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IJHEP
International Journal of
Higher Education Pedagogies
ISSN: 2669-2333
Volume
3
, Issue
4
© The Author(s). 2022 Open Access. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and redistribution in any medium, provided that the original author(s) and source are credited.
Psychosocial Well-Being among Undergraduate Students in Hong
Kong and Kazakhstan
Michelle W.T. Cheng1, D. Gaipov2, S. Kadyrov2, S.K. Lo1*
1 The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
2 Suleyman Demirel University, Kazakhstan
lsk@eduhk.hk
ABSTRACT
This paper aims to provide comparative insights into the psychosocial well-being of Hong Kong and
Kazakhstan undergraduate students, focusing specifically on the role of ethnicity and gender. The existing
body of literature on students’ health-promoting lifestyle has shown how age, gender, income level,
sociability, and knowledge of health can shape one’s perception of physical and mental well-being. Much
lesser attention, however, has been paid to the ways in which students from diverse ethnic origins differ
from each other in cultivating different dimensions of psychosocial well-being. To address this issue, this
study delivered questionnaires to 284 undergraduate students from Hong Kong and 281 undergraduate
students from Kazakhstan. Developed from the Health-Promoting Lifestyle Profile II, the questionnaire is
designed to measure undergraduate’s psychosocial well-being threefold. Using independent sample t-test,
this paper shows that Hong Kong undergraduate students have higher levels of psychosocial well-being in
terms of “interpersonal relations” and “stress management” whereas Kazakhstan undergraduate students are
stronger in another dimension of well-being – “spiritual growth”. Results show that the influence of gender
on students’ psychosocial well-being varies in different contexts. One of the important implications of these
findings suggests that school administrators and students from different countries may benefit from cross-
cultural exchange, co-promoting all dimensions of psychosocial well-being.
Keywords: psychosocial well-being, mental health status, higher-education, Hong Kong, Kazakhstan
Cite this article as: Cheng, M. W. T., Gaipov, D., Kadyrov, S., & Lo, S.K. (2022). Psychosocial Well-Being
among Undergraduate Students in Hong Kong and Kazakhstan. International Journal of Higher Education
Pedagogies, 3(4), 24-33. https://doi.org/10.33422/ijhep.v3i4.91
1. Introduction: Purpose and Objectives
The Belt and Road Initiative has provided Kazakhstan with increasing opportunities to
collaborate with international partners, connecting the country with the east and the west, thus
developing herself towards international standards. As announced in the Kazakhstan Strategy
2050, the Kazakhstan government is ambitious to build its country as the new “Hong Kong” to
strengthen its regional role in Central Asia (Yau, 2016). While quality higher education would
certainly be one of the keys to achieve this long-term strategic plan, this study aims to provide
comparative insights into the current undergraduate students in Hong Kong and Kazakhstan.
Several studies had already reviewed the academic performance of students from Hong Kong
and Kazakhstan. For instance, Mailybaev et al. (2018) compared the results of the Program for
International Student Assessment (PISA) and found that the percentage of participants who
completed the tasks of the average 3rd level of complexity in Kazakhstan and Hong Kong were
25.2% and 72.6% respectively. In addition, according to Toybazarova and Nazarova’s study
(2018), while Hong Kong ranked second in the results of Trends in International Mathematics
and Science Study (TIMMS), Kazakhstan ranked 44. Although students from Kazakhstan
seems to be more inferior to their peers from Hong Kong in terms of academic performance,
Lo et al., 2022 IJHEP, Vol. 3, No. 4, 24-33
25
nurturing future leaders in the higher education setting is more than just academic knowledge.
Given that student well-being has been largely overlooked, this study would shed light in this
aspect.
University is an important rite of passage in which students gradually transition into adulthood.
Not only will students encounter advanced intellectual challenges, but they are also more likely
to experience various health-related problems in college life mentally and physically, such as
mental strain, study pressure and inadequate sleep (Cheng et al., 2021). Enhancing the
psychosocial well-being of college students is thus paramount important to build and maintain
students’ mental strength and physical health such that they can power through the university
lives that can be rife with struggles. Scholars have shown that students of different ethnicities
report different levels of psychological well-being (Harding et al., 2015). However, this kind
of research tends to focus on a bounded national context; the ways in which students from
different ethnic contexts perceive their psychosocial well-being are relatively under-examined.
Against this background, this paper seeks to explore how the self-perception of psychological
well-being may differ according to the ethnic contexts through a comparative study of Hong
Kong and Kazakhstan undergraduate students. We will begin by situating this current study in
the extant literature; we then proceed to discuss how the data is collected and analyzed. Finally,
the internal and external differences of two groups of university students will be illustrated.
This paper will demonstrate how students from two ethnic contexts value various aspects of
psychosocial well-being differently, arguing the benefits of global cross-cultural exchange in
promoting holistic dimensions of well-being for university students.
2. Literature Review
The concerns about health status and health-promoting lifestyle have been two intertwining
topics of medical investigation. Health behavior is distinguished from illness behavior and sick-
role behavior in the sense that it refers to “any activity undertaken by a person believing himself
to be healthy, for the purpose of preventing disease or detecting it in an asymptomatic stage”
(Kasl & Cobb 1966: 246, cited in Walker et al., 1987). Pender (1982) later developed the Health
Promotion Model and constructed the Lifestyle and Health Habits Assessment (LHHA),
providing a 100-item checklist to measure positive health behavior in 10 categories. Based on
the LHHA, Walker and her colleagues (1987; 1995) proposed the Health-Promoting Lifestyle
Profile II (HPLP II), which employs a 4-point response format to measure health-promoting
behaviors in six domains, namely health responsibility, physical activity, nutrition, spiritual
growth, interpersonal relations, and stress management.
A key element of the HPLP II is psychosocial well-being. In psychology, the notion of well-
being includes the hedonic and eudaimonic dimensions. While the former refers to individuals’
judgment of life satisfaction, the latter measures one’s relatedness with others and self-referent
attitudes in social settings (Burns, 2017). In the HPLP II, the two dimensions are captured by
the dimensions of spiritual growth, interpersonal relations, and stress management. Many
recent studies have validated and adopted the HPLP II to track the psychological health status
of various social groups, such as Iranian medical students (Azami Gilan et al., 2021) and
Chinese retired worker (Zhang et al., 2019). One particular strand of research focuses on
adolescents and students, exploring a wide range of factors that affect young people’s
psychosocial well-being.
Structurally, the income level or socio-economic status determines one’s psychosocial well-
being. It has generally been recognized that socio-economic development of a nation is a strong
predictor of adolescents’ health as a wealthier and more equal society is more likely to
contribute to better health development in terms of behavioral and mental health, sexual health,
Lo et al., 2022 IJHEP, Vol. 3, No. 4, 24-33
26
and mortality rate (Viner et al., 2012). The relationship largely stands when the scale is down
to household income level. Students with higher socio-economic status or household income
level tend to do better in health-promoting lifestyle, especially with regard to the subscales of
health responsibility, physical activity, spiritual growth, interpersonal relations (Alzahrani et
al., 2019; Azami Gilan et al., 2021; Binay & Yigit, 2016; Peker & Bermek, 2011; Torchyan &
Bosma, 2020). In addition to the influence of various socio-economic conditions, particular
lifestyles can significantly affect psychosocial well-being (Wang & Geng, 2019). They can
either be an independent variable or an intervening variable mediating the aforementioned
factors. For instance, non-smokers tend to have a significantly higher score than smokers and
ex-smokers in the area of spiritual growth (Alzahrani et al., 2019). Some studies even report
that non-smokers have a higher overall HPLP II score (Azami Gilan et al., 2021; Nacar et al.,
2014). Furthermore, the combination of risky behaviors such as alcohol, drugs and substances,
and sexual behavior among young people can be hazardous to mental well-being (Holt &
Powell, 2017). On the other hand, engaging in social activities can significantly improve one’s
HPLP score (Binay & Yigit, 2016).
Apart from structural and behavioral factors, demographic factors, such as age, also shape how
well-being is created and maintained. It is reported that age is negatively correlated with stress
management (Al-Qahtani, 2019; Can et al., 2008; Hui, 2002). These studies argue that as
students progress to a higher level of study, stress builds up, and therefore they have a lower
score on stress management. Some studies deploying other measurement methods also report
that older respondents tend to have more mental or emotional problems (Holt & Powell, 2017).
There are however contradictory findings; it is argued that the older a student is, the better s/he
is in managing stress (Al-Kandari & Vidal, 2007). The age factor is correlated with other
dimensions of psychosocial well-being as well. Whereas some studies report that older
respondents tend to have a lower level of spiritual growth (Al-Qahtani, 2019; Hui, 2002), others
suggest that age and spiritual growth are positively correlated (Al-Kandari & Vidal, 2007; Sahu
et al., 2020). Meanwhile, the effect of age on spiritual growth is found to be mediated by gender
(Music et al., 2021). Apart from spiritual growth, older respondents, who might have a wider
social network, are more likely to have positive interpersonal relations and support (Alpar et
al., 2008; Tol et al., 2013). Age is also related to other factors such as health consciousness and
health-promoting lifestyle (Al-Qahtani, 2019; Can et al., 2008; Kim & Kim, 2018; Nacar et al.,
2014). The reason is likely to be that the more mature the students are, the more they are aware
of the importance of healthy living options. The improvement of health consciousness and
health-promoting lifestyle is crucial to promoting both physical and psychosocial well-being.
Another factor pertinent to psychosocial well-being is gender. It is widely reported that male
students’ HPLP II score is significantly higher than female students. In particular, males tend
to have greater participation in physical activities and have a better score in stress management
(Ahn et al., 2014; Al-Kandari & Vidal, 2007; Almutairi et al., 2018; Alzahrani et al., 2019;
Azami Gilan et al., 2021; Binay & Yigit, 2016; Mehri et al., 2016; Safaie et al., 2020; Sahu et
al., 2020). Yet many studies also report contradictory findings, suggesting that gender has no
significant effect on HPLP II score and those female respondents actually score higher in some
of the sub-scales such as health responsibility, interpersonal relations, and nutrition (Can et al.,
2008; Hui, 2002; Lee & Loke, 2005; Nacar et al., 2014; Tol et al., 2013; Wang, 2009; Wei et
al., 2012;).
In light of the inconsistent explanation about the relation between gender role and well-being,
as well as its potential role in mediating the effect of age on psychosocial well-being, we
investigate the mental health status of undergraduate students in Hong Kong and Kazakhstan,
interrogating the effect of gender on the psychosocial well-being of these two groups
particularly.
Lo et al., 2022 IJHEP, Vol. 3, No. 4, 24-33
27
3. Methodology
3.1. Participants
Data for the current investigation were obtained from 284 undergraduate students from Hong
Kong and 281 undergraduate students from Kazakhstan. The majority of the respondents in
Hong Kong were females (79.50%) whose average age was 21.74, with a standard deviation
of 4.36. The youngest was 17 years old, while the oldest was 54 years old at the time of survey
administration. On the other hand, all 281 respondents from Kazakhstan were undergraduate
students. More than half of the respondents in Kazakhstan were males (52.70%) whose average
age was 20.06, with a standard deviation of 2.57. The youngest was 17 years old, while the
oldest was 36 years old at the time of survey administration.
3.2. Measure
The validated Health-Promoting Lifestyle Profile II (HPLP II; Walker et al., 1995) was used
to measure the psychosocial well-being of undergraduate students from Hong Kong and
Kazakhstan. Specifically, three subscales from the HLPL II were utilized: interpersonal
relations (9 items), stress management (8 items), and spiritual growth (9 items). Sample items
include “Maintain meaningful and fulfilling relationships with others” (interpersonal relations),
“Practice relaxation or meditation for 15 to 20 minutes daily” (stress management), and “Feel
content and at peace with myself” (spiritual growth). For the dimension of interpersonal
relations, only 8 items were used among the student respondents in Kazakhstan since the item
“Find ways to meet my needs for intimacy” was removed due to socio-cultural differences.
Student respondents rated each item using a four-point Liker scale (1 = never; 2 = sometimes;
3 = often; 4 = routinely).
3.3. Data Analysis
The descriptive statistics (i.e., means, standard deviations, skewness, and kurtoses), reliability
coefficients, and zero-order correlations among the variables were computed using the 26th
version of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Separate statistical analyses
were conducted using the (1) combined dataset, (2) Hong Kong dataset, and (3) Kazakhstan
dataset to determine if there were significant differences in the students’ levels of interpersonal
relations, stress management, and spiritual growth when grouped according to gender (i.e.,
male and female). Specifically, independent samples t-tests in SPSS Version 26 were used to
examine students’ psychosocial well-being.
4. Results
4.1. Comparison of Means (Combined Dataset)
As mentioned, separate analyses were conducted for the (1) combined dataset, (2) Hong Kong
dataset, and (3) Kazakhstan dataset. We first present the results of the comparison of means
using the combined dataset. Independent samples T-test was conducted to determine if there is
a significant difference in interpersonal relations among Hong Kong undergraduate students
(UGs) and Kazakhstan undergraduate students (UGs). Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics
for interpersonal relations based on the educational classification of all student respondents.
Based on the mean, Hong Kong undergraduate students appear to score higher than Kazakhstan
undergraduate students in terms of interpersonal relations (p<0.05).
Lo et al., 2022 IJHEP, Vol. 3, No. 4, 24-33
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Table 1.
Descriptive statistics for interpersonal relations (combined dataset)
N
Mean
SD
Std.
Error
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Minimum
Maximum
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
HK UGs
284
2.66
0.55
0.03
2.59
2.72
1.00
4.00
KZ UGs
281
2.57
0.51
0.03
2.51
2.63
1.00
4.00
Note: HK = Hong Kong; KZ = Kazakhstan
Since the assumption of homogeneity of variances was not satisfied, the robust tests of equality
of means (i.e., Welch and Brown-Forsythe) were conducted to determine if there is a significant
difference in stress management between Hong Kong and Kazakhstan undergraduate students.
Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics for stress management based on the educational
classification of all student respondents. Based on the mean, Hong Kong undergraduate
students appear to have higher levels of stress management than Kazakhstan undergraduate
students (p<0.05).
Table 2.
Descriptive statistics for stress management (combined dataset)
N
Mean
SD
Std.
Error
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Minimum
Maximum
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
HK UGs
284
2.38
0.54
0.03
2.32
2.44
1.00
4.00
KZ UGs
281
2.28
0.49
0.03
2.23
2.34
1.00
4.00
Note: HK = Hong Kong; KZ = Kazakhstan
Another independent samples t-test was conducted to determine if there is a significant
difference in spiritual growth among Hong Kong UGs and Kazakhstan UGs. Table 3 presents
the descriptive statistics for spiritual growth based on the educational classification of all
student respondents. Based on the mean, Kazakhstan UGs appear to have higher levels of
spiritual growth than Hong Kong’s UGs (p<0.05).
Table 3.
Descriptive statistics for spiritual growth (combined dataset)
N
Mean
SD
Std.
Error
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Minimum
Maximu
m
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
HK UGs
284
2.56
0.64
0.04
2.48
2.63
1.00
4.00
KZ UGs
281
2.72
0.60
0.04
2.65
2.79
1.00
4.00
Note: HK = Hong Kong; KZ = Kazakhstan
Further, we also compared these dimensions of psychosocial well-being based on their country
of origin (i.e., Hong Kong and Kazakhstan) and gender (i.e., male and female). Specifically,
independent samples t-tests were conducted to examine these differences. Table 4 presents the
descriptive statistics of the dimensions of psychosocial well-being according to respondents’
country of origin. Results of the independent samples t-tests show that there are significant
differences in interpersonal relations (t [641.182] = 5.169, p < .001; .208, 95% CI [.129, .288])
and stress management (t [667.978] = 6.169, p < .001; .246, 95% CI [.168, .325]) between
Hong Kong and Kazakhstan students. In general, students from Hong Kong have higher
interpersonal relations and better stress management than students from Kazakhstan. No
significant difference, however, was found for spiritual growth (t [721] = -.215, p = .830; .048,
95% CI [-.104, .083]) between Hong Kong and Kazakhstan students.
Lo et al., 2022 IJHEP, Vol. 3, No. 4, 24-33
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Table 4.
Descriptive statistics of psychosocial well-being dimensions (combined dataset)
Country of Origin
N
Mean
SD
Std. Error Mean
Interpersonal Relations
Hong Kong
284
2.66
.55
.03
Kazakhstan
281
2.57
.50610
.03019
Stress Management
Hong Kong
284
2.38
.54
.03
Kazakhstan
281
2.28
.48533
.02895
Spiritual Growth
Hong Kong
284
2.56
.64
.04
Kazakhstan
281
2.72
.59813
.03568
4.2. Separate Comparison of Means (Hong Kong Dataset)
For Hong Kong student, independent samples t-test were performed to determine if there are
significant differences in the dimensions of well-being when grouped according to gender.
Table 5 presents the descriptive statistics of the dimensions of psychosocial well-being
according to Hong Kong respondents’ gender. Results show no significant differences between
gender in interpersonal relations (t (286)=-1.683, p =.094); stress management (t (286)=.725,
p =.469) and spiritual growth (t (286) = .898, p < .37).
Table 5.
Descriptive statistics of psychosocial well-being dimensions based on Hong Kong respondents
Gender
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std.Error Mean
Interpersonal Relations
Male
59
2.55
.57249
.07453
Female
229
2.68
.54679
.03613
Stress Management
Male
59
2.42
.54140
.07048
Female
229
2.37
.53714
.03549
Spiritual Growth
Male
59
2.63
.66622
.08673
Female
229
2.54
.63479
.04195
4.3. Separate Comparison of Means (Kazakhstan Dataset)
For Kazakhstan student respondents, independent samples t-test were performed to determine
if there are significant differences in the dimensions of well-being when grouped according to
gender (i.e., male and female). Table 6 presents the descriptive statistics of the dimensions of
psychosocial well-being according to Kazakhstan respondents’ gender. Results of the
independent samples t-tests show that there are significant differences in interpersonal relations
(t [276.061] = -3.198, p < .01; 95% CI [-.304, -.072]) and spiritual growth (t [279] = -2.112, p
< .05; 95% CI [-.290, -.010]) between male and female students in Kazakhstan. In general,
female students have higher interpersonal relations and greater spiritual growth than male
students in Kazakhstan. No significant difference, however, was found for stress management
(t [279] = -.230, p = .818; 95% CI [-.128, .101]) between male and female students in
Kazakhstan.
Table 6.
Descriptive statistics of psychosocial well-being dimensions based on Kazakhstan respondents’ gender
Gender
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
Interpersonal Relations
Male
148
2.48
.54458
.04476
Female
133
2.67
.44075
.03822
Stress Management
Male
148
2.28
.51581
.04240
Female
133
2.29
.45084
.03909
Spiritual Growth
Male
148
2.65
.64542
.05305
Female
133
2.80
.53202
.04613
Lo et al., 2022 IJHEP, Vol. 3, No. 4, 24-33
30
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
To conclude, this paper shows that Hong Kong undergraduate students have better
interpersonal relations and stress management, whereas Kazakhstan undergraduate students
have higher levels of spiritual growth. According to Walker and Hill-Polerecky (1996),
interpersonal relations is the ability to utilize communication to achieve a sense of intimacy
and closeness with others. This implied that Hong Kong undergraduate students are better in
sharing of thoughts and feelings to form meaningful relationships with others. It is
recommended that course instructors in Kazakhstan universities to adopt individual
presentations and group projects as a form of course assessments to improve students’ effective
communication skill, thus, provide them more opportunities to express themselves to others.
Stress management means the identification and mobilization of psychological and physical
resources to effectively control or reduce tension (Walker & Hill-Polerecky, 1996). In our study,
Hong Kong undergraduates have better stress management, which is indicating higher
resilience and good emotion regulation skills. Chow et al.’s study (2020) found that Hong Kong
undergraduates practicing mindfulness have enhanced resilience through their study. It is
suggested that Kazakhstan universities can provide resilience-building training and promote
mindfulness to their undergraduates to further improve their stress management skills.
Spiritual growth refers to the development of inner resources and can be achieved through
searching for meaning and finding a sense of purpose and goals in life (Walker & Hill-
Polerecky, 1996). Students in Kazakhstan are better at finding inner peace and searching
meaning in life than those in Hong Kong. To improve the spiritual growth of Hong Kong
undergraduates, it is recommended to emphasize the meaning of life through life education. A
recent study found that implementing life education sessions in higher education setting is one
of the effective ways to improve students’ life satisfaction and presence of meaning (Yang et
al., 2022).
In all, school administrators and students from both contexts may share their best practices and
experiences with each other in promoting other dimensions of psychosocial well-being. In
terms of the gender differences in psychosocial well-being, no significant differences across
all subscales of psychosocial well-being can be found in the Hong Kong dataset. However,
male students in Kazakhstan display lower levels of interpersonal relations and spiritual growth
than female students. Given the significant gender differences in psychosocial well-being in
Kazakhstan, it is suggested that educators can devise specific programs and policies that
promote male students’ well-being status.
A major limitation is that this study is based merely on 560 samples from both Hong Kong and
Kazakhstan. The authors are aware that the sample size may not make a strong case for
quantitative analysis. Yet, this comparative study does provide some insights regarding the
wellbeing of undergraduates in these two places. Methodologically, since the present
investigation only measured positive mental health outcomes, it would be advisable to examine
student respondents’ negative mental health outcomes (e.g., school-related burnout) in the
future. Such endeavor may provide a more comprehensive understanding of students’ mental
health status.
Funding
The first author is the recipient of the Research Grants Council Postdoctoral Fellowship
Scheme (PDFS2021-8H01) funded by the Hong Kong University Grants Committee.
Lo et al., 2022 IJHEP, Vol. 3, No. 4, 24-33
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