies in South Africa since the

dawn of democracy. “The goal of this analytical method was to identify (categories, patterns),

describe, analyse, and report themes within the data” (Braun and Clarke, 2006). The researcher

organised the themes according to the research questions as follows:

• Government ensuring that public policy implementation positively serves as a tool for

strengthening democracy.

• The impact of the public policy implementation on the citizens’ welfare.

• The challenges of implementing public policy in South Africa since the dawn of

democracy.

• Mechanisms that can be used to overcome the challenges of implementing the public

policy.

The themes were then refined, defined, and organised into a coherent framework that explains

policy implementation (Damoah, Akwei, Amoako and Botchie, 2018:21). “Thereafter, as a

way of understanding the perceptions, opinions, and experiences of the participants with regard

to the challenges facing the implementation of public policies in South Africa since the dawn

of democracy, an interpretation of the developing themes was derived by relating the

participants’ accounts to the available literature and by integrating and comparing the responses

captured in the different data sets. In the paragraphs that follow, the researcher discusses the

themes that emerged from the data analysis and how each would have emerged from the data”

(Rangongo, Mohlakwana and Beckmann, 2016:5).

6.4.1 Theme 1: Government ensuring that public policy implementation positively serves

as a tool for strengthening democracy.

Participant 1:

From the interviews with this participant, it emerged that public policy implementation

positively serves as a tool for strengthening democracy in terms of political accommodation.

The participant indicated that policies are not self-executing and that human resources are

mandated to implement policies. The participant stated that the government should employ

public officials (from senior officials to junior officials) based on merit, so that implementation

may run smoothly. The participant elaborated that political appointments based on patronage

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 156

and nepotist systems should be avoided. The participant was of the view that this is not a new

suggestion in South Africa. There are arguments for eliminating political appointments in

South Africa, however the government has failed numerous times to address these political

appointments. The participant gave a very important emphasis by pointing out that the

government can do better by sticking to the approach of capacity building. They should rather

train those who have been appointed on the political basis than condemn their non-expertise as

political accommodation is an essential tool for democracy.

In Participant 1’s view, employing the qualified officials does not cure the challenge of human

resources to implementing policies positively. This is because qualified officials might show

signs of a skills gap wherein, they lack the skills required for a job and the skills employers

need. The participant emphasised that the recruitment process should not be compromised

because of political accommodation. Those who are qualified yet possess a gap in their skills

should be skilled and equipped through capacity building. The participant argued that some

skilled and knowledgeable public officials are lazy to implement policies because they find

their work to be repetitive and boring. The participant suggested that ethics education should

play a significant role in this regard by guiding the values, behaviours and decisions taken by

the public officials to implement policies successfully.

Participant 2:

Based on the responses obtained from Participant 2, it emerged that public policy

implementation positively serves as a tool for strengthening democracy when the government

policies focus on promoting the general welfare of the public. These policies deal with matters

of inequality, unemployment, and poverty. For example, policies such as the South African

Social Security Agency (SASSA), trade and industry policies where people can own

companies, and be provided with housing, social grants, free education, and basic services. The

participant stated that this is what the public voted for in terms of the government’s social

responsibility to its citizens to strengthen democracy. The participant was also of the view that

public consultation should be promoted so that there is participation from the public at large to

direct the implementation of policies.

Participant 3:

It emerged from interviews with Participant 3 that the government do have strategies for

ensuring that public policy implementation positively serves as a tool for strengthening

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 157

democracy. This includes the government’s approach to solving African problems without

copying Western policies. The respondent argued that although the South African democracy

is dominated by Western beliefs which influence policy implementation, it is not debatable that

the African beliefs can address some of the socio-economic issues faced by South Africans.

The participant further expressed the belief that the government needs to implement policies

that are intended to solve the African problems. In other words, the values and beliefs of people

should be presented and shared before the implementation of policy. The people of South

Africa have constitutional and human rights emphasising their values and beliefs to be included

in policy implementation. Traditional leaders, for example, still uphold the cultural values and

beliefs needed to develop their communities. They are aware of the community problems.

6.4.2 Theme 2: The impact of the public policy implementation on the citizens’ welfare

Participant 1:

It emerged that the participant perceived the impact of the public policy implementation on the

citizens’ welfare to be positive when the government fulfils its mandate to serve the people.

The participant stated that servant leadership views the government’s role as one of stewards

responsible for the development of communities in their care. However, servant leadership is

not dominant in the South African democracy, even at the grassroots level where municipal

councillors are found. The participant argued that policies are not implemented successfully,

and this negatively impacts the welfare of the public. The Reconstruction and Development

Programme (RDP) housing policy, for example, while intended to positively impact the welfare

of citizens (particularly the most needy and vulnerable groups who are unable to afford decent

housing), has failed to provide quality houses, as evidenced by various cases in South Africa.

Participant 2:

According to Participant 2, when policies are implemented successfully, citizens’ welfare is

positively impacted. Food is described as a social necessity. It is recognised worldwide as one

of the most important needs of people, followed by the need for water. The Covid-19 policy

for the distribution of food parcels to needy families living on the breadline in South Africa

during the 2020 Covid-19 lockdown was successfully implemented according to the

Department of Social Development of South Africa. The government announced the Social

Relief of Distress policy to be available for citizens who earn a combined household income

of R3 600. The Social Relief of Distress policy intended to provide the R350 Covid-19 social

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 158

relief grants. The government emphasised that the Social Relief of Distress policy should be

available to recipients of SASSA pensioner, disability, child welfare and military veteran

grants. The Social Relief of Distress policy received constructive criticisms from the

communities. The R350 Covid-19 social relief grants was paid out to some individuals and not

being paid out to some individuals. The respondent cited this dilemma as a social injustice

prevailing in the South African democracy because other people did not receive the social relief

grants.

6.4.3 Theme 3: The challenges of implementing public policy in South Africa since the

dawn of democracy.

Participant 1:

According to this participant, South Africa has no problem with the planning or formulation of

policies but rather with their implementation. One of the challenges of policy implementation

is the government’s inability to involve the target beneficiaries in the implementation process.

Consequently, the target beneficiaries are inclined to make appropriate demands, especially

concerning services rendered to them. Policies imposed by the government without considering

whether they meet the needs of the people are deemed to fail. The exclusion of public and civil

society actors from the planning, formulation, and implementation of policies undermines

participative democracy, as highlighted by this study.

Participant 2:

The participant is of the view that the challenges of implementing public policy in South Africa

since the dawn of democracy have been immense. In this participant’s view, many citizens do

not participate in public policymaking and end up being affected by the policies the government

formulates and implements on their behalf without their consent. The failure to follow public

policies could lead to confusion, corruption, and misuse of public funds. This causes delays in

service delivery because services may not reach the rightful beneficiaries in time or at all. The

participant reported that municipal residents do not attend the Integrated Development Plan

(IDP) and Imbizo meetings summoned by ward councillors to raise their needs, demands and

concerns pertaining to service delivery and to be given clarification on the kinds of services

that they should or should not expect from the municipality. This is a challenge to

implementing the IDP Policy.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 159

Participant 3:

In the responses from Participant 3, it emerged that poor and improper planning,

communication breakdowns, a lack of common interest, and poor management pose challenges

to the government in the implementation of policies. “The challenges of policy implementation

in South Africa could also link to political instability, and bureaucratic bottleneck, the

deliberate imposition of policy, complete alteration to the plan if it is not favourable to the

beneficiaries saddled with the responsibility to implement it” (Ajulor, 2018). The participant

emphasised that the government may put effort on the planning, formulation, and

implementation of policies and the beneficiaries decides to reject such efforts because they do

not meet their needs and concerns.

Participant 4:

According to Participant 4, the challenge regarding the implementation of policies is setting

unrealistic goals which is an attribute/characteristic of policymaking in developing nations.

Policy formulations are always comprehensive and engender expectations among the people

which can hardly be matched by the capacities of the system to implement them adequately.

The setting of the goal itself is not a problem; the problem lies in how to achieve them. The

participant stated that for example, there were eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

These were comprehensive, with 18 targets set. Most African countries could not adequately

implement the goals because of a lack of human and material capacity.

Participant 5:

Participant 5 is of the view that there are challenges facing policy implementation in South

Africa. These challenges include corruption, which contributes to poor policy implementation.

The respondent argued that in some cases, corruption happens when public officials implement

policies that create an opportunity for them to indulge in corrupt activities. This kind of conduct

may result in poor policy implementation or service delivery as the public officials are more

interested in promoting their interests than the interests of the citizens, they are meant to

provide a service for. The participant stated that the Covid-19 pandemic revealed some public

officials’ true colours when councillors were caught distributing food parcels to friends and

family and also opening supermarkets. The participant concluded that it is their belief that the

main aim of politicians is not to implement policies but to steal from the poor.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 160

6.4.4 Theme 4: Mechanisms that can be used to overcome the challenges in implementing

the public policy.

Participant 1:

In this participant’s opinion, the best mechanism that can be used to overcome the challenges

in implementing the public policy is to enforce the accountability of public officials. “The

people of South Africa require nothing less than full accountability from those who have been

elected and appointed to serve them” (Ramaphosa, 2020). Those who have privately benefited

from public funds intended to implement policies successfully should be held accountable by

paying back the money. For instance, “agencies such as the Socio-Economic Rights Institute

of South Africa (SERI) conduct research reports to hold the government accountable. The

institution ensures that the government implements what they have promised to citizens” (The

Foundation for Human Rights, 2016).

Participant 2:

It emerged from this participant’s response that the government should seek advice from

different sectors in communities and from knowledgeable people’s expertise in policy. The

participant also stated that the government should conduct more research on the pros and cons

of policies before they are implemented to ensure success. Political decisions alone do not

successfully influence the implementation of policies. Even other sectors should inform

decision making. The participant stated that it is of paramount importance that scientific

decisions or evidenced-based decisions are used to inform policies. It further emerged from the

participant that workshops intended to enhance accountability have a great impact on policy

implementation. “Such workshops can be attended by participants with expertise including

researchers, activists and individuals working in the contexts of policing, law, human rights,

forensic medicine, social research and policy, weapons control and accountability systems”

(Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa, 2019).

Participant 3:

In this participant’s opinion, the government and other sectors of the community should stop

being ignorant and recognise that corruption gravely affects democratic political institutions

and the country’s international image. This is because a country with several cases of

corruption makes potential investors reconsider investing in that country. Investors might

perhaps ask themselves if it is beneficial to secure investments within such a country. The

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 161

participant also argued that the government is failing to find proper remedy to eradicate

corruption because there is no cure for greediness and corruption but people who are found

looting public funds assigned for implementing policies should be judged by the law. In other

words, disciplinary action should be taken against officials accused of improper conduct, and

where appropriate, these officials should be reported to law enforcement agencies. This will

help to speed up service delivery.

Participant 4:

This participant emphasised that the government should publicise policies before they are

implemented. The participant stated that democracy does not support secrecy in government

matters which concern the public. The public should know about the intentions of the

government concerning their lives. Therefore, transparency should be enhanced. It further

emerged from the participant’s response that in their view, a lack of transparency was one of

the reasons why the implementation of the e-tolls policy failed in South Africa. In this regard,

“there is a public view that elements of the e-tolls policy should be reviewed as a matter of

urgency, and, to avoid further protracted conflict, the process must be transparent, deliberative,

and participatory” (Nicolson, 2019). This will help the government to implement policies after

a thorough consultation. The participant concluded that all the policies should follow this

process to ensure successful implementation.

Participant 5:

This participant pointed to the fact that public officials are human beings. This means that they

may have flaws that may influence their attitudes towards the implementation of policies. The

participant emphasised that the public officials’ attitude should be monitored so that they can

be continuously be reminded about the Batho Pele Principles that is an approach to improving

government service which may change their attitudes. “Such changed attitudes will enhance

the public officials’ performance, increase capacity, and create opportunities for finding

creative ways to plan and implement services” (Van der Westhuizen and Swart, 2015:747).

Furthermore, the respondent noted “the value of well-planned programmes and projects and

stressed the need for leaders with management skills. Joint services with other service providers

will lead to success, because of the sharing of resources, knowledge, and skills” (Van der

Westhuizen and Swart, 2015:747). This fosters a spirit of cooperation.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 162

7. Result and Discussion

This section of the paper presents the results and a discussion of the findings of the study.

7.1 Major findings on the government ensuring that public policy implementation

positively serves as a tool for strengthening democracy.

The researcher found that public functionaries confirmed that unqualified public officials who

were politically connected were employed, resulting in the serious decline of successful public

policy implementation. The study findings revealed that training and educating unqualified

public officials is essential so that public officials can implement policies successfully. It was

further indicated by the participants that senior management officers were realistic role models

by demonstrating ethical conduct to subordinates. The research findings also revealed that

public functionaries and political office bearers at public institutions considered ethics training

and ethics education as vital for the effective functioning of the public institution.

Public institutions have a reward system which acknowledges and recognises outstanding

performance through the successful implementation of public policies as far as quality service

delivery is concerned. Most of the respondents stated that regular workshops were conducted

at their workplaces in order to reinforce compliance to ethical values. The research findings

also revealed that participation by the members of the public in policy implementation

strengthens democracy. By participating in policy implementation, the public will be able to

raise their concerns, needs, demands and values and ensure that these are considered. The study

findings agree with earlier studies of Muers (2018) that found that “culture and values drive

policy outcomes”.

7.2 Major findings on the impact of the public policy implementation on the citizens’

welfare

The study confirmed that frustrated residents in South Africa view the impact of the policy

implementation of RDP houses negatively. This is because a lack of decent and standardised

RDP housing affects people psychologically and emotionally. They do not have peace, and

peace is a prerequisite for health. Peace is compromised because of the communities’ fear that

RDP houses will become hard to live in when heavy rains pour down. This is exacerbated when

the houses built began to collapse, and especially when there is a high rate of impoverished and

unemployed individuals.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 163

In considering whether the RDP policy is worth implementing, the findings of this study

indicated that the RDP housing policy is too good to be true, especially when the allocation of

such houses is unjust. This is because there are individuals who bribe public officials to obtain

the RDP houses. As a result, the communities are denied the opportunity to exercise their

constitutional rights to housing. This automatically suggests that the housing policy is not

appropriately implemented to positively impact impoverished and low-income communities.

The study also found that social injustice has been exacerbated during the Covid-19 pandemic,

where the R350 grant intended to help unemployed people was not paid to all of the individuals

who are currently unemployed.

7.3 Major findings on the challenges of implementing public policy in South Africa since

the dawn of democracy.

The study findings revealed that most South African citizens are unwilling to participate in

public policy-making meetings, especially at the local sphere of government. This could be

partly due to unfulfilled promises made by the government and community members’ lack of

trust in public officials. It becomes difficult for the members of the public to trust public

officials because of the allegations of unethical conduct. Long-awaited promises discourage

public participation, especially from the youth. “As a result of government attempts to

overcome infrastructure- and service delivery backlogs that are sometimes too slow, protest

action escalated, especially from 2004 onwards” (Managa, 2012:2). This is because of the

bureaucratic system in government and its insufficient capacity which has delayed the

achievement of goals and targets, especially those set in the NDP. The findings further revealed

that corruption is a challenge in the proper implementation of public policies because goods

and services do not meet the rightful beneficiaries.

7.4 Major findings on the mechanisms that can be used to overcome the challenges of

implementing public policy

The study found that most of the respondents suggested that public officials that indulge in

corrupt practices that compromise successful public policy implementation should be held fully

accountable. The findings suggested that severe punishment should be highly recommended to

set an example for other public officials who might be planning to become corrupt. The

information collected suggested that the democratic principle of openness and transparency

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 164

between members of the public and the government should be encouraged. It was suggested

that to avoid conflict, the government should first consult members of the public for any public

policy that they want to implement. The researcher found that some strategies to overcome the

challenges of implementing the public policy included public officials’ compliance with the

Batho Pele Principles. The Batho Pele Principles is an approach to help public servants to be

committed to their work and improve service delivery. These principles help to control the

conduct of public officials so that a conducive productive environment is created to ensure that

public policy implementation runs without challenges.

8. Recommendations

The study found that there are some public officials who do not have the skills and knowledge

to implement policies successfully because their employment was politically connected. The

researcher recommends that in line with the principles of democracy, “the government must

ensure that a much larger number of people and interests in the state, politics, and civil society

have the skills to pose policy questions, evaluate alternatives, and anticipate the likely

consequences of preferred initiatives” (Bernstein, 1995). “Often the power of policy

implementation lies not in ‘solving’ problems but in redefining problems within a framework

that makes them capable of resolution” (Bernstein, 1995). Ethics education is necessary to

enforce integrity and practice self-discipline, for one can be skilled and knowledgeable and still

lack good character to execute public policies successfully.

“It should be noted that in a democracy, open policy debate must take place through an honest

consultative process” (Bernstein, 1995). “Committed democrats can agree that the best

approach to dealing with a country’s many challenges is through public participation”

(Bernstein, 1995). “Sound policies should be measured by their effect on society and citizens,

and not the intentions of the policy-makers” (Bernstein, 1995). The researcher suggests that

“consultation meetings can be held in communities (such as informal settlements) that are

normally neglected in the public debate, thus providing them with a voice” (Bernstein, 1995).

The researcher further recommends that there should be a dominant involvement of the value

systems and cultural beliefs of the South African citizens in policy implementation. “South

Africa cannot afford a ‘European’ level of welfare support when there is clearly an urgent need

to address socio-economic ills such as poverty by policy implementation, rather than relying

solely on welfare transfers” (Pillay, 2001:16). The government should include traditional

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 165

leaders such as chiefs in the implementation of policies. Traditional leaders are well-positioned

to understand the needs and cultural preferences of the people to be included in the

development projects and could work hand-in-hand with the government to improve the

livelihoods of people.

“Poor policy implementation has severely frustrated efforts for South Africans to secure

socioeconomic rights in South Africa, particularly in housing” (Ebrahim and Masiangoako,

2019). This is because of the prevailing lack of decent and standardised houses and social

injustice in the provision and allocation of RDP houses which has negatively affected the

welfare of South Africans. When, for reasons of circumstance or discrimination, part of the

population has a reduced likelihood of access to decent quality houses, their welfare system is

constrained, influencing their peace. It is clear from the study findings that the RDP housing

policy has failed in the attainment of targets relating to improving the livelihoods of

impoverished South Africans. The researcher recommends that the government pay more

attention to the standard of the houses built, starting from the policy intent to implementation,

in order to yield good results.

There was social injustice in the allocation of the R350 Covid-19 grant meant to help the

unemployed people because some of the people complained about not receiving the grants. It

is justifiable that the recent complete closed economy affected the revenue base of the

government to assist the poor and that the R350 Covid-19 grant is a temporal grant because the

government do not have enough financial resources. However, the government should take a

lesson from this pandemic: that fairness, justice, and equality cannot be overlooked because of

a poor economy. Fair distribution of the R350 Covid-19 grant was necessary to sustain the

livelihoods of all South Africans.

“A lack of trust in leadership is a factor that contributes to the absence of cooperation and

collaboration in the leadership relationship amongst public servants (from up to bottom) and

citizens for the purpose of successful implementation of public policies” (Ndalamba, 2018:37).

Hence, the researcher recommends that there is a need for the government to build trust in these

leadership and citizen relationship by becoming trustworthy and legitimate. This trust can be

built by avoiding unethical conduct and meeting the needs of the public without delay.

Attention should be given to the bureaucratic system and its insufficient capacity for any

realistic policy formulation and implementation. The NDP is an example of this emphasis. The

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 166

government should change this approach by ensuring that they do not pursue the arena of policy

development as a success but view policy implementation and the delivery of services as the

greatest success.

“Corruption distorts policies and priorities, the government should have a resilient system

which operates freely from political interference encouraging citizens to speak out against

corruption by public officials” (National Planning Commission, 2011). Public officials should

subscribe to the notion of democratic governance where citizens believe that they have a share

in government and governance. The researcher suggests that to promote the ideals of

transparency and accountability in the public institutions needed for the successful

implementation of policies, public officials should be held accountable as individuals for their

actions in issues involving public resources.

“A democratic policy process assumes that all interests within a society can participate in the

public debate to influence government policies” (Bernstein, 1995). This includes the interests

of government, business, labour, and civil society to guarantee the successful implementation

of the policies. “These groups will help the government to avoid reliving the terrible mistakes

of the past in the implementation of policy” (Bernstein, 1995). In a democracy, these groups’

influence on the public policy process are important ingredients in getting results. “Capacity

building workshops around adherence to Batho Pele principles must be instilled to all

stakeholders, more importantly the foot soldiers (implementers), the do’s and don’ts must also

be instilled” (Ngidi and Dorasamy, 2013:49).

9. Conclusion

The study has been able to show the challenges facing the implementation of public policies in

South Africa since the dawn of democracy. The study has revealed that South Africa has been

unable to implement policies successfully because of challenges such as: the government’s

inability to involve the public in policy process, the public’s failure to follow public policies,

the exclusion of people’s cultural and value systems, a lack of trust in leadership, insufficient

capacity, bureaucratic systems, setting unrealistic goals, and corruption. This means that not

much is happening in terms of improving the socioeconomic conditions and lives of ordinary

citizens. There is therefore a need to engage seriously in an adequate and appropriate response

by enforcing training and education, accountability, transparency, and the Batho-Pele

initiatives for successful policy implementation.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 167

References

Abolafia, M.Y., Dodge, J.E. and Jackson, S.K. (2014). The Oxford Handbook of Sociology,

Social Theory, and Organisation Studies: Contemporary Currents. New York: The State

University of New York.

Ajulor, O.V. (2018). The Challenges of Policy Implementation in Africa and Sustainable

Development Goals. PEOPLE: International Journal of Social Sciences, 3(3): 1497-1518.

Bailey, C. (2013). Mathale ‘blocks’ corruption probe. [online]. Available at:

https://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/mathale-blocks-corruption-probe-1499916. [Accessed 30

Jul. 2020].

Bernstein, A. (1995). Policy-making in a new SA needs a different look. [online]. Available at:

https://www.cde.org.za/policy-making-in-a-new-sa-needs-a-different-look.htm. [Accessed 30

Jul. 2020].

Bidandi, F. (2007). Effect of Poor Implementation of Housing Policy in the Western Cape: A

Case study of Khayelitsha Site C. Master’s Degree in Administration. Cape Town: University

of the Western Cape.

Bloomberg, L.D. and Volpe, M. (2012). Completing your qualitative dissertation: A road map

from beginning to end. 2nd ed. Los Angeles: Sage.

Bob, T. (2018). Challenges of Public Participation in the Implementation of Portable Toilets

in South Africa: A case study of Makhaza Area in Cape Town. Master of Public Administration.

Cape Town: University of the Western Cape.

Booysen, S. (2012). Local elections in South Africa: Parties, People, Politics. Bloemfontein:

Sun Press, pp. 351-359.

Braun, V. and Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research

in Psychology, 3, pp. 77–101.

Braun, V. and Clarke, V. (2013). Successful qualitative research: A practical guide for

beginners. London: SAGE.

Brynard, P., Cloete, F. and De Coning, C. (2011). Policy implementation. 3rd ed. Pretoria: Van

Schaik.

Carter, R.; Lubinsky, J. and Domholdt, E. (2011). Rehabilitation Research: Principles and

Applications. 4th Edition. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Saunders.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 168

Chirume, J. (2018). PE residents homeless because of poorly built RDP houses. [online].

Available at: https://www.groundup.org.za/article/short-lived-joy-after-getting-rdp-house/

[Accessed 30 Jul. 2020].

Choy, L.T. (2014). The Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methodology: Comparison and

Complimentary between Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Journal of Humanities and

Social Science, 19, pp. 99-104.

Cloete, F. (2011). Public policy in more and lesser developed states. (In Cloete, F. & De

Coning, C., ed. Improving public policy: theory, practice and results. 3rd edition. Pretoria: Van

Schaik. p. 66- 84).

Cochran, C.L. and Malone, E.F. (2014). Public Policy: Perspectives and Choices. 5th ed.

Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

Cook, L. (2019). Critical issues of the public service of 2020. In: The Public Sector Conference.

[Online] Wellington: Institute of Public Administration New Zealand, page 10. Available at:

https://ipanz.org.nz/Event?Action=View&Event_id=810. [Accessed: 16 September 2020].

Cuervo-Cazurra, A. (2014). Transparency and corruption. In J. Forssbæck & L. Oxelheim

(Eds.), The Oxford handbook of economic and institutional transparency. New York, NY:

Oxford University Press.

Damoah, I.S., Akwei., C.A., Amoako, I.O. and Botchie, D. (2018). Corruption as a Source of

Government Project Failure in Developing Countries: Evidence from Ghana. Project

Management Journal, 49(3), pp. 17-33.

Ebrahim, T. and Masiangoako, T. (2019). Reflecting on South Africa’s socioeconomic

progress. [Online]. Available: https://www.constitutionhill.org.za/blog/reflecting-on-south-

africas-socioeconomic-progress.htm. [Accessed: 20 September 2020].

Ellene, L. and Kumar, S. (2019). Determinants of Saving Behavior and Financial Problem: A

survey of employees in Cikarang. Bekasi Regency: President University.

FitzGerald, C., O’Malley, E. and Ó Broin, D. (2019). Policy success/policy failure: A

framework for understanding policy choices. Administration, 67(2), pp. 1-24.

Freedman, W. (2013). Understanding the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. Cape

Town: Juta Law.

Gjinovci, A. (2016). The impact of nepotism and corruption on the economy and HR.

Economic and Environmental Studies, 16(3), pp. 421-434.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 169

Graycar, A. (2017). Corruption: Classification and analysis. Policy and Society, 34(2), pp. 87-

96.

Gumede, V. (2015). Public policy making in a post-apartheid South Africa: A preliminary

perspective. Unisa Press Africanus, 38(2), pp. 7-23.

Habib, A. (2015). Send in the competent in place of the Cadres. Sunday Times, 4 January.

[online]. p. 17. Available at: https://www.timeslive.co.za/sunday-times/lifestyle/2015-01-04-

send-in-the-competent-in-place-of-the-cadres.htm. [Accessed 17 July 2020].

Hoornbeek, J.A. and Peters, B.G. (2017). Understanding policy problems: A refinement of past

work. Journal of Policy and Society, 36(3): pp. 365-384.

Imurana, B.A., Haruna, R.K. and Kofi, A.N. (2014). The politics of public policy and problems

of implementation in Africa: an appraisal of Ghana’s National Health Insurance Scheme in Ga

East District. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 4 (4), pp. 196-207.

Institute for Work and Health. (2008). Sample size and power. [Online]. Available:

https://www.iwh.on.ca/what-researchers-mean-by/sample-size-and-power.htm. [Accessed: 20

September 2020].

Kaufmann, E. (2017). Complexity and nationalism. Nations and Nationalism, 23(1), pp. 6-25.

Khan, A.R. and Khandaker, S. (2016). A Critical Insight into Policy Implementation and

Implementation Performance. Public policy and administration, 15(4), pp. 538-548.

Koma, S.B. (2010). The state of local government in South Africa: Issues, Trends and Options.

Journal of Public Administration, 45(1), pp. 111-120.

Kota, Z., Hendricks, M., Matambo, E. and Naidoo, V. (2017). The governance of basic

education in the Eastern Cape. ESID Working Paper No. 83. Manchester, United Kingdom.

Available at: https://ideas.repec.org/p/bwp/bwppap/esid-083-17.html [Accessed: 20

September 2020].

Lekalake, R. and Nkomo, S. (2016). South Africans Demand Government Accountability amid

Perceptions of Growing Corruption. Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 126. Cape Town. [pdf].

Available at:

https://afrobarometer.org/sites/default/files/publications/Dispatches/ab_r6_dispatchno126_so

uth_africa_state_capture_and_accountability.pdf. [Accessed: 20 September 2020].

Linde, J. and Peters, Y. (2020). Responsiveness, support, and responsibility: How democratic

responsiveness facilitates responsible government. Party Politics, 26(3), pp. 291-304.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 170

Linneberg, M.S. and Korsgaard, S. (2019). Coding qualitative data: A synthesis guiding the

novice. Qualitative Research Journal, 19(3), pp. 259-270.

Lues, L. (2014). Citizen participation as a contributor to sustainable democracy in South Africa.

International Review of Administrative Sciences, 80(4), pp. 789-807.

Maguire, M. and Delahunt, B. (2017). Doing a Thematic Analysis: A Practical, Step-by-Step

Guide for Learning and Teaching Scholars. All Ireland Journal of Teaching and Learning in

Higher Education, 9(3), pp. 335.

Makhetha, M.T. (2015). A policy making framework for social assistance in South Africa: The

case of the Department of Social Development and the South African Social Security Agency.

Master of Arts in Public Administration. Potchefstroom: North-West University.

Makinde, T. (2005). Problems of Policy Implementation in Developing Nations: The Nigerian

Experience. Journal of Social Science, 11(1): 63-69.

Malakoane, B., Heunis, J.C., Chikobvu, P., Kigozi, N.G. and Kruger, W.H. (2020). Public

health system challenges in the Free State, South Africa: a situation appraisal to inform health

system strengthening. Biomedical Central Health Services Research, 20(1), p. 58.

Malek, J.A., Lim, S. and Tahir, Z. (2019). Understanding the issues of citizen participation.

Journal of Nusantara Studies, 4 (1), pp. 1-22.

Maluleke, H.M. (2015). Curriculum policy implementation in the South African education

context: Reference to environmental education in the natural sciences. Doctor of Education.

Pretoria: University of South Africa.

Maluleke, T.S. (2015). Between Pretoria and George Goch Hostel: God in South Africa in

2015. New Agenda, 59, pp. 35-39.

Managa, A. (2012). Unfulfilled promises and their consequences: A reflection on local

government performance and the critical issue of poor service delivery in South Africa. Africa

Institute of South Africa. Briefing No 76. [pdf]. [Online]. Available: http://www.ai.org.za/wp-

content/uploads/downloads/2012/05/No.-76.-Unfulfilled-promises-and-their-consequences.-

A-reflection-on-local-government-performance-and-the-critical-issue-of-poor-service-

delivery-in-South-Africa..pdf. [Accessed: 20 September 2020].

Maphalla, S.T. (2013). Financial performance of local government: Evidence from South

Africa. MPhil in Development Finance. Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University.

Marume, S.B., Mutongi, C. and Madziyire, N.C. (2016). An Analysis of Public Policy

Implementation. Journal of Business and Management, 18(4), pp. 86-93.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 171

Marzuki, A. (2015). Challenges in the public participation and the decision-making process.

Sociologija i prostor, 201(1), pp. 21-39.

Mashwama, N., Aigbavboa, C. and Thwala, D. (2019). The Impact of Construction Dispute on

Projects in the Mpumalanga Province of South Africa. Proceedings of the Creative

Construction Conference (2019) 063. [pdf]. Johannesburg: Budapest University of

Technology and Economics & Diamond Congress Ltd, pp. 455-456. Available at:

file:///C:/Users/mecer/Downloads/disputeCCC2019_proceedings0717.pdf. [Accessed 25 June

2020].

Masuku, M.M. and Jili, N.N. (2019). Public service delivery in South Africa: The political

influence at local government level. Journal of Public Affairs, 19 (4), pp. 1935.

Mavhungu, T.C. (2011). The non-payment for municipal services in the Vhembe District

Municipality. Master of Public Administration. Pretoria: University of South Africa.

McGann, J.G. (2014). "Global Go To Think Tank Index Report" (2015). TTCSP Global Go To

Think Tank Index Reports. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. [online]. Available at:

http://repository.upenn.edu/think_tanks/8. [Accessed 25 Aug. 2020].

McConville, J. and Rosemarin, A. (2012). Urine diversion dry toilets and greywater system,

Erdos City, Inner Mongolia autonomous region, China - Case study of sustainable sanitation

projects. Ordos City: Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA).

McNabb, D.E. (2010). Case Research in Public Management. New York: M.E Sharpe

Publishers.

Merriam, S.B. and Tisdell, E.J. (2016). Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and

Implementation. 4th ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Mkhize, N., Taylor, M., Udert, K.M., Gounden, T.G. and Buckley, C.A. (2017). Urine

diversion dry toilets in eThekwini Municipality, South Africa: acceptance, use and

maintenance through users’ eyes. Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for

Development, 7(1), pp. 111-120.

Mohajan, H. (2018). Qualitative Research Methodology in Social Sciences and Related

Subjects. Journal of Economic Development, Environment and People, 7(1), pp. 23-48.

Mohammadi, S.H., Norazizan, S. and Nikkhah, H.A. (2018). Conflicting perceptions on

participation between citizens and members of local government. Quality and Quantity, 52(4),

pp. 1761-1778.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 172

Moolla, R.K. and Block, N.L. (2011). Housing satisfaction and quality of life in RDP houses

in Braamfischerville Soweto: A South African Case study. Urban Izziv (Urban Challenges),

22 (1): 138-143.

Morris, C. (2015). Caregiver Utilization of Internet and Social Media Regarding Child Oral

Health: A Pilot Study. Bon Secours Pediatric Dental Associates.

Morris, P. and Scott, I. (2003). Educational Reform and Policy Implementation in Hong Kong.

Journal of Education Policy, 18 (1): 71-84.

Mthetwa, B.S.V. (2014). A comprehensive model for the implementation of national public

policies and guidelines: Empangeni Education District. Doctor of Philosophy in Public

Management. Potchefstroom: North-West University.

Muers, S. (2018). Culture, Values and Public Policy: IPR Policy Fellow and Head of Strategy

and Market Development - Big Society Capital. IPR Report September 2018. United Kingdom.

[pdf]. Available at: https://www.bath.ac.uk/publications/culture-values-and-public-

policy/attachments/CultureValuesandPublicPolicy.pdf. [Accessed 12 Aug. 2020].

Naidoo, V. (2013). The politics of anti-corruption enforcement in South Africa. Journal of

Contemporary African Studies, 31(4), pp. 523-542.

National Planning Commission. (2011). National Development Plan 2030: Our future-make it

work. Executive Summary. Pretoria: Government Printer.

National Planning Commission. (2012). Our future make it happen: Executive Summary -

National Development Plan 2030. [online]. Available at:

http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/Executive%20Summary-NDP%202030%20-

%20Our%20future%20-%20make%20it%20work.pdf. [Accessed 15 Aug. 2020].

Ndalamba, K. (2018). Leadership ethos and culturally oriented strategic management: a

conceptual framework and research propositions. Journal of Values-Based Leadership, Vol.

11 No. 2, pp. 60-70.

Nicolson, G. (2019). E-tolls have failed: Now for the R20bn question — how to pay the debt?

[online]. Available at: https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2019-07-09-e-tolls-have-

failed-now-for-the-r20bn-question-how-to-pay-the-debt/. [Accessed 15 Aug. 2020].

Ngidi, T.L. and Dorasamy, N. (2013). Challenges on Application of Batho Pele Principles: A

case study of Department of Home Affairs, Durban Regional Office. Bangladesh e-Journal of

Sociology, Volume 10 Number 1.

Ntoyanto, S. (2019). A Critique of Anti-Corruption Measures Implemented in the Post-1994

South African Public Sector. In: The 4th Annual International Conference on Public

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 173

Administration and Development Alternatives 03 - 05 July 2019. Johannesburg: University of

South Africa, pp. 430.

Nwankwo, W.T. (2017). Perceptions of Nepotism and Cronyism on Employees’ Job

Satisfaction in the Public Sector: A Case Study of ILembe District Municipality. Master of

Business Leadership. Durban: University of KwaZulu-Natal.

Oginni, S.O. and Moitui, J.N. (2015). Social Media and Public Policy Process in Africa:

Enhanced Policy Process in Digital Age. The Journal of Sustainable Development, 14(2), pp.

158-172.

Parliamentary Liaison Office. (2017). PDR Housing: Success or failure?. Southern African

Catholic Bishop’s Conference. Briefing paper 432. Cape Town. [pdf]. Available at:

http://www.cplo.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/BP-432-RDP-Housing-May-2017.pdf.

[Accessed: 20 September 2020].

Patton, M.Q. (2015). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage.

Paul, A. (2010). The implementation of the 1997 White Paper for Social Welfare with specific

reference to children in conflict with the law: A Case Study of the Mangaung One Stop Child

Justice Centre. Master of Public Administration. Cape Town: University of the Western Cape.

Pillay, Y. (2001). Voices of health policy makers and public health managers: Key themes.

Voices of health policy makers, pp. 273-281.

Qiu, M., Sawadogo-Lewis, T., Ngale, K., Cane, R.M., Magaço, A. and Roberton, T. (2019).

Obstacles to advancing women’s health in Mozambique: a qualitative investigation into the

perspectives of policy makers. Global Health Research and Policy, 4, p. 28.

Ramaphosa, C. (2020). President Cyril Ramaphosa appoints committee to focus on alleged

Coronavirus COVID-19 corruption. [online] Available at:

https://www.gov.za/speeches/president-cyril-ramaphosa-appoints-committee-focus-alleged-

coronavirus-covid-19-corruption.htm. [Accessed 31 Aug. 2020].

Rangongo, P., Mohlakwana., M. and Beckmann, J. (2016). Causes of financial mismanagement

in South African public schools: The views of role players. South African Journal of Education,

36(3), p. 10.

Reddy, P.S. (2016). The politics of service delivery in South Africa: The local government

sphere in context. The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa, 12(1), p.

337.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 174

Republic of South Africa. (1996). Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Act No.

108 of 1996). Pretoria: Government Printers.

Republic of South Africa. (1996). Public Protector’s report on systematic investigations into

allegations of poor service delivery and maladministration by the municipalities, 2016.

Pretoria: Government Printers.

Robins, S. (2014). The 2011 Toilet Wars in South Africa: Justice and Transition between the

Exceptional and the Everyday after Apartheid. Development and Change, 4593, pp. 479-501.

Saldaña, J. (2015). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Shava, E. and Chamisa, S.F. (2018). Cadre Deployment Policy and Its Effects on Performance

Management in South African Local Government: A Critical Review. Politeia, 37(1), p. 18.

Signe, L. (2017). Policy Implementation – A synthesis of the Study of Policy Implementation

and the Causes of Policy Failure. Rabat: OCP Policy Center.

Sileyew, K.J. (2019). Research Design and Methodology. [online] Available at:

https://www.intechopen.com/books/cyberspace/research-design-and-methodology. [Accessed

31 Aug. 2020].

Silima, T.M. (2017). Public Policy Process Study Guide. Master of Arts in Public Management

and Governance. Thohoyandou: University of Venda.

Sleet, P. (2019). South Africa Plans to Address its Water Infrastructure Crisis, but a Lack of

Funds, Mismanagement and Corruption Challenge Progress. [online] Available at:

https://www.futuredirections.org.au/publication/south-africa-plans-to-address-its-water-

infrastructure-crisis-but-a-lack-of-funds-mismanagement-and-corruption-challenge-progress/.

[Accessed 31 Aug. 2020].

Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa. (2019). Strengthening the role of civil society

in holding the police accountable for human rights violations. Workshop Report 17 April 2019.

[pdf]. Available at: http://apcof.org/wp-

content/uploads/seriissapcofworkshopreport18and19march2019johannesburg.pdf. [Accessed

25 Aug. 2020].

South African Human Rights Commission. (2006). Reflections on Democracy and Human

Rights: A Decade of the South African Constitution (Act 108 of 1996). [pdf]. Available at:

https://www.sahrc.org.za/home/21/files/Reports/Reflection%20of%20democracy%20and%2

0human%20rights_10%20year%20review_%20200.pdf. [Accessed 25 Aug. 2020].

Statistics South Africa (Stats SA). (2011). Statistical release. Pretoria. [pdf]. Available at:

http://www.statssa.gov.za.pdf. [Accessed 16 Aug. 2020].

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 175

Stewart, J.J., Hedge, D.M. and Lester, J.P. (2008). Public policy: An evolutionary approach.

Boston: Thomson Wordsworth.

Šumah, S. (2018). Corruption Causes and Consequences, Trade and Global Market, Vito

Bobek. [online]. Available at: https://www.intechopen.com/books/trade-and-global-

market/corruption-causes-and-consequences [Accessed 2 Aug. 2020].

The Foundation for Human Rights. (2016). Socio-economic Rights — Progressive realisation?

[online]. [pdf]. Available at:

https://www.saferspaces.org.za/uploads/files/Socio_Economic_Rights_Progressive_Realisati

on.pdf. [Accessed 2 Aug. 2020].

Tebele, M.M. (2016). Problems and challenges related to public policy implementation within

the South African democratic dispensation: A theoretical exploration. MA Political Studies.

Potchefstroom: North-West University.

Teshome, B.W. (2008). Democracy and elections in Africa: Critical analysis. International

Journal of Human Sciences, 5(2), pp. 1303-5134.

Thipanyane, T. (2016). Strengthening Constitutional Democracy: Progress and Challenges of

the South African Human Rights Commission and Public Protector. New York Law School Law

Review, 60(1), pp. 22-63.

TollfreeGP. (2011). DA's anti-toll road campaign. [online]. Available at:

https://www.news24.com/Wheels/DAs-anti-toll-road-campaign-20111005. [Accessed 2 Aug.

2020].

Twala, C. (2014). The causes and socio-political impact of the service delivery protests to the

South African citizenry: A real public discourse. Journal of Social Sciences, 39(2), pp. 159-

167.

United Nations Water (2015). UN-Water; Understand what is happening around the 2030

Agenda for Sustainable Development; Interact in our campaigns. [pdf]. Available at:

https://www.unwater.org/fileadmin/user_upload/unwater_new/docs/sanitation.pdf. [Accessed

16 Aug. 2020].

Van der Westhuizen, M. and Swart, I. (2015). The struggle against poverty, unemployment,

and social injustice in present-day South Africa: Exploring the involvement of the Dutch

Reformed Church at congregational level. Stellenbosch Theological Journal, 1 (2):731–759.

Viljoen, G. and Van der Walt, K. (2018). South Africa’s water crisis – an interdisciplinary

approach. The Journal of Humanities, vol.58, n.3, pp.483-500.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 176

Organisational Stress in the South African Telecommunications Industry

Tinuade A. Ojo

Damelin

Tinuade.ojo@damelin.co.za

The current Covid-19 pandemic has had a massive impact on employees' health and has limited

employee performance within the workplace. Many industries and their workers have been

affected, and most employees are experiencing stress levels unlike any the corporate world has

ever experienced. Research shows that work stress in different organisations is that which

demands excessive pressures that are not compatible to workers' knowledge and abilities,

because there is no opportunity to practice any choice or control, and there is no support from

others. Although the government has tried to provide support systems to different industries,

some workers have been retrenched, and the remaining staff in most industries are working

under extreme pressure and duress as they are expected to work beyond their standard

capacity.

The study highlights the factors that cause stress in the South African telecommunications

industry and their impact on organisational performance. Using a stress model in a

quantitative study of current research, participants were chosen using random sampling. The

study findings highlight that employees are experiencing work stress on different levels. As

such, the study recognises that a better policy approach to address workers stress levels is

needed to enhance organisational productivity.

Keywords: Organisational stress, telecommunications industry, Covid-19, South Africa.

1. Introduction

Employee stress is a topic that needs to be studied to boost the performance of

organisations. In recent days, employee stress has been growing in a large number of

organisations, threatening the productivity of companies. Stress involves life

circumstances, which usually occurs when employees lack opportunities, are

constrained, or loses something valuable (Lipman, 2019). Symptoms of stress include

absenteeism, the deterioration of work, arguing, overreacting, and improper eating

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 177

habits, and can lead to serious health illness (Roozeboom, Schelvis, Hootman, Wiezer,

and Bongers, 2020).

Ongoing performance management can create an environment where employees are

comfortable sharing their experiences, knowing that their organisation can adequately

handle and manage sensitive issues. It is no mistake when leaders develop a culture of

support. Real-time feedback and coaching can help to improve engagement and

attendance. It can also help employees to cope with workplace stress and to deal with

their overall health (King and Beehr, 2017). This article explains the mitigating factors

affecting organisational stress using the telecommunication industry as a case study.

1.1 Stress

Stress is experienced when an individual reacts to or faces unpredictable or

uncontrollable changes or challenges different from the daily experiences. Most often

for workers it entails changes that need to be put in to meet up with the work demand.

Stress is a “powerful condition where the apparent outcome and the preferred outcome

both are equally important and unknown at the same time” (Roozeboom et al., 2020).

Researchers have carefully observed stress and have figured out that the condition of

stress or the single term 'stress' can either excite pressure or create tension, which might

be damaging (Lipmann 2019, King and Beehr, 2017). If the state of stress is unpleasant,

it may turn into negativity and have a negative impact on the person; under these

circumstances, the person is commonly termed as ‘distressed’. Most often, strategic

management in corporate industries set specific targets for repositioning and meeting

sales. Statistics have shown that the impact of such changes leads to unhealthy and

unreasonable pressures resulting in stress and suffering (Bucuren & Madalina-Adriana,

2011, Miche, 2002). Employees becomes physically and emotionally drained due to

intense labour and long working shifts. And consequently, impact the organisational

productivity and may lead to financial loss (Mbidioka 2017, Miche, 2002). Stress

relating to production or manufacturing, directly affects the output of work, resulting in

a low amount of output for the company (Kim and Beehr, 2020). The industry under

discussion in this paper is a sales department within a telecommunications organisation.

2. Problem statement

Stress is an ongoing discussion in the global economy due to the Covid-19 pandemic. The

coronavirus has shattered many individual livelihoods, businesses, all industries of life and

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 178

society (Hamouche, 2020). Many people have lost their jobs, families, homes and income due

to the pandemic. This has increased stress levels, especially in the working sector. Aside from

the general causes of work stress which have been highlighted in earlier studies, all

organisational management have been encouraged to put adequate preventive measures in

place within the workplace to prevent the spread of the disease (Sahni, 2020). This additional

cost, coupled with the long months of lockdown, has placed most industries at a disadvantage,

leading to the retrenchment of staff, demotions of senior-level staff, and reductions in wages

and salaries. The adverse effect of these factors has placed most workers at a higher stress level

(Goddard, Atwell & Morris, 2020).

In the telecommunications industry, most employees have had to work under intense pressure,

even during the lockdown. This is because technology was the only means for communication,

collaboration, networking, socialisation, working and shopping during the lockdown. The

remaining staff who were not impacted by organisational restructuring and retrenchments had

to work additional job shifts to answer to the massive customer services awaiting the industry.

This study argues that all corporate management in the telecommunications industry must show

exemplary strong leadership and show support to their staff and families during this pandemic

to assist in reducing their mental and physical stress.

3. Research Objectives

● To determine the various factors that create employee stress.

● To identify the level of stress that affects the performances of the employees.

● To critically assess the impact that employee stress has on organisational

performance and their health.

● To recommend ways for reducing the stress level of employees at the workplace.

4. Research Questions

1. What are the factors that create employee stress?

2. What level of stress affects employee performance?

3. To what extent does the employee's stress have an impact over health and

organisational performance?

4. What are the suggestive measures for reducing employee stress?

5. The rationale of the study

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 179

The constant daily demands of the contemporary modern work environment have led to

unavoidable stress, which limits employees' health and business performance. It has

been noted that there is confusion between pressure and stress, and that this has been

used to excuse bad management practice (Lipman, 2019; Higgins, Tewksbury and

Denney, 2012).

Stress occurs in a wide range of work environments. It is often exacerbated when

employees feel that they have no support from senior management and colleagues,

which demotivate them and hinders effective production. Work-related stress can be

caused by an unstructured organisation, unorganised work design, poor management,

unhappy employees, little or no support from colleagues and management, among other

factors. If measures are effectively put into place, there are situations where employees

can avoid experiencing work-related stress. Control can be exercised over their work

and the way they do it if adequate support is received from supervisors and colleagues.

When people feel their contribution to the organisation's success is undervalued, this

can result in low productivity, ineffective decision making, poor timekeeping and

absenteeism (Lipman, 2019; Higgins, 2012). It is therefore important to identify the

factors that create stress among an organisation’s employees.

6. Literature Review

6.1 Concept of Stress

Stress is a reality in our everyday life, it is seen as a way human body response to

physical and emotional changes (Roozeboom et al., 2020). As mentioned above, stress

occurs in most organisation due to workload pressures. Specialists of this field believe

that work pressure and stress are often viewed as comparable situations, while in a real

sense, the words are distinct (Jahanian, Tabatabaei, and Behdad, 2012).

Stress has several definitions, but what makes these definitions similar is that stress is

‘caused by a physical or emotional provocation to which an individual's reactions may

vary’ (Miche, 2017, Goddard et al, 2020). Individuals adapt themselves to stressful

situations in various ways. Simulations are also stress factors, and these stress factors

can be of a physical or emotional nature. Naturally, the degree of stress varies from one

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 180

individual to another (Roozeboom et al., 2020; Wolever, Bobinet, McCabe, Mackenzie,

Fekete, Kusnick, and Baime, 2012). For some, it can be ‘mild stress’ while others have

‘acute stress’. Mild stress occurs as a temporary situation with no complications on the

individual. However, acute stress occurs with serious complications such as

hypertension, heart attacks, stroke, chronic diseases not to mention a few (Roozeboom

et al., 2020).

6.2 Stresses at the workplace

There are different definitions of work-related stress. According to the World Health

Organization (2017), work stress emerges from people's responses to the additional

demands and pressures presented at work which may not necessarily match their knowledge

and abilities and possibly challenge their ability to cope. According to Mbiodoaka (2017)

and Rasool et al., (2020) workplace stress refers to a situation in which some characteristics

of the work situation are thought to cause poor psychological or physical health or to cause

risk factors making poor health (Rasool et al., 2020; Mbidoaka, 2017). As mentioned earlier,

stress may occur in a wide range of work circumstances and is often made worse when

employees feel they have little support from supervisors and colleagues, as well as little

control over work processes.

At a workplace, an employee is assigned to specific projects and assignments aligned

with specific deadlines which the individual may be unable to meet. This was affirmed

by Rahim (2017) feels that workplace-stress (also termed 'occupational stress’) is a

situation which arises from the demands of the work situation the urgency of the

situation or lack of time. High-stress levels often lead to mental pressure that can also

harm the individual’s performance (Wolever et al., 2012). This can lead to both physical

and physiological ill-health.

Numerous variables can cause pressure. Previous works of literature such as Jackson

(2016) and Jong (2017) have shown present-day life and modern lifestyles to be a

significant cause of stress. According to them, modern life attributes such as ‘constant

usage of technology’, ‘too much workload at the same time’, ‘higher price standard of

living’, ‘not prioritising enough’, ‘pollution’ amongst many. All these factors contribute

to the frequent stress level experienced nowadays. As stated by the World Health

Organisation (2017), and supported by Cooper and Marshall (2013), “stress has become

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 181

a disease”. Researchers have asserted that the stress exhibited by employees is because

of the fear of the operational activities of modern-day organisations, financial pressures,

workplace demand and hectic schedules which have negative impact on their health.

Furthermore, the nature of working conditions implemented within the workplace

enable administrators and associations to utilise fear and stress as a key for control or

for the increment of the organisational efficiency. Different studies on stress at the

workplace have identified various stress-causing stimulants. These include disregard of

a person's capabilities, conflicting work duties, biased wages, uncertain job stability,

fretfulness and exhaustion, association with partners, subjective condition of machines

and workplace safety (Rasool, Wang, Zhang, and Saama, 2020). In addition to this,

administrative harassment, innovative changes, undesirable workplaces, heavier

workloads, and expanded business travel can increase employees stress level within the

organisation. Jahanian et al (2012) cited an example of 20 per cent of U.S. managers

and experts working no less than 60 hours per week and nearly all of them are on called

24 hours a day for customers worldwide, resulting to increase in stress level for most

American corporate workers. (Jahanian et al. 2012).

Jahanian et al. (2012), further classified workplace stress into four categories, namely,

time stress, situational stress, encounter stress, and anticipatory stress. Time stress is

experienced by most employees in today's workplaces. This is because most employees

feel stress to complete tasks in a proper manner within the given deadlines. Cooper and

Marshall (2013) noted that anticipatory stress occurs due to a lack of confidence.

Employees often are afraid that their work will not be interesting or praised by their

managers. Thus, it can be said that the fear of their work being unsatisfactory creates

anticipatory stress in the minds of employees. According to Mcfadden and Altamirano

(2020), situational stress arises due to conflicts that arise as a result of changes on

working conditions within the workplace. Most often, capacity training and conflict

resolution skills are required to manage situational stress within an organisation. For the

“encounter stress”, this usually occurs when an employee encounters negativity or

undesirable behaviour with their colleagues or the employers of labour at the workplace.

It takes a matured mind with effective emotional intelligence and empathy to cope with

encounter stress within the organisation.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 182

The high numbers of workplace-stress cases are outlined in the literature review. It

becomes imperative to become aware of the stresses that employees face as they do their

work. If left unchecked, these can lead to severe mental, physical, and emotional stress,

which could lead to other problems (Jahanian et al., 2012). Examples of such problems

may include legal liability or a loss of motivation amongst employees, which can cause

a decrease in the overall efficiency of a firm or organisation (Jahanian et al., 2012).

While some stress-causing factors may be within the solving capabilities of the

organisation, other factors, such as divorce or the loss of a family member, are beyond

the organisation’s control. It is important, however, that the company takes care of such

individuals, both as a human gesture and for the welfare of the organisation.

Organisations tend to perform extraordinary and achieve the best outmost performance

if the staff’s needs are being addresses leading to a highly motivated team. Having an

effective team results in positive productivity leading to good profit and good brand

positioning. It can also help the organisation to attract the best possible potential

employees due to its good reputation.

6.3 Work Performance

For this study, the term "work performance" refers to a general principle underlying

most human behaviour, namely that in all social relationships the co-workers give and

expect something, (Higgins, 2012). Job performance refers to what a company expects

from its employees in term of quality and quantity (Rasool et al., 2020; Purwanto,

Bernarto, Asbari, Wijayanti and Hyun, 2020). Performance is a fundamental criterion

related to the outcomes and success of an organisation (Grigoroudis, Orfanoudaki, &

Zopounidis, 2012). Although the process of being evaluated and appraised is important

for all employees, performance appraisals can also be anxiety-provoking, since

individual workers are examined and judged during job-appraisals. Sometimes, the

person making performance judgment faces a threat in some cases, as well as

interpersonal strains and the responsibility of making decisions which can affect an

individual's livelihood (Mbidoaka, 2017; Lipman, 2019).

The effects of stress on employee productivity can be well noticed in an organisation.

Employees suffering from high stress levels have a lower level of engagement. They are

less productive and have higher absenteeism levels than those not working under

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 183

excessive pressure. Unfortunately, managers who attempt to find an optimal stress level

for their workgroups frequently find their efforts produce inconsistent or downright

harmful results (Roozeboom, 2020; Purwanto et al., 2020). One reason for this may be

that stress comes in more than one flavour. Red tape, organisational politics, and

bureaucracy are classified as ‘hindrance-oriented stressors. These sources of stress do

not usually contribute to the overall mission fulfilment of an organisation but rather

serve as distractions to it. ‘Challenge-oriented stressors’ include things such as heavy

workloads, deadlines and time pressure and directly contribute to the purpose of the

organisation (Wolkoff, 2020).

6.4 Factors that cause stress

6.4.1 Organisational Climate

The organisational climate, also as known as the ‘corporate climate', refers to the

‘culture’ of an organisation. Organisational climate are the guiding policies in a work

environment, perceived directly or indirectly by the employees, and are assumed to be

a major force in influencing employee behaviour (Roozeboom et al., 2020; Higgins,

2012). Organisational climate has been measured as a key factor sharpening the

employees’ attitudes and needs satisfaction for opportunities in the organisation (Al-

Kurdi, El-Haddadeh, and Eldabi, 2020). Variables included in the study of

organisational climate are organisation design, individual job characteristics, co-worker

relationships, direct supervision, culture/work environment, work processes,

communication, technology, and customer satisfaction (Rasool et al., 2020; Higgins,

2012). An organisation’s organisational climate is important as it plays a large role in

how individuals work together and may also significantly impact upon core aspects of

employment, such as job satisfaction and work performance. Organisational climate

determines employees' inter-relationships, the outcome and quality of end products,

time management skills and values, workplace rules and conflict, work delegation/job

descriptions, and control within the work environment (Rasool et al., 2020; Goh,

Jayaraman, Mostafiz, and Leow, 2020).

6.4.2 Workplace bullying

Workplace bullying involves an emotional or psychological punishment consciously

directed to a worker from another colleague. Most often this is personalised and relut in

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 184

negativity and unwanted behaviour in the workplace (Arynne, 2009). These negativity

and unwanted behaviour reflect an offensive and humiliating attitude showcasing from

one worker to another which is more psychological than physical. According to Arynne

(2009), these types of workplace bullying can be life threatening and have more

consequences if not addressed properly. Einarsen and Hoel (2001), argued that there are

two types of bullying: (a) work-related bullying, and (b) person-related bullying. Work-

related bullying entails behaviours such as giving an unreasonable deadline or

unmanageable workloads from a colleague to colleague or senior to junior worker, while

the person-related bullying relates to deliberate self-inflicted words, gossips or teasing

at the workplace and making undesirable jokes to afflict or mentally torture another

person (Einarsen & Hoel, 2001).

6.5 Theoretical framework

This study explains the factors contributing to the stress of employees within a specific

organisation or brand. Therefore, it is highly important to understand the various theories

and ideas relating to stress within the workplace. The study engaged with theory on stress

management to highlight the adaptability of employees to certain stressful situations and

its impact on their behaviour within the organisation. Realising the methods of managing

stress can help to deal with future stress issues within the workplace. Additionally,

learning about the process by which employment stress occurs can help the management

to make amendments to prevent these stress issues within the workplace.

Stress Management is highly effective in providing a descriptive review of the literature.

It helps to show an interrelation between various ideologies and thus contributes to the

better development of knowledge regarding these factors. Stress levels are highly

dependent on the job roles of employees within a brand (Bhui et al., 2012). Assigning

employees with the wrong job roles with a disregard for their proficiencies can lead to

the brand’s low performance as the employees will not be able to provide their best

performance to meet the job’s demands. Wrong job descriptions can lead to the

development of a negative mindset and low job satisfaction. This can increase in stress

in the workplace (Cooper, 2018). Additional factors such as low motivation and a lack

of respect are also highly interrelated to stress at the workplace.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 185

6.6 Stress Management

According to Cooper (2018), individuals undergo stress when they are under the

impression that they cannot manage troublesome occurrences. Troublesome

occurrences as mentioned in previous sections can be subjectively interpreted in many

phases and affects each individual in multiple ways. A useful stress model considers

stimulants such as job features (e.g., large workload, little autonomy, low social

welfare), the occurrence of adverse events (e.g., the demise of friends or family,

divorce), and other commitments outside of work (e.g., duties towards a reliant relative

or spouse) (Bhui et al., 2012). Conceptualising such stimulants of stress explains the

impact developed and solutions in mitigating stress and its symptoms (Scott and

Howard, 2017).

According to Bhui et al. (2012), stress has additionally been apparent by indications

such as anxiety, exasperation, or emotional pain. A different approach is to conjecture

that stress is a sign of the poor fit between a person and their condition. Stress is then

observed to emerge because of a disparity between the stimulants and how the individual

reacts to them in terms of, individual aptitudes to overcome stress, and interventions

developed to overcome it.

Value-based models conceptualise stress as something that reveals itself after some time

inside a progression of exchanges between the individual and their condition (Leiter,

2017). Stress emerges from and highlights the person's activities, opinions, perceptions,

and the attributes of their workplace. Organisational intercessions are those that

influence entire populaces or gatherings of individuals and incorporate work

environment changes or conflict resolution frameworks in the organisation (Rahim,

2017). It can be said that the environmental conflicts within the workplace create stress

in the minds of the employees.

Both the individual and the organisation are targeted in some interventions (such as

approaches to secure improved work-life stability and peer-support groups). Primary

mediations expect to keep the causal elements of stress; secondary intercessions plan to

decrease the seriousness or term of indications; and tertiary or reactive mediations

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 186

intend to give restoration and amplify working among those with interminable well-

being conditions (Bhui et al., 2012).

The firm needs to consider the efficiency of the employees to produce as much work as

possible for the most efficient labour price; they need to remain aware that their greatest

asset is their employees. This means that they should also invest in methods that ensure

that there is no wastage of resources while spending as much as they can afford to on

their employees to keep them motivated and ready for work.

Using the frameworks previously mentioned, it becomes possible to combat stress in

the workplace. The first step to each brilliant plan, to each successful endeavour, is

planning. As stated by Pignata et al. (2017), stress stands as the most significant issue

occurring in the workplace in recent days. Planning is the best step towards reducing

the stress of the employees within an organisation. It allows the organisation's employee

welfare to conceptualise the various types of stress. This a make for an easier job of

understanding the causes of stress on an individual or team and what can be done to

alleviate this. Pignata, Boyd, Winefield, and Provis (2017) further add that increasing

job security helps in reducing the stress of the employees. A lack of growth opportunities

and job insecurity are two causes of increased stress levels among employees. Increased

job security increases the flexibility and confidence of employees, thereby combating

stress.

An employee with a few less stressful conditions to think about is an employee that can

be of very high efficiency. The ways in which individuals react to stress varies from one

employee to another. From the figure 1.1, there are different sources of work stress as

indicated by Cooper and Marshall (2013), it ranges from intrinsic to job, role of

organisation, career development, relationship at work and organisational structure and

climate. All these sources affect workers differently as there are different ways of

handling job crisis. Even so, the stress model highlighted that the sources have a

negative symptom on the workers from anxiety on work crises, family and life crises to

ill health and deadly diseases (Cooper and Marshall 2011). This stress model was used

as an instrument for data collection in the study as it premised the objectives of study.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 187

Figure 1.1: Stress Model at Workplace: Process of Employment Stress

Source: Cooper and Marshall (2013: 20)

According to Cooper (2018), some significant stressors at the workplace include: role

ambiguity, conflict in the role, huge work pressure, discomfort at the workplace, and an

immense workload (see figure 1.1). Most often, when an organisation has a tight schedule,

employees are required to perform extra work, such as working late at night or working during

the weekend. This is a contributor to employee stress as every person is required just to follow

suit, and many people will do so, mostly because they need to make a living (Scott, 2017).

However, this does not imply that they can be as fast as every other employee, and they may

soon start experiencing problems such as not being able to deliver work on time or lacking

conversance with their job description, which creates a role ambiguity.

These are many such handicaps in the workplace that trigger various stress factors. Employees

may experience bullying by their superiors for a failure to deliver on work, or termination

warnings from the organisation’s oversight bodies if they do not understand their roles well

enough (Cooper, 2018). For a typical person, this would not only trigger stress because of one

situation, but it could make the person worry about many other uncertainties, such as job

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 188

security and career stagnation, among others. A stressed employee is less profitable to the

organisation. Cooper and Marshall (2013) believe that support by means of job feedback can

help to reduce the stress levels of employees.

6.6.1 Health Hazards Due to Employment Stress

According to the study by Bhui et al. (2012), the most common health hazards of employment

stress are depression and anxiety. Rahim (2017) further stresses that work pressure is often also

harmful to the health of employees. Employee who regularly experience stress are prone to

health risks. These conditions can be easily traced back to work stress. Anxiety can be caused

by work overload and extreme time pressures, as most of the time the employee is always

thinking about what they may have or may not have accomplished in their day's work, and such

pressures can lead to inadequate responses from demanding clients (Cooper and Marshall,

2013). Workplace bullying can also cause an employee to suffer from anxiety, as they become

unsure of their work while trying to please their managers, who they may come to fear.

According to Avey, Luthans and Jensen (2009), depression can be caused by a person being

uncertain of their worth, especially to the firm. This can be caused by career stagnation and

role ambiguity, as well as work-related aspects such as discrimination. Such factors are likely

to make an employee question their self-worth and can lead to depression, which has the

potential to have serious consequences.

Other imminent health hazards for persons experiencing stress in the workplace include

migraines and high blood pressure. People experiencing work-related stress may also exhibit

signs of drug and alcohol abuse and may smoke cigarettes, both of which may be as a result of

trying to increase their work efficiency or trying to alleviate the stress associated with their

jobs (Jahanian et al., 2012).

6.6.2 Work Stress Intervention and Prevention

Several sources have provided simple organisational practices that could be used to help

employees work under less stressful conditions. Such methods, according to Nwanzu and

Babalola (2019), include the creation of organisational plans that can help in the scheduling of

work and in making sure that the employees can work well within their capabilities to offer the

best possible outcome and make the organisation the most efficient. Several stress alleviation

methods can only be implemented by the organisation, but some must be implemented by the

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 189

employees themselves, such as proper time management (Bhui et al. 2012). Once an employee

takes upon a work task, it is important that they maintain a sense of discipline with their time.

Wolever et al. (2012) studied the use of mind-body stress alleviation programmes in the

workplace. The programmes include activities such as therapeutic yoga and other activities

based on connecting one's mind and body. Using a sample of 239 volunteer employees from

an insurance company in the United States, it was found that those who participated in this

form of intervention had reductions in their stress levels. As such, mindfulness activities such

as yoga can be used to reduce stress. In most cases, an organisation may prefer to prevent

workplace stress amongst its employees. As opined by Cooper (2018), an efficient strategy

towards this would be to ensure that the organisation is aware of the tasks must be performed

such that the employees are at no one time working outside their means.

6.6.3 Gap in the Literature

Previous researchers have focused on the performance of employees and how it relates to

employee satisfaction in the workplace (Yahaya et al., 2012; Olsen, Bjaalid, & Mikkelsen,

2017). In earlier studies, researchers have defined the concept of stress but have failed to

consider the factors responsible for it and the ways of reducing these in the workplace (Bruce

and Blackburn, 1992). The current researcher has worked hard to highlight the various

organisational stress factors that have a negative impact on the health of employees (Cooper &

Marshall, 2018; Rahim, 2017). In addition, this research has shown how the increased stress

levels of the employees deteriorate the performance of employees in the workplace. Some of

these stress factors include extreme work pressure and extra working periods. The current study

has further filled a gap left by earlier researchers by highlighting the importance of

organisational planning, job security, and providing growth opportunities at organisations in

reducing employee stress.

7. Research Method and Design

‘Research design’ refers to the approach that is taken to conduct the study and to organise its

different aspects in a manner that can answer the research questions. ‘Research methodology’

refers the implementation of the actions taken to collect and analyse the information (Creswell,

2017). This study used a quantitative methodology by conducting a survey to collect data for

statistical analysis. According to Brannen (2017), the quantitative methodology has two types

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 190

of research designs: a descriptive design and an experimental design. An experimental design

establishes causality, while descriptive research is the exploration and description of

phenomena in a real-life situation (Pickering and Byrne, 2014). Descriptive studies explain a

phenomenon or case study by providing an indepth information to the questions provided. The

study used the descriptive design to describe he factors that affect the stress levels of employees

since it is a scientific method that measures and observes with no specific influence about study

(Brannen 2017). To conduct a descriptive study like this, a sample size of 10% of the total

population would suffice (Pickering and Byrne, 2014). Following a positivist philosophy

enabled the researcher to make use of logic and ideas. It further aided the researcher in

identifying the stress factors. Reason and logic were furthermore used to depict the impact the

stress on the health and the performance of the employees.

The researcher used primary sources in the form of surveys which were used to collect

information from the participants from the sample population. The data collected was described

and analysed in a graphical analysis. The sample population of this study consisted mainly of

sales staff from the sales division of a telecommunications organisation (Huawei). This is

because they are prone to high levels of stress because of their various deadlines and targets.

The size of the sample selected consisted of 40 employees. The questionnaire made used of a

Likert scale using Cooper and Marshall’s Stress Model design, which was both administered

manually and emailed to the respondents (Creswell, 2012). Random sampling was used to

select the participants to increase the reliability and accuracy of the research findings. The

random sample was chosen to eliminate any bias in terms of human preferences and influences.

The analysis was done using statistical graphical representation.

8. Findings and Analysis

Employee stress is a significant concern for any organisation as it affects the performance of

the company. 40 employees of the sales division of the telecommunications organisation (South

Africa) were presented with surveys. The following section focuses on the findings derived

from these surveys. A quantitative analysis of the results was performed to help the researcher

to gain more in-depth insight into the research topic. Question was asked on the number of

years the employee has been working to ascertain their experience on the context of study. The

figure below presents the findings.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 191

Figure 1.2 Number of years working (n=40)

Source: (Ojo, 2020)

The above bar graph highlights that 50% (n=20) of the respondents have been working in the

present telecommunications organisation for less than one year. 20% (n=8) of the employees

responded that have been working in the organisation for more than a year. Only 18% (n=7)

and 12% (n=5) of employees were found to have worked in the organisation for six months

and less than six months, respectively.

The findings on the number of years working reveal that many of the employees (50%, n=20)

have been working in the telecommunications industry for less than a year. The findings also

show that the last category of the employees (12%) have worked in the present company for

less than six months. The findings indicate that there is a good employee turnover in the

organisation. Another question asked was on the extent of work pressure the employees are

going through within the workplace.

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%

Less than one year More than a year Six months Less than six months

50%

20% 18% 12%

0

00

0

Number of Years Working in the Organisation

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 192

Figure 1.3 Stress Level amongst Employees

Source: Ojo, (2020)

The above graph shows that 12% (n=5) of the respondents are of the opinion that there is not

much pressure placed on them in the telecommunications organisation. Most of the respondents

(63%; n=25), however, stated that they experience enormous pressure in the company. 20%

(n=8) of the respondents stated that the pressure they face in the organisation varies from time

to time. 5% (n=2) of the telecommunications organisation’s employees opined that there is a

moderate level of pressure in the mentioned organisation. It is important to note that many

employees working in the telecommunications organisation responded that they experience

massive work pressure. This extreme workload creates a stressful situation for employees.

Series 1

Series 2

Column1

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Not much

pressure

Lots of Pressure Pressure Varies Moderate

Pressure

Stress Level amongst Employees

0%-10% 10%-20% 20%-30% 30%-40% 40%-50% 50%-60% 60%-70%

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 193

Figure 1.4 Reasons for Work Pressure

Source: Ojo (2020)

Questions were asked in line with the Cooper and Marshall Stress Model as indicated in the

literature. The first stimulant of stress was ‘intrinsic to job’ in which 30% (n=12) indicate they

experience. Another 30% (n=12) also emphasise the second stimulant on ‘role of organisation’

as a stimulant for stress for them. The third stimulant on ‘career development ‘was attested by

20% (n=8) of the participants as reason for stress. 10% (n=4) indicated that ‘relationships to

work ‘is a key factor for stress for them while 50% (n=20) stated that ‘organisational climate

and structure ‘are the reasons for work pressure for them, due to lack of properly designed work

which makes them to work overtime. The failure to properly manage entire tasks by the

manager of the telecommunications organisation is the reason why respondents stated that they

experience huge work pressure. Before allocating tasks load, the workers attest that the

managers test the skills of the employees and then gives them a target, in which 30% (n=12)

as seen in the table above indicates are too hard to reach. Most participants argued that these

stress stimulants have both physical and psychological impact on the employees leading to

severe consequences as indicated on Cooper and Marshall’s Stress model.

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Intrinsic to Job (Poor working Conditions, Huge

Workload, Time Pressures)

Role in Organisation (Role Ambiguity, Role Conflict,

Strutural Boundaries)

Career Development (Over promotion, Under

promotion, Lack of Job Security, Thwarted ambition)

Relationships to work (Bad relations with colleagues,

subordinates and superior management, Inability to

Delegate work)

Organisational Structure and Climate ( No appropriate

work design systems, No participation in Managerial

decisions, Office Policies, insufficient…

Reasons for Work Pressure

Column1 Series 2 Series 1

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 194

Figure 1.4 Health Problems Experienced by Respondents

Source Ojo (2020)

In order to substantiate these findings, questions were further asked on the severe consequences

the stress has on the health of the participants.

The pie chart above shows that 20% (n=8) of respondents replied that they are suffering from

‘blood pressure problems’ due to job-related stress. 50% (n=20) of the employees stated that

they have experienced ‘depression’ due to organisational stress. 30% (n= 12) of the respondents

claimed that job stress had boosted their ‘anger’. Another 10% (n=4) explained that

‘concentration problems’ have occurred since they started experiencing stress while 20% (n=8)

further attest to ‘job dissatisfaction’ as a result of stress. The last point raised on implication of

stress on health, was ‘other deadly diseases ‘in which 5% (n=2) attest that they have had

mental-ill health due to the working and life crisis since they started working.

The findings, therefore, make it clear that many respondents are suffering from health issues.

This shows that the stress levels in the telecommunications organisation is affecting the health

of its employees negatively. The stress experienced by the employees of the

telecommunications organisation has resulted in a short-term psychological impact on their

bodies (refer to Figure 1.4). The symptoms of depression that are seen among the employees

of the telecommunications organisation include a lack of energy, laziness, tiredness, and

difficulties in making decisions (refer to Figure 1.4). It is also important to note that stress can

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Blood Pressure

Problems

Depression (lack

of energy,

laziness,

Tiredness)

Anger Concentration

Problems

Job Disatisfaction Other Deadly

Diseases

(Mental- ill

health)

Percentage Number

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 195

also have long-term effects on the employees. Uncontrolled or prolonged anger gives rise to

headaches and anxiety, thereby highly degrading their physical health (refer to Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.5: Impact of Stress on Organisational Performance

Source: Ojo (2020)

The study inquired on the impact of stress level on the organisational performance and the

findings presented indicated that 63% (n= 25) of employees agreed that stress level affects the

organisational performance while 37% (n= 15) of respondents answered that employee stress

level has no impact on the organisation.

The above findings demonstrate that many the telecommunications organisation’s employees

have noticed changes in the performance of the organisation due to employee’s stress level.

This indicate that if the organisation has a low organisational performance due to the

employee’s stress level then it will affect the organisation’s productivity as argued by

Grigoroudis, et al., (2012) in the literature.

9. Discussion and Summary of Findings

The findings of this study have helped to evaluate the factors responsible for creating employee

stress. Based on the data collected, the fist findings indicate that there is a huge employee stress

level in the organisation. The questions asked in line with the Cooper and Marshall stress model

indicates that the various factors affecting employees stress level still exists and prominent in

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Stress Level affects

Job Performance

Stress level Have no

Impact on Job

Performance

Impact of Stress on Organisational Performance

Percentage Number Column1

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 196

most industries. Furthermore, these factors have had and is still having adverse effects on the

employees ranging from depression, anger, job dissatisfaction, chronic or coronary diseases

and poor mental-ill health. The study also indicates that there is a connection between employee

performance and work stress. The results obtained from the survey have shown that excessive

workloads and closely spaced deadlines are two of the primary reasons that the employees of

the telecommunications organisation experience an excessive amount of stress. This extreme

work pressure also has a negative impact on the quality of their work as the employees do not

get enough time to complete the work successfully and has affected the reputation of the

company.

The survey further revealed that the employees of the telecommunications organisation

experience severe health issues because of the excessive work pressure and stress level they

endure. It is almost impossible for the workers to give their best work because, as per the

surveys with the employees, it is almost impossible to perform in a stress-inducing workplace.

Most of the employees stated that they have suffered from depression due to their work

environment. Others reported suffering from high blood pressure and excessive anger.

Recommendations for the employers of labours regarding work-related stress in the

organisation in line with the findings, include offering a flexible work environment for the

employees, giving incentives and rewards to worthy employees, discouraging multi-tasking,

communicating effectively with employees. If these are embedded, the study believes there

will be an improvement in work performance which may likely result in better productivity

within the organisation.

10. Conclusion

The study helps to understand the effects of excessive work pressure. The study presents the

factors affecting employee performance and stimulants of high-stress level for employees

within a South African telecommunications organisation. Considering the Covid-19 pandemic,

this year as people were forced to stay at home during lockdown and with many experiencing

a reduction in their wages and rewards, the stress level of most employees has risen abruptly

this year. Many have lost their jobs, and others have been demoted, leading to a reduction in

wages. All these factors have witnessed higher statistics of stress in the country than ever seen

before (Goddard et al., 2020). From the findings of this research, it can be concluded that

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 197

extreme work pressures, incorrect job role allocations, and the low motivation of employees

contribute to an overall increase in stress within the workplace.

The study recommends different ways of fostering a stress-free work environment. It is

important that the employers motivate and understand their employees and create facilities that

enable the employees to relax. A relaxed atmosphere reduces work pressure and promotes

better work performance, as do incentives and monetary rewards for good work performance.

Organisational management should promote better compensation practices which are

sustainable and beneficial to the employees within the workplace. Effective communication is

another critical strategy that needs to be intensified in most organisations. Statistics have

revealed a communication gap between employers and employees, which has led to bad

strategic decisions and a loss of profit within the workplace (Argus & Samson, 2021). A proper

structural communication strategy must be put in place for employees to have the ethical sense

of freedom and be part of strategic decision making within the workplace (Alyammahi et al.,

2020).

Further research is encouraged as the study was limited to 40 employees in the

telecommunications industry. Further research might reflect better statistics on the impact of

organisational stress on employees within the workplace.

References

Al-Kurdi, O.F., El-Haddadeh, R. and Eldabi, T., (2020). The Role of Organisational Climate

in Managing Knowledge Sharing Among Academics in Higher Education. International

Journal of Information Management, 50, pp. 217-227.

Alyammahi, A., Alshurideh, M., Al Kurdi, B., & Salloum, S. A. (2020, October). The impacts

of communication ethics on workplace decision making and productivity. In International

Conference on Advanced Intelligent Systems and Informatics (pp. 488-500). Springer, Cham.

Argus, D., & Samson, D. (2021). Organisational (Business) Strategy. In Strategic Leadership

for Business Value Creation (pp. 47-88). Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore.

Aryanne, O. (2009). Managing Workplace Bullying. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. P.2-3

Avey, J.B., Luthans, F. and Jensen, S.M., (2009). Psychological Capital: A Positive Resource

for Combating Employee Stress and Turnover. Human Resource Management, 48(5), pp. 677-

693.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 198

Bhui, K. S., Dinos, S., Stansfield, S. A., and White, P. D. (2012). A Synthesis of the Evidence

for Managing Stress at Work: A Review of the Reviews Reporting on Anxiety, Depression and

Absenteeism. Journal of Environmental and Public Health. (2012), pp 1-2. (2012).

Brannen, J., (2017). Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches: An Overview. In J.

Brannen, Mixing Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Research, 1st edition (e-book),

London: (pp. 3-37). Routledge. Pp 3-37. Available at

https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mixing-methods-qualitative-quantitative-research-julia-

brannen/e/10.4324/9781315248813 (Accessed 20th July, 2020).

Bruce, W. M., & Blackburn, J. W. (1992). Balancing Job Satisfaction & Performance: A Guide

for Human Resource Professionals (pp. 6-22). Westport, CT: Quorum Books.

Buccuren, M & Madalina-Adriana, C. 2011. Organisational Stress and Its Impact on Work

Performance. Conference Paper, University of Economics. USA. Available at

file:///C:/Users/dell/Downloads/ORGANIZATIONAL_STRESS_AND_ITS_IMPACT_ON_

WORK_PERFO.pdf (Accessed: 22-01-2021).

Chong, J. (2017). Five Reasons why Modern Life Causes Us Stress (And What We Should Do

About It). The Skill Collective. Available at https://theskillcollective.com/blog/modern-life-

causes-stress (Accessed: 23-01-2021).

Cooper, C. L. (2018). Managerial, Occupational and Organisational Stress Research. 1st

Edition, Routledge. London.

Cooper, C. L., and Marshall, J. (2013). Occupational Sources of Stress: A Review of Literature

Relating to Coronary Heart Disease and Mental Ill Health. From Stress to Wellbeing, 1, pp. 3-

23.

Creswell, J. W. (2017). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five

Approaches. 2nd edEdition. [pdf[ London: SAGE Publications. Pp15-16. Available at:

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rulinawaty_Kasmad2/publication/342229325_Second_

Edition_Qualitative_inquiry_research_design_Choosing_Among_Five_Approaches/links/5ee

9801992851ce9e7ea3c5f/Second-Edition-qualitative-inquiry-research-design-Choosing-

Among-Five-Approaches.pdf

http://nategabriel.com/egblog/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/creswell2.pdf (Accessed: 3 Apr.il

03rd 202018).

Einarsen, S., & Hoel, H. (May 2001). The Negative Acts Questionnaire: Development,

validation and revision of a measure of bullying at work. Work presented at the 10th European

Congress on Work and Organizational Psychology, Prague.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 199

Garg, S. and Dhar, R.L., (2014). Effects of Stress, LMX and Perceived Organisational Support

on Service Quality: Mediating Effects of Organisational Commitment. Journal of Hospitality

and Tourism Management, 21 (2014, pp. 64-75.

Goddard, B., Atwell, M., Morris, B. (2020). Is Covid 19 likely to result in Occupational Stress

Claim? Dac Beachcroft. Available at

https://www.dacbeachcroft.com/es/gb/articles/2020/october/is-covid-19-likely-to-result-in-

an-increase-in-occupational-stress-claims/ (Accessed: 22-01-2021).

Goh, S.K., Jayaraman, K., Mostafiz, M.I. and Leow, Y.M., (2020). The Effect of

Organisational Climate on Employees' Creative Performance through Knowledge Sharing

Behaviour. Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management, 18(1), pp. 1-14.

Grigoroudis, E., Orfanoudaki, E., & Zopounidis, C. (2012). Strategic performance

measurement in a healthcare organisation: A multiple criteria approach based on balanced

scorecard. Omega, 40(1), 104-119.

Hamouche S. (2020). COVID-19 and Employees’ Mental Health: Stressors, Moderators and

Agenda for Organizational Actions. Emerald Open Research, 2, 15.

https://doi.org/10.35241/emeraldopenres.13550.1

Higgins, G.E., Tewksbury, R. and Denney, A., (2012). Measuring Work Stress Among

Correctional Staff: A Rasch Measurement Approach. Journal of Applied Measurement, 13(4),

pp. 394-402.

Jackson, M. (2014). The Stress of Life: A Modern Complaint? Jackson M. (2014). Lancet

(London, England), 383(9914), 300–301. Available at https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-

6736(14)60093-3 (Accessed: 23-01-2021).

Jahanian, R., Tabatabaei, S. M., and Behdad, B. (2012). Stress Management in The Workplace.

International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Services.

Available at

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4b9f/d1b2172e73bb2aedb3167ac055d385638c64.pdf?_ga=2

.76780368.471198845.1600176553-1951249857.1600176553 (Accessed 6: Aug.ust 06th

2020).

Kim, M. and Beehr, T.A., (2020). Thriving on Demand: Challenging Work Results in

Employee Flourishing through Appraisals and Resources. International Journal of Stress

Management, 27(2), p. 111.

King, B.S. and Beehr, T.A., (2017). Working with the Stress of Errors: Error Management

Strategies as Coping. International Journal of Stress Management, 24(1), p. 18.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 200

Leiter, M.P., (2017). Burnout as a Developmental Process: Consideration of Models

Professional burnout: Recent Developments in Theory and Research. In Professional Burnout,

32(3), pp. 237-250.

Lipman, V. (2019). Workplace Trend: Stress is on the Rise. [online] Forbes. Available at:

https://www.forbes.com/sites/victorlipman/2019/01/09/workplace-trend-stress-is-on-the-

rise/#131ad5846e1b. [Accessed 4 on Aug.ust 04th 2020].

Mbidoaka, K.C. (2017). Strategies to Reduce the Effect of Organisational Stress in Health Care

Workplaces. PhD Doctoral Thesis., Walden University. Available at:

https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5414&andcontext=dissertation

s. [(Accessed 6: August 6th, 2020]).

McFadden, K. and Altamirano, M.A., (2020). Situational Factors and Increased Workplace

Burnout: A Study of Influences Affecting Current Younger Employees. Nurturing Collective

Knowledge and Intelligence: Social Phenomena and Implications for Practice, 2(1), p. 45.

Miche, S. (2002). Causes and Management of Stress at Work. Occupational and Environmental

Medicine, 59(2002): 67-72. Available at https://oem.bmj.com/content/oemed/59/1/67.full.pdf

(Accessed: 22-01-2021).

Nwanzu, C.L. and Babalola, S.S., (2019). Predictive Relationship between Sustainable

Organisational Practices and Organisational Effectiveness: The Mediating Role of

Organisational Identification and Organisation-Based Self-Esteem. Sustainability, 11(12), p.

3440.

Olsen, E., Bjaalid, G., & Mikkelsen, A. (2017). Work Climate and the Mediating Role of

Workplace Bullying related to Job Performance, Job Satisfaction, and Work Ability: A Study

among Hospital Nurses. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 73(11), 2709-2719.

Pickering, C. and Byrne, J., (2014). The Benefits of Publishing Systematic Quantitative

Literature Reviews for PhD Candidates and other Early-Career Researchers. Higher Education

Research &and Development, 33(3), pp. 534-548.

Pignata, S., Boyd, C.M., Winefield, A.H. and Provis, C., (2017). Interventions: Employees'

Perceptions of What Reduces Stress. BioMed Research International, 2017, 44(4), pp.

Purwanto, A., Bernarto, I., Asbari, M., Wijayanti, L.M. and Hyun, C.C., (2020). The Impacts

of Leadership and Culture on Work Performance in Service Company and Innovative Work

Behaviour as Mediating Effects. Journal of Research in Business, Economics, and Education,

2(1), pp. 283-291.

Rahim, M. A. (2017). Managing Conflict in Organisations. Routledge, New York.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 201

Rasool, S. F., Wang, M., Zhang, Y. &and Saama, M. (2020). Sustainable Work Performance:

The Roles of Workplace Violence and Occupational Stress. International Journal of

Environmental Research and Public Health, Vol 17 (912): pp. 1-12.

Roozeboom, M.C.B., Schelvis, R.M.C., Hootman, I.L.D., Wiezer, N.M. &and Bongers, P.M.

(2020). Decreasing Employees' Work Stress by a Participatory, Organizational Level Work

Stress Prevention Approach: A Multiple-Case Study in Primary Education. PMC Public Health

Vol 20 (676): pp. 1-16.

Rožman, M. and Štrukelj, T., (2020). Organisational Climate Components and their Impact on

Work Engagement of Employees in Medium-sized Organisations. Economic Research-

Ekonomska Istraživanja, (2020) pp. 1-32.

Sahni, J. (2020). Impact of Covid-19 on Employee Behaviour: Stress and Coping Mechanism

during WFH (Work from Home) Among Service Industry Employees. International Journal of

Operations Management 1(1): 35-48.

Scott, R. and Howard, A., (2017). Models of Stress. In L. Sol & S.A. Norman “Social Stress”

1st Edition, 2017 (pp. 259-278). New York, Routledge, pp 259-278.

Wolever, R. Q., Bobinet, K. J., McCabe, K., Mackenzie, E. R., Fekete, E., Kusnick, C. A and

Baime, M. (2012). Effective and Viable Mind-Body Stress Reduction in the Workplace: A

Randomised Control Trial. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, (2012) pp. 246-258.

Wolkoff, P., (2020). Dry Eye Symptoms in Offices and Deteriorated Work Performance–A

Perspective. Building and Environment, 172, p. 106704.

World Health Organisation (WHO) (2017). Available at:

https://www.who.int/occupational_health/publications/en/oehstress.pd (Accessed 16th July

2020).

Yahaya, A., Ing, T. C., Lee, G. M., Yahaya, N., Boon, Y., Hashim, S., Taat, S. & Jesus, S. K.

C. I. (2012). The Impact of Workplace Bullying on Work Performance. Archives Des Sciences,

65(4), p. 18-28.

Educor Multidisciplinary Journal Vol. 4 No.1 December 2020

ISSN: 2520-4254 Page | 202

How Emerging Technologies and Skills have Contributed to the Agricultural and Consumer Goods Sectors in Africa

Abstract and Figures

Recommended publications

EDUCOR-MULTIDISCIPLINARY-JOURNAL-2020-1-Final

Mediation and the Structural Interdict as Legal Options to Resolve Service Delivery Failures in Sout...

Global reverberation and prediction for HRM amid and after COVID-19: A technological viewpoint

The role of professionalization in the South African public service and its contribution to the UN’s...