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Research PaperResearch Paper Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society
11 (1) December 2022
Taste masking in vegan food processing with natural
substitutes
EMEL HASAN Y USUF1*
Data of the article
First received : 05 December 2021 | Last revision received : 12 September 2022
Accepted : 05 December 2022| Published online : 30 December 2022
DOI : 10.17170/kobra-202210056937
Keywords
Veganism; Taste blockers;
Natural replacers; Sugar
and salt replacement;
Sweet-tasting proteins;
Umami taste
Climate change, sustainability issues, and increased risks of a meat diet on both ecology and
human health cause changes in the eating habits of individuals. Plant-based foods supply
protein sources with health-promoting compounds. e bitterness of plant-based foods
is challenging for both food manufacturers and consumers. So far, articial taste block-
ers, salt, sugar, and fat have been applied to mask the bitterness of plant-based products.
However, people are conscious of "clean labelling" and "natural" food ingredients. us,
natural taste blockers are the new trend for vegan food manufacturing to mask bitterness.
e review focuses on providing information about natural salt, sugar, and fat replacers for
foods as taste blockers of bitterness. e study highlights the recent natural taste blockers,
application trends, and regulations for food processing.
1. Introduction
1
We need to eat to survive, but today we also want to
feel satised with the appearance, aroma, and avour
of the food. Accordingly, society and global trends
inuence our food preferences; novel foods, and ad-
vertisements for new food trends create attractiveness
for us (Prescott et al., 2002). However, food trends
adhere to varied factors such as global conditions,
politics, and ecology (Arenas-Jal et al., 2019). Now-
adays, environmental issues are the most important
game-changers like climate change and sustainabil-
ity, creating huge concerns for future food systems.
Indeed, the world population is estimated to exist at
about 10 billion people by 2050 (UNDESA, 2017).
us, the signicance of the subject increases with the
question of how we can feed a huge amount of human
mass.
Alternative proteins, such as plant and insect-based
proteins, are gaining popularity. However, people
are unprepared to consume insects as protein sourc-
es because they are afraid to try and have a negative
perception of insects (de Koning et al., 2020). Hence,
plant sources can be used as an alternative protein. A
meat-based diet consumes a lot of water, land, and en-
ergy (Sabaté & Soret, 2014). In contrast, a plant-based
diet protects people against non-communicable dis-
eases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, type 2
diabetes, and obesity (Jakše et al., 2019).
erefore, the vegan food market is predicted to reach
USD 26.1 billion by 2026 (expertmarketresearch.
com). e most attractive vegan products are alterna-
tive meat, egg alternatives, and dairy substitutes for
non-vegan people.
During the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)
Department of Fruit, Vegetable and Plant Nutraceutical Technology, e Wrocław University of Environmental and
Life Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
* C : emel.hasan.yusuf@upwr.edu.pl
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Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture
and Society, 11 (1)
pandemic, sustainable and healthy diet preferences
have been boosted (Lonnie & Johnstone, 2020). Ac-
cording to case studies, consumption of meat, poul-
try, and dairy products decreased in China (Jia et al.,
2021) and Spain (Rodríguez-Pérez et al., 2020). e
main reason is animals carried viruses, and the ter-
minology is “zoonosis” which is thought to possess
more functions in the future among dierent species
in nature to cause diseases like COVID-19 (Attwood
& Hajat, 2020). us, individuals cease consuming
meat and animal-based food products to prevent the
transmission of infectious pathogens.
In reality, many individuals are unprepared to replace
meat with plant derivatives. Some reasons include eat-
ing habits and the taste of meat. However, one of the
biggest challenges is bitterness and the strong aroma
of plant natural products that demonstrate increased
bitterness with boosted health functions (Behrens et
al., 2018).
Without a doubt, bitterness is unacceptable to con-
sumers, even though the food has elevated health
benets. For instance, glucosinolates from Brassicace-
ae (Cabbage family) are popular with their specic
unpleasant aroma and health advantages (Verkerk et
al., 2009). In a study, the undesirable aroma of cab-
bage compounds has been masked with sucrose, and
the nal product has proved the palatable cabbage
juice (Beck et al., 2014). us, sugar is a stunning
taste-masking agent for bitterness.
Inasmuch as, sugar, salt, and fat are the most applied
taste blockers against bitterness in foods (Goldberg et
al., 2017). Even if, the proper amounts of salt, sugar,
and fat are crucial for healthy body functions (Downs
et al., 2020), consumption rates increase with pro-
cessed food products. Besides, salt, sugar, and fat
cause many health issues such as cardiovascular dis-
orders, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cancer. erefore,
health authorities recommend reducing or replacing
sugar, salt, and fat with natural alternatives (Saraiva
et al., 2020).
is review aims to discuss natural and recognized
sugar, salt, and fat replacers with health-promoting
activities, application benets, and challenges in ve-
gan food processing. e scope included identifying
substitutes of sugar, salt, and fat as natural food in-
gredients without changing the mouthfeel, texture,
and/or avour characteristics of fat, salt, and sugar in
foods. Hence, recommendations are given for vegan
processed foods.
2. Literature
2.1 e impact of sugar, salt, and fat in processed
foods
In the early 1900s, the food industry discovered sugar,
salt and fat can increase the taste of food products (Rao
et al., 2018). Indeed, sugar is an essential component
for food processing with stability, texture, mouthfeel,
avour, colour, and preservation features (Erickson &
Carr, 2020). Furthermore, sugar provides energy to
our body as a carbohydrate, however, the origin of the
sugar is the main point such as the sugars of fruit and
vegetables are natural and rich in bres (Misra et al.,
2016). However, excessive sugar consumption is an
important reason for obesity (Stanner & Spiro, 2020).
Salt occurs with sodium and chloride, which is an
essential compound for body uid regulation, and
transmission of nerve and muscle impulses (Gilbert &
Heiser, 2005). Interestingly, excessive and minimal salt
consumptions than recommended values cause prob-
lems in the body like myocardial infarction (Nikiforov
et al., 2021), but low sugar consumption demonstrates
no adverse eects on the body.
An adequate amount of fat is essential for health be-
cause fats and proteins construct our cell membranes
elastic and permeable. Nevertheless, excessive fat con-
sumption creates diculties in transferring cell waste
and obtaining essential nutrients in the cell; a low-fat
diet causes constipation, carbohydrate desire, infertil-
ity, and insomnia (peaksoealth.com).
According to the World Health Organization (WHO,
2020a), a healthy diet should include vegetables,
fruits, legumes, nuts, whole grains, less than 30% of
total energy intake from fats, less than 10% of free
sugars, and less than 5 gram of salt for adults. Hence,
the recommended amounts of sugar, salt, and fats are
essential, however, overconsumption of salt, fat, and
sugar causes a weakening of immunity (Moss, 2014).
Moreover, relationships between high sugar, salt, and
fat consumption and poor diet may create obesity, di-
abetes, cardiovascular disorders, and cancer (Andar-
wulan et al., 2021).
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Processed foods, which are rich in sugar, salt, and fat,
increase dopamine levels in the brain and make peo-
ple addicted to junk foods (Onaolapo & Onaolapo,
2018). Various food products include hidden salt and
sugar as bread and bakery products are the hidden salt
sources (Bhat et al., 2020); packaged soups, sauces,
salad dressings, canned vegetables, and ready meals
are the hidden sources of sugar (Zupanič et al., 2019).
Moreover, sugar and salt are excellent preservatives
for processed foods because sugar and salt relocate
water out of the cell and microorganisms disappear
(Barba-Orellana et al., 2020). us, to prevent the
overconsumption of sugar, salt, and fat in processed
foods, Mexico, and Denmark apply over-taxation for
junk foods (Blakely et al., 2020).
2.2 Why should sugar, salt, and fat be replaced with
natural substitutes?
Sugar is the most utilized taste blocker for the bitter-
ness of plant-based foods. Inasmuch as sugar revokes
the rst sensory signal to reach the brain. Otherwise,
sugar demonstrates bitterness masking function as the
consequence of mixture suppression, which combines
with bitterness sources and inuences the cognitive
area of the brain (Keast, 2008). For example, soy pro-
tein and pea protein are the most popular plant-based
proteins due to their gluten-free and fat-free proles
(Bashi et al., 2019). However, those vegan food com-
ponents have an unpleasant aroma for consumers.
Hence, food manufacturers have utilized sugar to
avoid the undesirable avour of plant-based proteins,
and sugar conceals the odour of plant derivatives dur-
ing food processing (Bangratz & Le Beller, 2020).
Human-kind desires sweet taste as genetically as an
evolutionary survival mechanism (Breslin, 2013).
Particularly, sweet consumption exhibits psychologi-
cal necessity, and sweetness is a kind of addiction with
numerous adverse eects such as tooth decay, weight
gain, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, dyslipidaemia,
high blood cholesterol, stroke, depression, and cancer
(Pérez et al., 2016; Cediel et al., 2018; Knüppel et al.,
2017). Regarding the side eects of sugar consump-
tion, Lustig et al. (2012) have suggested removing
sugar from the GRAS (Generally Regarded as Safe)
list of the FDA (U.S. Food and Drug Administration).
Today, children possess the highest rates of sugar con-
sumption in all age groups (Putnik et al., 2020), and
children are potential diabetic individuals of the fu-
ture. WHO and FDA suggest reducing sugar intake
rates to less than 10% per day, due to the connection of
sugar with diseases (Johnston et al., 2013). Neverthe-
less, the sweet desire causes one to search for alterna-
tive sources of sugar. For instance, articial sweeten-
ers had been applied for a while since scientic studies
proved synthetic sweeteners generate brain tumours,
weight gain, and bladder cancers (Putnik et al., 2020).
However, natural and non-nutritive sweeteners might
be a solution to the sweet desire of human-being with-
out any caloric content and with a palatable sweetness
in an eating plan (Fitch & Keim, 2012).
Salt is the other taste-masking ingredient for pro-
cessed foods. Keast (2008) has recommended adding
salt reduces the bitterness of foods, because salt in-
hibits the tongue receptors, and decreases the signal
transfers to reach through the brain cells. Moreover,
psychophysical studies demonstrate salt works as a
specic compound in bitterness to supply a favoura-
ble taste (Breslin & Beauchamp, 1997). Nevertheless,
excessive salt consumption causes kidney damage,
neuronal injury, cardiovascular disorders, stomach
cancer, and hypertension (Downs et al., 2020; O’Sulli-
van, 2020; He & MacGregor, 2009).
When we checked salt consumption rates in history,
the evolutionary salt intake was 0.25 g per day (Eaton
& Konner, 1985), but processed food has increased
the rate of salt consumption up to 9-12 g per day with
the help of processed meat, bread, and cheese prod-
ucts (Brown et al., 2009). erefore, salt reduction is
fundamental, and recommended salt intake is lower
than 5 gr per day, and the WHO aims to decrease salt
intake rates by about 30% by 2025 (WHO, 2020b).
Ocially recommended salt intake levels create pres-
sure on food manufacturers to produce healthy food
products with clean labelling (Erickson & Carr, 2020).
e challenge is reducing sodium rates in foods but
not accompanied by the salty avour of foods, so the
best solution is to replace salt with natural and healthy
alternatives.
Fat is another ingredient of foods, and food manufac-
turers apply lipids to make the process stable and ob-
tain the right texture (Matheson et al., 2018). Dietary
fat increases with passive overconsumption, which
is called “high-fat hyperphagia” (Ludwig, 2016), and
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excessive fat consumption causes changes in neuro-
chemical dopamine levels with disorders in mood,
weight gain and obesity (Downs et al., 2020; Chauhan
& Kumar, 2016). us far, during food processing var-
ied chemical contents have been utilized to replace fat.
However, consumers are aware of articial chemicals,
and the damage of synthetic compounds to the body
(Silver & Bassett, 2008). us, consumers are looking
for natural ingredients in food products (Saraiva et al.,
2020).
To sum up, vegan food products include high amounts
of salt, sugar, and fat to prevent o-avours of plant
derivatives (Tso & Forde, 2021). However, high sug-
ar, fat, and salt consumptions cause side eects on the
human body. erefore, health authorities recom-
mend declining sugar, fat, and salt consumption rates
(WHO, 2020b), and with the latest trends, consum-
ers are looking for “clean labels” and natural ingredi-
ents in food products without side eects (Erickson
& Carr, 2020). e main challenge is salt and sugar is
signicant parameters for food manufacturing due to
the texture, and stability of food products. us, sug-
gested natural replacers of sugar, salt and fat can be
applied in vegan food products to overcome the faced
challenges in vegan food processing.
2.3 Natural replacers of sugar, fat, and salt as taste
blockers in vegan food products
2.3.1 Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone (NHDC)
NHDC is a derivative of neohesperidin, which is
a avanone from bitter orange (Citrus x aurantium
L.), and Oxytropis myriophylla (Pall.) DC. NHDC
has been identied as a natural plant product, and a
non-nutritive sweetener. e sweetness rate is 1800
times more than sucrose (Braune et al., 2005). For
food processing, through the pasteurization peri-
od, NHDC stays stable, and the solubility of NHDC
increases in water (Nabors, 2001). Besides, NHDC
demonstrates satisfactory results for taste blocking
in small amounts with a menthol avour. erefore,
in some food applications, the menthol avour might
be unacceptable, but innovative vegan food products
such as alternative meat from dierent sources with
NHDC may create palatable results for consumers
and may increase the popularity of future food appli-
cations.
Moreover, NHDC is approved by health authorities as
a sweetener and avour enhancer (Borrego & Mon-
tijano, 2001). NHDC obtained GRAS from FDA and
European Union has approved NHDC (E-959) as a
food additive with suggested consumption rates of 5
mg kg-1 of body weight per day (EFSA, 2011). e
other countries which approved the NHDC as a a-
vour enhancer are Australia, Japan, and New Zealand
(ISA, 2015) (Table 1). us, approvals from food au-
thorities of the compound are promising to see novel
foods in the future.
us far, the bitterness-blocking feature of NHDC
has been studied for dierent food and beverages.
For instance, caeine is the most studied compound
for bitterness which is a naturally occurring alkaloid
in plant-based foods. NHDC increases the hedon-
ic acceptability of caeine to reduce bitterness (Ly
& Drewnowski, 2001). In another literature study,
NHDC has been utilized for bitter corn peptides,
however, the challenge was the low water-soluble ac-
tivity of NHDC due to phenolic compounds (Dong
et al., 2017a). erefore, some methods have been
suggested to increase the water solubility of NHDC,
such as gra reaction, inclusion complex, and reverse
micelle. In detail, porous structures and small mole-
cules with similar size, polarity, and shape to cavities
can create inclusion complexes (Astray et al., 2010).
On the other hand, graing is an improvement of the
main structure with dierent molecules for collabora-
tion (Siafaka et al., 2016), and nally, reverse micelle
is polar and nonpolar phases reverse roles and sur-
factants are upturned in a micelle (Dong et al., 2017a).
us, dierent food processing methods may help to
increase the possible uses of NHDC as a taste blocker
for novel vegan food products.
2.3.2 Neodiosmin
Similar to the NHDC, neodiosmin is a compound of
bitter orange. However, neodiosmin is a tasteless and
odourless avonoid (Horowitz & Gentili, 1969), and
it may reduce the bitterness of varied compounds
(Dong, et al., 2017b). For instance, so far, the com-
pound has been used against the bitterness of caeine,
limonin, para-methoxycinnamaldehyde from cinna-
mon, and quinine (Fletcher et al., 2015). Hence, the
compound supports many functions for future food
applications as a bitterness blocker. However, the
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health authorities have not approved the neodiosmin
for food applications yet, maybe in the forthcoming,
it will be possible to see more implementations of the
neodiosmin in vegan food products, aer the safety
approvals.
2.3.3 aumatin
aumatin is another natural, non-nutritive sugar
substitute (Masuda et al., 2011). e arils of the Afri-
can species Thaumatococcus daniellii Bennett include
the sweet-tasting thaumatin proteins (Mackenzie et
al., 1985). e sweetness level of thaumatin is 3000
times higher than sucrose without measurable caloric
values (Faus & Sisniega, 2003). Besides, the solubil-
ity of thaumatin is 80% at pH 6 and 40% at pH 10.
aumatin is more stable at pH between 2.5 and 5;
moreover, thaumatin stays stable above 100 °C (Farag
et al., 2022). us, food applications with thaumatin
may present attractive results as a natural ingredient,
and thaumatin supplies clean labels for novel food
products as well.
So far, thaumatin has been approved as GRAS for a-
vour enhancement by FDA (FEMA GRAS Number
3732), and European Union (Table 1). Also, thau-
matin has been accepted as a sweetener in Australia,
Switzerland, and the United Kingdom (Carocho et al.,
2017). Moreover, thaumatin has been approved as safe
in the pregnancy period by the United States Academy
of Nutrition and Dietetics (Arévalo et al., 2019), and
the allowed consumption rate of thaumatin is a maxi-
mum of 0.5 mg kg-1 per day (EFSA, 2015). erefore,
the safety characteristics of the compound are an im-
portant parameter both for vegan food manufacturers
and consumers.
According to the literature studies, the antifungal ac-
tivity of thaumatin may help to increase shelf-lives of
vegan food products as well and the amylase inhibi-
tion activity of thaumatin increases its functionality
against diabetes (Farag et al., 2022). In another liter-
ature study, thaumatin has been investigated for the
potential changes in blood glucose levels, and weight
gain in rats. e study results have been compared
with aspartame and sucrose. According to the results,
thaumatin has exhibited no changes in the blood glu-
cose levels and weights of the rats. us, thaumatin
has been suggested as natural sugar replacer (Khayata
et al., 2016).
Until now, thaumatin has been applied to ice creams,
so drinks, and chewing gums to increase pepper-
mint and spearmint avours (Lindley, 2012; Joseph et
al., 2019). However, thaumatin reacts with colourants
in beverages and loses the sweetness feature (Miele et
al., 2017). us, thaumatin can be implemented for
colourant-free novel vegan food products without any
change in the compound features.
2.3.4 Brazzein
Brazzein is the smallest sweet-tasting protein (Hung
et al., 2019), and is a derivative of Pentadiplandra
brazzeana Baillon. e sweetness of brazzein is 500
and 2000 times higher than 10% and 5% sucrose solu-
tions respectively (Izawa et. al., 1996). e water solu-
bility of brazzein is 50 mg/mL, the sweetness contin-
ues for 4h from 2.5 to 8 pH values (Farag et al., 2022),
and brazzein is stable during the heating period up to
80 °C (Rajan & Howard, 2018). Moreover, the taste of
brazzein is described as similar to sucrose (Guggen-
buhl et al., 2020).
Without any aer-taste or bitterness characteristics of
brazzein, the sweet taste starts slower than sucrose and
continues. Also, brazzein may apply to prevent tastes
of steviol glycosides, NHDC, and/or other natural
taste-masking agents (Hellekant & Danilova, 2005).
In the literature, brazzein and a 10% sucrose solution
have been tested with mice, and the results of the study
show that brazzein does not cause obesity, insulin re-
sistance, or hypertrophy (Kim et al., 2020). Moreover,
brazzein shows anti-inammatory, anti-allergic and
antioxidant activities (Chung et al., 2017). Neverthe-
less, FDA or EFSA has not approved brazzein yet.
2.3.5 Curculin (Neoculin)
Curculin is extracted from Molineria latifolia (Dry-
and. ex W.T.Aiton) Herb. ex Kurz, which is native to
Malaysia (Neiers et al., 2016). Local people consume
dried fruits of Molineria against the bitter taste of
black tea and sour foods (Behrens et al., 2011). Cur-
culin demonstrates 550 times more sweetness features
than sucrose on a weight basis (Yamashita et al., 1990),
acts as a avour enhancer, and provides a sweet taste
aer water and bitter food products. Moreover, water
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solutions of the curculin exhibit a strong sweet taste at
low pH (Behrens et al., 2011). Curculin is stable at 50
°C for 1 hour and pH between 3 to 11 with antifungal
activities (Farag et al., 2022). However, FDA and EFSA
have not approved curculin for food applications yet.
2.3.6 Mabinlin
Mabinlin is another sweet-tasting protein, found in
the seeds of Capparis masaikai Levl. from Yunnan
Chinese region (Neiers et al., 2016). Mabinlin is heat
stable and the sweetness maintains following 48 hours
of incubation at 80 °C. Moreover, the sweetness of
mabinlin is 400 times higher than sucrose on a mo-
lar basis (Kant, 2005). However, FDA and EFSA have
not approved the compound for food applications yet.
erefore, similar to other taste-masking agents, the
natural characteristics and stunning sweetness rates of
the material may make it an attractive food ingredient
for future vegan foods.
2.3.7 Miraculin
Miraculin, which is found in Richardella (Synse-
palum) dulcica (Schumach. & onn.) Baehni,
demonstrates an unsweet feature. However, mirac-
ulin can transform a sour taste into a sweet feeling.
e specic features of miraculin provide abilities to
apply taste-enhancing of acids (Kurihara & Beidler,
1969). e rhesus monkey, chimpanzees, and individ-
uals have tested the miraculin for taste modication.
e activity of miraculin is thought that the molecule
binds directly to sweet taste receptors and activation
of the receptors occurs with the acidic pH including
food intake. erefore, the sweetness characteristics
of miraculin are equal to 0.4 M sucrose aer taking
0.1 M of citrate with 1 M of miraculin, and miracu-
lin 400 000 times sweeter than sucrose (Tafazoli et al.,
2019). Indeed, the compound might be an attractive
ingredient for alternative meat production from fer-
mented materials to prevent high acids in foods.
e sweetness of miraculin continues for more than
1hour (Misaka, 2013). When miraculin was con-
sumed with lemon and strawberry, the sweet feeling
of these fruits increased. Moreover, the savour of mi-
raculin is close to sugar. Miraculin is a protein and is
unstable under heating conditions but freeze drying
or freezing is suggested to overcome the issue. More
interestingly, the miraculin protects its stability for
more than 6 months at 4 pH and 5 °C. e sweetness
feature of miraculin demonstrates activities for insu-
lin sensitivity and decreasing metallic tastes of foods
for patients who take chemotherapy (Demesyeux et
al., 2020).
Recently, miraculin has obtained GRAS from FDA
(FDA, 2021) (Table 1), and EFSA has approved the
dried fruit of Richardella as a novel food (Turck et
al., 2021). Dried fruit has been suggested as a food
supplement for adults except for pregnant and breast-
feeding women. However, miraculin has not been ap-
proved by EFSA yet.
2.3.8 Monellin
Monellin is a sweet-tasting protein of Dioscoreophyl-
lum cumminsii Diels. e sweetness characteristic
of monellin is 4000 times higher than sucrose on a
weight basis (Xue et al., 2009). Besides, monellin has
been applied as a sweetener, and avour enhancer.
e highest activities of monellin can be seen at pH
between 2 and 9, however high pH and heating over
70 °C can denature the protein (Kaul et al., 2018).
Monellin possesses a zero glycemic index which can
be applied to the diets of diabetic people (Liu et al.,
2015). Moreover, any adverse eects of monellin have
not been reported for food applications so far (Cai
et al., 2016). Nevertheless, except in Japan, EFSA or
FDA has not approved monellin for food applications
yet (Guggenbuhl et al., 2020) (Table 1).
2.3.9 Steviol glycosides (SGs)
e leaves of the Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni are called
‘stevia’. (Ramos-Tovar & Muriel, 2019). e sweet-
ness-responsible compounds of stevia are stevioside,
rebaudiosides (Reb) A, B, C, D, E, F, and M. Reb A and
stevioside are the common compounds of the plant
and the sweetness levels are 300 times higher than
sucrose. According to sensory evaluation tests of two
compounds, avour of Reb A is close to sugar with
fewer astringency characteristics. Lastly, Reb M and
Reb D have been explored for their potential sensorial
characteristics, and Reb M has exhibited quick sweet-
ness, less o-taste, and less astringency. Nevertheless,
Reb D has demonstrated higher sweetness and lower
o-taste than Reb A (Mora and Dando, 2021).
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Low caloric contents of SGs promote activities against
obesity and type 2 diabetes with antifungal, antioxi-
dant, antimicrobial, anti-tumour, anti-inammatory,
anti-hyperglycemic, and diuretic activities (Panagi-
otou et al., 2018; Zou et al., 2020; Lemus-Mondaca
et al., 2012). Moreover, the digestion of SGs occurs
poorly in the stomach and upper intestine. en in
the large intestine with the help of intestinal ora, the
glycosides are hydrolyzed to aglycone steviol, in the
enterohepatic circulation steviol is transformed into
the steviol glucuronide and nally, extracted with the
urine (Urban et al., 2013).
Stevia was approved as GRAS by the FDA, and the
European Union accepted SGs as safe, in Argentina,
Brazil, Japan, Paraguay, China, India, and South Ko-
rea approved SGs as safe as well (Table 1) (Perera &
McChesney, 2021). erefore, the recommended dai-
ly intake rate of SGs is the equivalent of 4 mg/kg body
weight per day (Commission, 2011).
In the literature, Reb A, D, and M have been used as
a sweetener in ice cream production and according to
study results, sensorial acceptances of Reb D and M
have been higher than Reb A. e characteristics of
ice creams prepared with Reb D and M are described
as creamy, pleasant, and sweet, but Reb A has been
found with a metallic taste. More importantly, the af-
tertastes of Reb D and M have been described as sim-
ilar to sucrose (Muenprasitivej et al., 2022).
So far, stevia has been applied to food products such as
chocolate, chewing gum, beverages, jams, dairy prod-
ucts, pickles, and pastries as food additives (Ameer
et al., 2017; Shannon et al., 2016). However, the af-
tertaste of stevia is an issue for food manufacturers
because consumers are looking for palatable foods.
erefore, dierent techniques have been applied to
eliminate the o-taste of stevia, for example, SGs have
been encapsulated by freeze, spray and vacuum dry-
ing, and outcomes of the study have demonstrated
that drying methods may help to remove the o-taste
of stevia (Chranioti et al., 2016). Moreover, dened
plant-based taste-masking agents in the present study
can be applied to suppress the characteristic avour of
stevia for future vegan food products.
2.3.10 Glycyrrhizin
Glycyrrhizin is found in the root of Glycyrrhiza gla-
bra L., with the well-known name licorice (liquorice)
(Izawa et al., 2010). e sweetness levels of glycyr-
rhizin are 93-170 times higher than sucrose on a con-
centration basis (Kim & Kinghorn, 2002). Moreover,
the ammonium salt of glycyrrhizic acid and mono-
ammonium glycyrrhizinate is oen applied and has
been approved as a avour enhancer by the FDA (Ca-
rocho et al., 2015) (Table 1). EFSA has also approved
glycyrrhizin and the suggested consumption rate is
100 mg per day (Behrens et al., 2011). e suggested
consumption rates of glycyrrhizin should not be over-
dosed due to its estrogenic characteristics which may
cause side eects in young women, however, can be
benecial to women in the postmenopausal period to
improve their bone health (Ishimi et al., 2019).
In the literature, glycyrrhizin has been applied to di-
et-related weight and insulin resistance in rats and
according to study results, glycyrrhizin stabilizes the
lipid prole (El-Magd et al., 2018). Moreover, gly-
cyrrhizin demonstrates activities as an anti-tumour,
antiviral and antioxidant agent (Zang et al., 2022).
In the gastrointestinal tract, glycyrrhizin is convert-
ed to glycyrrhetic acid and 18β-glycyrrhetic acid
3-O-monoglucuronide by bacteria and the metab-
olites of glycyrrhizin are cytotoxic agents of tumour
cells (Ruiz-Ojeda et al., 2019).
In history, glycyrrhizin was applied to soy sauces,
meat products and snacks to mask the saline taste,
and glycyrrhizin successfully suppressed the saltiness
(Wilson, 2011). So far, glycyrrhizin has been applied
to candies to give a specic licorice avour.
e aertaste of glycyrrhizin restricts food applica-
tions but the compound might be utilized to design
innovative vegan foods with a strong taste of licorice,
which can be an alternative who is looking for dier-
ent avours in vegan foods. In the forthcoming, more
spicy and attractive avours in vegan foods might be
applied to be innovative and to design satisfying taste
experiences for consumers as well. However, overcon-
sumption of glycyrrhizin may create adverse eects
such as pseudoaldosteronism – high blood pressure,
and hypokalemia (Sharma et al., 2018). us, recom-
mended consumption values of glycyrrhizin should be
followed to not face the side eects of the compound.
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2.3.11 Mogrosides
Mogrosides are compounds of monk fruit or Luo
Han Guo, the Latin name of the plant is Momordica
grosvenorii Swingle which is native to northern ai-
land and southern China. Luo Han Guo demonstrates
200 times more sweetness than sucrose on a weight
basis, with metallic aertaste and long-remaining
sweetness (Mora & Dando, 2021). e sweet taste of
monk fruit is the result of identied major contents of
mogroside V and cucurbitane triterpenoid glycosides
with minor contents of isomogroside V, mogroside IV
and simamenoside I (Soejarto et al., 2019).
In a literature study, mogrosides demonstrate anti-
hyperglycemic eects in rats. Moreover, mogrosides
do not change blood glucose, insulin levels, and total
energy intake (Mora and Dando, 2021). Besides, mo-
grosides can be used against diabetes and obesity; as
anticancer, and anti-inammatory agents (Liu et al.,
2018).
So far, mogroside V has been patented as a bitterness
blocker, and the activities of the compound have been
tested for grapefruit and coee, and stunning results
have been obtained (Fletcher et al., 2015). e Luo
Han Guo has been approved by FDA (FDA, 2015)
(Table 1), however, is unapproved by European Com-
mission (Wilson, 2011).
2.3.12 Eriodictyon derivatives
Eriodictyon californicum (Hook. & Arn.) Torr. is
well known as “Yerba Santa” which is native to North
America, and has been utilized against headache,
asthma, aging, rheumatism, and lung infections (Mo-
erman, 2009). Besides, Eriodictyon has demonstrated
function in bitterness blocking of quinine (Fletcher et
al., 2015). Bitterness-blocking compounds of Eriod-
ictyon are homoeridictyol, eridioctyol, sterubin, and
sodium salt of E. californicum (Ley et al., 2006; Ley
et al., 2005). Except for those compounds of Eriod-
ictyon, 6-methoxyhesperetin, 4’-isobutyrylhomoerio-
dictyol, 6-methoxyhomoeriodictyol, 7-methoxylated
avanones, sakuranetin, 6-methoxysakuranetin and
jaceosidin are thought to act against bitterness as well
(Fletcher et al., 2011). Moreover, the avanones of
Eriodictyon exhibit health-promoting activities such
as eriodictyol demonstrates antioxidant, anti-inam-
matory, and antidiabetic activities (Zhang et al., 2012).
In a literature study, overweight and obese women
have been fed with Eriodictyon derivatives including
capsules for 12 weeks and at the end of the research,
the compounds demonstrate reducing features of body
weight without any adverse eects (Modinger et al.,
2021). us, similar to other suggested taste-masking
agents in the present study, Eriodictyon derivatives
demonstrate functions not only as taste suppressors
but also as health promoters.
2.3.13 Inulin
Inulin occurs inherently in many fruit and vegetables
but is yielded commercially from a dahlia, Jerusalem
artichoke, and chicory (Flamm et al., 2001). Inulin is a
part of non-digestible carbohydrates, called fructans,
and the structure of inulin consists of β-(2–1)-glyco-
sidic-bond with 2 to 60 fructose molecules and one
terminal glucose (Perović et al., 2021).
Inulin is used as sugar, fat replacer, and soluble dietary
bre in food products (Barclay et al., 2010). e fat
substitutive feature of inulin with long-chain fractions
makes the material a stunning ingredient for alterna-
tive yoghurt, ice cream, and mayonnaise production
with rich textural and sensorial aspects (Shoaib et al.,
2016; Ahmed & Rashid, 2019). In a literature study,
inulin has been applied in vegan ker products, and
study results support the benets of inulin for alter-
native dairy food production (Alves et al., 2021). In
another study, sugar-free dark chocolates have been
prepared with inulin/polydextrose and stevia/thau-
matin mixtures as sugar replacers. e study results
have demonstrated similarities with the control group
which includes 48% of sugar. However, the health
benets of non-caloric sugar replacers are higher and
these natural compounds are supposed to be novel
food ingredients for future foods (Aidoo et al., 2015).
Moreover, inulin demonstrates anti-cancer and an-
ti-inammatory activities. Inulin is only digested by
gut bacteria and improves healthy microora which
protects from colon cancer. Inulin is non-toxic to the
human body and demonstrates activities to increase
cardiovascular health with increased calcium and
magnesíum intake rates (Barclay et al., 2010).
e gelatinization, melting point, and gel integrity
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characteristics are the most attractive features of in-
ulin for the food industry (Ahmed & Rashid, 2019).
us, inulin may apply in meat alternatives as a fat
replacer with the results of reduced-fat, enhanced tex-
ture, and increased mouthfeel features (Shoaib et al.,
2016; Devereux et al., 2003). Finally, inulin has been
approved by EFSA as a sugar and fat replacer (EFSA,
2007), and by FDA as GRAS (FDA, 2018) (Table 1).
2.3.14 Crude salt replacements as natural avour
enhancers
Salt reduction with substituted natural ingredients is
a challenge for the food industry. Due to the features
of salt, such as desired texture, long shelf life, avour,
and functionality; however, herbs, spices, and yeast
extracts have been applied thus far, as avour enhanc-
ers instead of sodium salt (Ainsworth & Plunkett,
2007; Taladrid et al., 2020). Furthermore, varied plant
derivatives are proposed as salt replacers such as gar-
lic, rosemary, oregano, saron, paprika, chilli, mint,
and blended herbs (Taladrid et al., 2020; campdenbri.
co.uk). Apart from these, low–sodium-included veg-
etable juices have been prepared with organic acids
(Allison & Fouladkhah, 2018). Also, applications of
edible seaweeds are popular in Asian cuisine for salt
reduction. Importantly, seaweeds promote high pro-
tein, omega-3 fatty acids, carotenoids, polyphenols,
minerals, and vitamin contents (Gullón et al., 2021).
On the other hand, umami can suppress the bitter-
ness of plant derivatives, and increase the salty taste
in foods (Wang et al., 2020). As, taste enhancers acti-
vate taste buds in the mouth which are linked to the
umami taste receptors (Brandsma, 2006). erefore,
umami taste receptors perceive avour enhancers as
demonstrating high salt content, and the feature de-
ceives the brain signalling. Today, the known umami
taste enhancers are glutamate, aspartate, inosinate,
guanylate, cytidylate, adenylate, uridylate, and succi-
nate (Wang et al., 2021).
e features of umami help to FDA to approve mon-
osodium glutamate as GRAS (FDA, 2012). Moreover,
EFSA accepts glutamates and glutamic acid imple-
mentations in foods with the recommended level of
a maximum of 10 g/kg of the food product (EFSA,
2017).
Table 1. Approvals of natural taste-masking agents by health authorities
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2.4 e challenges of natural, non-toxic taste mask-
ers for vegan people and the food manufacturers
Depending to the Grounded-Cognition eory of De-
sire (Papies et al., 2020), people employ varied senses
at the same time during eating. For instance, imagi-
nation or the sound of food stimulates brain cells for
appetite. Moreover, the appearance, smell, and texture
of the food are the priorities of consumers to purchase
a food product. Nevertheless, natural replacers of salt,
sugar, and fat may cause some issues with the food tex-
ture, because salt, sugar, and fat provide stable texture,
enhanced avour, and anti-microbial activity of food
products (Hoppu et al., 2017; Dötsch et al., 2009).
Aertastes of compounds can seem a challenge for
the food industry. e specic avours of natural taste
blockers might be applied in innovative meat and
dairy alternatives, and avours may create interesting
outcomes for the nal food products.
On the other hand, natural food ingredients inuence
purchasing activities of consumers (Román et al.,
2017). Natural and non-toxic taste blockers function
in small amounts without toxicities and with promot-
ing health benets. erefore, a small number of nat-
ural taste blockers’ implementations should have been
investigated for food production.
3. Conclusions and future trends
A vegan diet supports healthy body functions and sus-
tainable food systems together. Moreover, during the
COVID-19 pandemic, animal-carried viruses created
huge concerns (Attwood & Hajat, 2020). erefore,
many people prefer to decrease meat consumption
and/or be vegetarian/vegan (Loh et al., 2021).
Natural ingredients in vegan processed food products
are more attractive than articial content. Neverthe-
less, vegan foods with natural ingredients should ex-
hibit acceptable texture, desirable avour, and scent,
before healthy characteristics. Bitterness and o-
tastes of plant-based foods, which are unpalatable for
many consumers, are suppressed by sugar, salt, and
fat. However, health authorities are looking for strate-
gies to reduce the overconsumption of sugar, salt, and
fat in processed foods. us, natural taste-masking
agents such as glycyrrhizin, miraculin, monellin, in-
ulin, neohesperidin dihydrochalcone, steviol glyco-
sides, and thaumatin can be utilized in small amounts
with the approval of health authorities.
However, the food preferences of individuals are
shaped by culture and geography (Dao et al., 2021).
For instance, Mexican people desire hot-spicy foods,
but for many other cultures, traditional Mexican foods
are extremely hot and spicy. In other words, hedonic
preferences aect the food choices of people (Ludy &
Mattes, 2012).
Food transformation of people to novel foods is not
easy because of gained food palatabilities which are
not only shaped by the appearance, smell, taste, and
texture of food products, but also by genetic inher-
itance, dietary habits, gut microbiota, food aordabil-
ity and previous experiences with food products are
crucial parameters (Mennella et al., 2015; Dao et al.,
2021; Chamoun et al., 2018).
Vegan foods are not an issue due to religious beliefs.
Veganism is suitable for all religions, but, the main
challenge is the neophobia of people or convincing
individuals to consume vegan foods because of health
and environmental concerns. us, to nd the best
recipes for vegan foods which are going to be prepared
with sugar and/or salt substitutes to mask the bitter
tastes of plant-based ingredients, extensive sensorial
tests are essential to attract many people from varied
cultures with dierent food preferences.
Conict of interest
e author conrms that this article’s content has no
conict of interest.
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